fiction, which is characterized by his peculiar irony and with the ambition to be a modern story-writer, a realistic

Transcription

1 [113] CHAPTER IV MYTH IN R.K. NARAYAN S NOVELS R.K. Narayan is known as a writer of realistic fiction, which is characterized by his peculiar irony and humour. In My Days Narayan mentions that he set out with the ambition to be a modern story-writer, a realistic fiction writer in English. As a writer of realistic fiction, R.K. Narayan deserves praise. Britta Olinder comments: Narayan s realism is above all seen in his drawing of the background, the day-to-day life. It seems that Narayan s realistic novels do have a mythical dimension. Further, it is true that the extent of the use of myth may differ in his various novels. Swami and Friends launched Narayan into the world of the novelists. It is mainly a record of the life of teachers and students. There is obviously no mythical dimension in this novel. But the creation of the fictional Malgudi as a typical south Indian town in this novel is a new myth created by R.K. Narayan. It is a recurring feature in his subsequent novels. Moreover, Malgudi also gradually develops and extends its topography in his later novels like any other Indian town which develops with the passage of time. But Malgudi remains identifiable as Malgudi in his novels. H.H. Anniah Gowda comments on Swami and Friends: This early work is a pointer to many of Narayan s

2 [ii4; later portraits. Malgudi, thesarayu river, Lawley extension are all established. Though The Bachelor of Arts like the earlier Swami and Friends, does not refer to any traditional myth, The Dark Room seems to refer to the Ramayana. Savitri of The Dark Room parallels Kaikayee, one of the three wives of Dasharatha in the Ramayana. Like Kaikayee, Savitri is a proud and sulky woman. Further, Kaikayee enters kopbhavan to secure two boons from Dasharatha which were promised by him earlier. Through one boon, she wants to secure the throne for her own son, Bharata. And though the other boon, she wants a fourteen-year banishment for her step son, Rama. Similarly, in the novel, Savitri goes to the dark room, a parallel to the mythical kopbhavan, as she discovers her husband infidelity. It is true that The Dark Room appears realistic with its modern version of the myth. R.K. Narayan declares in My Days that at the time of the publication of The Dark Room he thought of himself as a realistic fiction-writer in English. The English Teacher appeared after a gap of seven years. It uses the ancient myth of Savitri and Satyavan. Besides, the writing of the novel marks a significant stage in Narayan s career as a novelist. As

3 n is] H.H. Anniah Gowda remarks: It would seem that the experience Narayan reports in The English Teacher which, he said, led to a philosophical understanding also changed his way of writing, gave it a new direction or, perhaps, a new dimension. Further, The English Teacher is also autobiographical. Then in Waiting for the Mahatma and The Vendor of Sweets (1967), Narayan diverts from the traditional myths. He uses the newly created myth of Gandhi in these novels. The Guide won him Sahitya Akademi award and it was also made into a film. It echoes the Valmiki myth. Jayant K. Biswal observes that The Guide is very closet to Valmiki. Valmiki is a robber and remains to until a sage tells him a mantra to meditate on. Valmiki, initiated by the sage, sits still and meditates on this mantra for many years. An ant-hill (Valmiki) grows over him. Finally, he becomes a saint. Similarly, Raju in the novel is a guide and falls in love with Rosie. Rosie leaves her husband Marco and decides to stay with Raju. Raju encourages her to become a great dancer. He discourages Marco s later approaches to Rosie, Raju forges her signature and leads himself to imprisonment. After the release from the prison, he takes shelter in a temple where the villagers mistake him for a saint. Raju

4 6J [116] lives with this forced sainthood, but eventually becomes a true saint. He fasts for days together for the droughtstricken people to bring rain for them. Another novel, The Man Eater of Malgudi (1969) parallels the myth of Shantanu andganga. Even this cursory survey of R.K. Narayan s novels traces the mythical dimension in them, which intensifies itself in the course of his writing. Narayan seems to have followed later his uncle s advice to study the old epics because he would profit by it and his writing would gain in seriousness and weight. Moreover, the retold legends, Gods, Demons and Other, Ramayana and Mahabharata lend a support to this belief. Myths are important to Indian writers. P. Lai comments: What should an Indian writer in English, or a creative writer in any language, be writing about if not love, and hate, and war, and pride and peace? And where will he find the complexities of these feelings and activities if not in the myth-world? The gods and goddesses are not out there, separate permanently from us; nor as the antigods and rakshasas. They populate the earth: to know them is really to know ourselves. Although R.K. Narayan is known as a writer of

5 n [117] realistic fiction, Yet, he has used myths in his novels. When a myth as a story is used in a realistic novel, it causes displacement in a novel to maintain realism in the text. Fry defines displacement in Myth Fiction and Diplacement as the technique a writer uses to make his story credible, logically motivated or normally acceptable. Further. Frye comments: The presence of a mythical problems for making it plausible, and the devices used in solving these problems may be given the general name of displacement. Therefore, it is believed that R.K. Narayan s novels as realistic fiction will bear a greater degree of displacement. This belief is further supported by R.K. Narayan s own remark: It is inevitable that a writer, though he may be a 20th century product, should see the world and its affairs through the concepts of these myths and read their symbolism in modern terms. Further, R.K. Narayan s novels like The English Teacher, The Man-Eater of Ma/gudi and The Painter of Signs are read in the light of the Savitri-Satyavan myth, the Bhasmasura myth and the Shantanu-Ganga myth respectively. The Savitri-Satyavan myth operates in The English Teacher. Savitri is the protagonist in the Savitri- Satyavan myth. Her unwavering decision to marry

