Part 2: Case Studies: Nigeria. British Rule, Colonialism and Slavery October 24-26

Transcription

1 Part 2: Case Studies: Nigeria British Rule, Colonialism and Slavery October 24-26

2 British Colonial Rule Geographical boundaries of Caliphate spilled into French AOF and German Kamerun:

3 Sokoto Caliphate British drawn into Nigeria in wake of Scramble for Africa : - what became Protectorate of Nigeria threatened by French interests (through Borgu) and German (Kamerun) - Lord Lugard (Royal Niger Company, in southern regions) charged with creating political protectorate 1. conquer the entire region 2. obtain recognition of protectorate by indigenous rulers - especially Emirs of Sokoto Caliphate

4 Sokoto Caliphate militarily subdued local resistance when diplomacy failed - neighbouring Borno capitulated Royal West African Frontier Force (indigenous Hausa soldiers) attacked Kano and Sokoto

5 Lord Lugard and Indirect Rule Lugard author of Indirect Rule: [see also references in Zanzibar case study] - Caliphate made up of federation emirates (small states, former Hausa states), most had Fulani Emirs by end 19 th century (following jihad) - ruled effectively in terms of commerce, farming and taxation

6 Lord Lugard and Indirect Rule Indirect Rule left Emirs who co-operated with and agreed to rule on behalf of the British in place: - had to agree to end Slave Trade and Royal Slavery in interests of modernizing state administration - many of the lesser title holders were eliminated, reducing Emirs patronage network -otherwise, ruled as salaried employees of British

7 Lord Lugard and Indirect Rule Ultimately: emirs defeated, deposed or agreed to collaborate - by February March 1903 Kano, Sokoto defeated - conquest complete Legitimacy: - problematic - a few colonial high commissioners had unlimited executive and legislative powers, - all orders transmitted through Emirs effort to preserve façade

8 Lord Lugard and Indirect Rule Law: - dual system of law functioned: sharia and Colonial - Islamic courts dealt with matters affecting personal status of Muslims (eg. land disputes, divorce, debt, slave emancipation).

9 Lord Lugard and Indirect Rule Impression: - little really changed in the North - British could (and did) replace non-cooperative Emirs, but rarely - taxation and administrative systems of former Caliphate continued

10 Lord Lugard and Indirect Rule Slavery: - efforts to end Royal Slavery slow to have effect [eg. see Stillwell s Oral History of Royal Slavery, based on interview with Royal slave who occupied position throughout colonial era; Mack s Story of Hajiya Ma daki, both in Resources ] - abolition in general mixed impact: on level of household, minimal [eg. see Baba of Karo, Add l Rdgs]

11 Title of Book Summarizes Situation Colonial Abolition in Northern Nigeria

12 Lord Lugard and Indirect Rule As a consequence of Indirect Rule, Hausa-Fulani domination Legacy of the Sokoto Caliphate was confirmed, in some instances imposed, on diverse ethnic groups, some of them non-muslim, in the socalled middle belt. Video Excerpt: Basil Davidson Africa Pt 6: Magnificent African Cake

13 Contemporary Sultan of Sokoto during Festival

14 Mahdist Revolt Resistance to Colonial Rule: Mahdist Revolt [see Lovejoy & Hogendorn, Revolutionary Mahdism and Resistance to Colonial Rule, Add l Rdgs] - shows the other side of colonial conquest : movement into Northern Nigeria triggered Mahdism - network of resistance spread into French territories as well

15 Mahdist Revolt Culminated in Revolt of : - composition resistance reflects legacies of Sokoto Caliphate: class based, rather than ethnic - both article about revolt and revolt itself raise important questions about nature of Muslim society under Fulani, then British rule

16 Mahdist Revolt Argument: role of class shaping followers means that notion of Mahdism as revolutionary not appropriate here: Mahdism has not always been revolutionary. Adherents have advocated a range of political positions from: (i) tolerance of established authority, despite a belief that the Mahdi would eventually appear, (2) severe criticism of existing Islamic regimes which was often expressed through emigration (hijra) in expectation of meeting the Mahdi,

17 Mahdist Revolt (3) the replacement of incumbent Muslim officials by Mahdist critics, often through violent means, (4) revolutionary action with the intention of destroying the Muslim state and the class structure on which it was based. [ discussion and article also relevant for Case Study: Sudan ]

18 Mahdist Revolt All these forms of Mahdism were in evidence in the years immediately before and after the conquest of the Sokoto Caliphate. Our purpose is to identify carefully 'revolutionary Mahdism' within the larger context of the colonial conquest and to show how the 'revolutionary' character of the uprising of I905-6 differed from other forms of Mahdism.

19 Mahdist Revolt Important: - article looks at impact of attraction of Mahdi (who would arrive in the East) on mid-nineteenth century Sokoto reference to Mahdi leading anti-colonial resistance in Sudan [see Case Study: Sudan, Nov ]

20 Mahdist Revolt many made hijra into Eastern Regions (some as far as Sudan, others to Bornu latter expelled) - revolt is seen as internal hijra (withdrawal to eastern regions of caliphate) - Sokoto remained loyal, - some evidence that important emirates Kano and Katsina considering joining hijra

21 Mahdist Revolt Importance: - article shows class cross-cut ethnic groups (Hausa, Fulani, Tuareg and others): The revolutionary Mahdists sought the overthrow of all established authority, including the colonial regimes and local officials who collaborated with the Europeans. The uprising of revealed strong divisions on the basis of class.

22 Mahdist Revolt This movement received virtually no support from the Fulbe aristocracy of the Caliphate. Instead it attracted radical clerics, disgruntled peasants and fugitive slaves. The absence of aristocratic involvement distinguishes revolutionary Mahdism from all other forms of contemporary Mahdism. [my emphasis]

23 Mahdist Revolt Importance: - those who felt Sokoto Caliphate had wrongly criticized their Islam by replacing it with a formal proper umma and education (Dan Fodio s legacy)

24 Mahdist Revolt those who felt Sokoto Caliphate had undermined their sources of wealth and power -- including those removed from Emiral positions, merchants, landowners - those who felt the yoke of slavery that was NOT Royal Slavery - those who believed in promises of Abolition form the British FOUND OUTLET in revolt.

25 Mahdist Revolt In this way: - revolt reveals much about class differentiation dissatisfaction with Sokoto Caliphate Hence argument that it was not revolutionary in terms of religious ideology Also provided moment for British to identify their truly loyal agents and reward them

26 Mahdist Revolt Revolt reveals new variation on Mahdism : - reveals underlying dissatisfaction with Sokoto Caliphate (political, social, economic and religious) - revolt reveals who British need to reward and who needs to be punished Unseen [in terms of analysis] shaper of both British Colonial Rule and Muslim Society in Northern Nigeria

27 Baba of Karo Baba recounted her life story to anthropologist 1950s. - Hausa woman, wife of mallam - barren, given slave child to raise as her own - active in affairs of women [see McDougall, Hidden in the Household ]

28 Baba of Karo Provides unique perspective: female and from within the household On coming of the Europeans : - technology (trains, cars) - fear - peace

29 Baba of Karo They would stop wars, they would repair the world, they would stop oppression and lawlessness, we should live at peace with them. We used to go and sit quietly and listen to the prophecies [of the mallems]. They would come, fine handsome people, they would not kill anyone, they would not oppress anyone, they would bring all their strange things. - note: it was the mallems whose prophesies prepared people for European rule

30 Baba of Karo Face of European Conquest: - one European on his horse - several black men, two on horses, four on foot Reference to use African soldiers both in conquest and pacification, rarity of European military or administrators

31 Baba of Karo Reactions reveal extent to which Hausa had not been absorbed into Fulani society: - King of Karo, Yusufu did not want the Europeans to come, would not initially sign their treaty - only did so when forced (probably reference to fall of Sokoto) We Habe (Hausa) wanted them to come, it was the Fulani (ruling class of Sokoto) who did not like it.

32 Baba of Karo What did Baba see as important about British Rule? - Paid labour (underscoring exploitation of Sokoto Caliphate) - initial projects involved building infrastructure (roads, bridges) and housing/administration offices for colonial administrators - people were called out but were paid in goods

33 Baba of Karo On Concubinage (forced see Stillwell, Ideology of Royal Slavery, role of Royal slaves) In the old days if the chief liked the look of your daughter he would take her and put her in his house; you could do nothing about it. Now they don t do that.

34 Baba of Karo Slavery: - we were told there were no more slaves - former slaves were to become brothers (younger, elder) - if someone said slave, you could complain to the qadi - master would be punished

35 Baba of Karo When slavery was stopped, nothing much happened at our rinji (slave quarters) except that some slaves whom we had bought in the market ran away. Our own father went to his farm and worked, he and his son took up their large hoes; they loaned out their spare farms. Tsoho our father and Kadiri my brother with whom I live now and Balambo worked, they worked guinea corn and millet and ground nuts and everything; before this they had supervised the slave s work now they did their own...

36 Colonial Northern Nigeria Colonial Northern Nigeria: - Remains largely Muslim - Hausa-Fulani dominate but - differences between them legacies Sokoto Caliphate should not be underestimated

37 Colonial Northern Nigeria Islamic Slavery : - continued in Royal households (several titles abolished but functioned similarly; harem continued) - household level (eg Baba) slave relations transitioned into kinship - work on farms and plantations largest change: we used to supervise slaves now we do our own work (and hired wage labour) - Islamic law was what most people experienced: even abolition of slavery imposed by local qadi

38 Case Studies: Nigeria from Indirect Rule to Independence

39 Regions Under Colonial Rule Indirect Rule (Lord Lugard): created three regions : South West (included Lagos, protectorate since mid-19 th Century, commercially important) - region of chieftaincies - resistant to Sokoto Caliphate - extensive Christian influence - first indigenous Christian pastors from this region,

40 Regions Under Colonial Rule South East : - stateless societies : small communities ruled by village elders - British created chiefs to rule in their name - region critical to new trade in palm oil trade (previously centre of slave trade) - focus of Christian missionaries: freed slaves all Christian

41 Regions Under Colonial Rule North: - Sokoto Caliphate: federation Islamic emirates - need to transition from loyalty to Sultan to loyalty to British High Commissioners - majority Muslim (a few exceptions in Middle Belt who had escaped Sokoto control) - (mostly) mixture Hausa-Fulani

42 Regions Under Colonial Rule

43 Regions Under Colonial Rule Significant political activity next galvanized during post-wwii era: - rooted in colonial-created regions 1946: Richards Commission: - all-nigerian Legislative council (advisory only) - three regional councils: South East, South West and North Effectively entrenched Colonial Policy

44 Northern Leaders: Kano & Bello Northern Elements Progressive Union: Led by Amin Kano 1951 became Northern People s Congress : Led by Sir Ahamadu Bello (1951 also saw short-lived political party in Middle Belt )

45 Richards Commission: consequences Intended as moderate reform, responding to slowly changing ideas of colonialism in London: - widely criticized in Nigeria -- even by elite it was supposed to please - led to emergence of tribal nationalism - regions galvanized majority ethnic groups into dominant ones: for North, meant Hausa-Fulani

46 Richards Commission: consequences Constitution revamped 1951 (Macpherson Constitution): - greater devolution power under Federal Government - regions increasingly identified with ethnic groups: Ibo/Igbo (south east) Yoruba (south west) Hausa-Fulani (north)

47 Richards Commission: consequences Potential thereby strongly established for religious divides as well: Christian south versus Muslim North - recommendations scrapped in but impact already present in Nigerian politics

48 Richards Commission: consequences 1954: Constitution that placed even more emphasis on the role of the Federal Government (an effort to deal with regionalism ) but - regional ethnic rivalries, tensions by then well entrenched : the South East and West were granted selfgovernment : the North also gained local control

49 Richards Commission: consequences 1960 Nigeria gained full independence: - Nnambi Azikiwe first Governor General (leader of South East) 1963 became republic: - Azikiwe first president - Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (Northern People s Congress) first Prime Minister [ author of Shaihu Umar ]

50 Governor General and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa on Independence day

51 Post-Independent Nigeria Instability brought first military coup in 1966: -led by Aguiyi-Ironsi (Ibo-eastern ) - Balewa, other officials killed - return to civilian rule promised - but Ibo favoritism feared, especially in north - Muslims felt excluded: 30,000 Ibos killed, 1 million fled as refugees to eastern homeland

52 Post-Independent Nigeria Aguiyi-Ironsi was assassinated soon after: - Lt. Gowon (Christian but supported by northern Muslims) moved country to civilian rule - further divided four (colonial) regions into twelve states - Ibos feared for position: seceded as Biafra - civil war broke out with Federal Government lasting from June January 1970

53 Post Independent Nigeria Between then and now: - Nigeria has had 5 civilian Presidents [civilian President Obasanjo was also previously ( ) Military Commander] - 9 military leaders - 3 leaders died in coups, a fourth in prison under mysterious circumstances - several were jailed at some point by incoming regimes

54 Post Independent Nigeria Within the first decade: - bloody-civil war almost tore the country apart as Biafra (South East) attempted to secede - issue: control of oil (legacies of that war, struggle to control wealth from oil away from state and oil companies) continues

55 Post-Independent Nigeria Nigeria only returned to the path of democracy in 1999 after a devastating decade of military rule: - Governor Ahmed Sani (Zamfara State, the North) campaigned on the banner of the restoration of Islamic justice -- in response to the corruption and violence associated with previous decades of military and civilian regimes He was successful significant for future of Islam in Nigeria.

56 Post Independent Nigeria Also significant for future of Nigeria itself: - Initiated a new decade of instability, violence - religious, ethnic conflicts broke out around his implementation of Islamic Justice, namely sharia law.

57 - Independence and Sharia Law What was this situation all about? - Colonial Rule permitted legal pluralism (in Nigeria, as elsewhere in Africa): customary law permitted within larger framework of Western Values and British Common Law - Sharia considered customary law in North - even in most powerful emirates, qadis could not rule on criminal charges that might have led to execution, for example

58 - Independence and Sharia Law - before moving to Independence, British ensured that all criminal law removed from Islamic courts - new constitution included Human Rights charter based on European model - sharia effectively limited in application to personal relations between Muslims

59 Independence and - Sharia Law Goals: - to provide Muslims with sense of religious fulfillment - to cater to religious pluralism and equal citizenship

60 Independence and - Sharia Law Associate Justice of the Nigerian Supreme Court, Dr. Karibi-Whyte: The government of Northern Nigeria [on the eve of Independence] was in a dilemma. Though extremely anxious to preserve the entrenched position of the religion of Islam and Moslem law within its territory, the government was at the same time prepared to conform to the general pattern of legal jurisprudence and development to achieve the balancing of the social order of which the Northern region is an integral part.

61 Independence and - Sharia Law Nigeria inherited legacy of legal pluralism: - patch-work : satisfied neither modern democracy nor desired return to traditional religion, culture - Muslims protested integrity of Sharia violated - Some clerics interpreted proposal as plot by Christian crusaders to undermine Islam - Opposition continued to argue against policy of Anglicization of Islamic justice

62 Independence and Sharia Law During years of intermittent military-civilian rule, each time civilian government returned, constitution revisited question of sharia: Constituent Assembly deliberation on Sharia: northern Muslim delegate to the assembly argued that, unlike other religions: Islam is a way of life. If you take away Sharia [from a ] Moslem, you are taking his religion away.

63 Independence and Sharia Law Moreover: - to refuse to create a Federal Sharia Court of Appeal is to violate the freedom of religion of Muslims since Sharia is a divine component of the Holy Quran whose observance is integral to a true and complete experience of Islam.

64 Independence and Sharia Law Debates repeated: , eve of Second Republic , transition to democracy , yet another return to democracy (after military rule)

65 Independence and Sharia Law. In all negotiations: key issues were - the status of the Nigerian nation-state and -place of Sharia in it Each time, Nigerian politicians settled on compromise that pleased neither side. Dissatisfaction grew significantly among Muslims in the north and increasingly, not only among the elite

66 Independence and Sharia Law Governor of Zamfara State campaigned on the banner of the restoration of Islamic justice - intended to check prostitution,. drunkenness, stealing, robbery, gambling [See Nigerian Muslims Welcome Sharia Law, Add l Resources]

67 Independence and Sharia Law - elite, ulema strongly supportive, but - most importantly: resonated among poor, oppressed - disenchanted with what anglicized sharia system legacy of colonial dual law -- had brought to society.

68 Independence and Sharia Law Other states, including most populous state of Kano, announced intentions to follow Zamfara s example: - a week prior to passage bill in Zamfara, Kano state assembly passed similar bill awaiting governor s signature - Kano home to many Christian migrants from south

69 Independence and Sharia Law Niger State: - governor announced decision to present sharia bill to state assembly - provoked immediate demonstrations, shutting down shops by Christians

70 Independence and Sharia Law Although in each case, Governors stipulated law would only apply to Muslims, Christians fearful of how it would affect their lives: - how will police implement it? - What about cases involving Muslims and Christians? - How will conflict with Human Rights legislation be addressed?

71 Independence and Sharia Law In 2000, Sharia Penal Law of Zamfara State came into effect: - created different Sharia courts with full criminal jurisdiction to try offences ranging from trivial crimes like possession, sale and drinking of alcoholic beverages to other more serious offences like prostitution and adultery - recognized a guild of Islamic clerics who could act as judges of Sharia courts.

72 Independence and Sharia Law - granted power to award the death penalty (stoning) in the case of adultery by a married or divorced woman - role of public prosecutor more or less performed by vigilante group set up by Governor Hisba ( Sharia Police ) Not just Kano and Niger but a total of ten other northern states soon followed same path.

73 2000 Map Independence and Sharia Law

74 Independence and Sharia Law - If colonial rule had created a country of three competing ethnic/geographic regions, the legacy of colonial policy regarding sharia created a newly divided country - Ethnicity cross cut by religion - Federalism by north-south divide - Politics in first decades of 21 st century defined by both - Society victim to violence not known since Independence and the Biafaran war - North now home to self-defined Islamic terrorist group [will return to in last lectures]