6 i [118] Satyavan, despite the knowledge of the latter s death in one year, reveals the constancy of her mind and also brings her to the central position. As far as Satyavan s role is concerned, he appears to be a poor man with innate vire us. But he contributes far less significantly to the myth than Savitri. In The English Teacher, it is Krishnan, and not Susila, who appears to be the protagonist. Krishnan s role throughout the novel is elaborated, especially during Susila s illness. Although Susila after her death seems to overshadow Krishnan, Krishnan continues to remain a protagonist because Susila now belongs to a transcendental plane. Hence, the novel at this level presents a major displacement. The novel presents a reversal of the protagonist in terms of gender. Further, in view of Savitri s choice of Satyavan, the myth and the novel present a contrary situation. In the myth Savitri enjoys a privilege to choose Satyavan as her husband and marries him eventually despite the obstacles. But Susila in the novel is deprived of this privilege. So, it causes displacement in the novel. In view of the role of astrology, the myth and the novel presents similar situation. As Satyavan s death is predicted by the astrologers in the myth, the

7 [119] headmaster s death in the novel is also predicted by an astrologer. Thus, the mythical Satyavan is displaced as the fictional headmaster. Further, despite the knowledge of Satyavan s death in one year, Savitri is determined to marry him. Similarly, Krishnan in the novel is determined to purse Susila through the medium, though his knowledge about the medium is accidental. Thus, the mythical Savitri becomes the fictional Krishnan. Further, the headmaster, by maintaining the secrecy of his predicted death till a crucial moment, identifies himself with the mythical Savitri. So, the character of Savitri seems to diversify into the characters of the headmaster and Krishnan. Thus, displacement takes place in an interesting way. In the present context the mythical Satyavan diversifies into the fictional headmaster and Susila. But it is true that largely Satyavan parallels Susila. Further, the mythical Savitri diversifies into the fictional headmaster and Krishnan. Thus, displacement takes place in an interesting way. In the present context the mythical Satyavan diversifies into the fictional headmaster and Susila. But it is true that largely Satyavan parallels Susila. Further, the mythical Savitri diversifies into the fictional headmaster and Krishnan. But largely Savitri parallels Krishnan in the novel.

8 20] [120] But in the context of house-keeping, the mythical Savitri and the fictional Susila parallel each other. Both of them are good housewives. But displacement at this level occurs through the change of characters. Krishnan is Savitri s parallel in the novel. But so far as the housekeeping issue is concerned, Savitri in the myth finds Susila in the novel as her counterpart. Savitri s last penance for three days and nights before Satyavan s death agrees with Krishnan s attendance to his sick wife. Savitri s penance, meant to avert Satyavan s impending death, is a noble sacrifice on her part. Similarly, Krishnan s persistent attendance to his bedridden wife for weeks also marks a great sacrifice. But in the myth Savitri s penance has a religious dimension. In the novel, Krishnan s attendance to his sick wife has a secular dimension. Therefore, the novel is displaced from the myth through the change in dimension. Besides, an echo of Savitri s great penance is found in Susila s theism. Though Krishnan largely parallels Savitri, as far as the religious devotion is concerned, Savitri in the myth finds Susila in the novel as her counterpart. Thus, displacement takes place at this level through the change of character in Savitri s fictional parallel.

9 [121] Furthter, the mythical trip to the forest is quite parallel to the search for a new house in the novel. The southern direction in both the myth and the novel figures quite significantly. In the myth, Yama proceeds southward after taking Satyavan s life. In the novel, the trip in search of a new house is also southbound. And this trip renders Susila sick and this sickness leads to her death eventually. Moreover, Krishnan wants to buy a house that must face south. But the mythical trip to the forest is elaborated in the novel. Thus, the novel is displaced from the myth through elaboration of this mythical component. But the death of Satyavan in the myth and Susila s death in the novel present a contrary situation. Death to Satyavan comes suddenly and overpowers him in an instant. But death comes much later to Susila. After the lavatory episode, she falls ill and her illness extends over weeks. Thus, displacement takes place in the manner of drying. In view of the presentation of the life after death, the myth and the novel present similar situations. In both the myth and the novel, life after death is dealt with at length in the myth, Savitri follows Yama even in the region of the dead in the pursuit of Satyavan. Similarly, Krishnan

10 22] [122] in the novel determines to communicate to this dead wife through the medium. In her pursuit of Satyavan, Savitri has to pass many ordeals as the test of her love. Similarly Krishnan s sustained efforts to communicate to his dead wife in the beginning through the medium and later his determination to establish a direct contact also determine his love for Susila. As far as the predicted death is concerned, the story of the headmaster seems to bear significantly on Krishnan-Susila story. In the myth Satyavan dies on the very fateful day his death is predicted. But death does not come to the headmaster on the day it is predicted. All the earlier predictions about the headmaster s life had come true. But the headmaster considers his earlier life as dead and his later life as a new birth. He renounces his family and decides to live in the children s school. Besides, the myth and the novel alike suggest that death is only a continuation of life. Savitri in the myth sees Yama, talks to Him and even follows Him in the region of the dead. Similarly, Krishnan in the novel establishes a communion with his dead wife. Moreover, when the long-awaited death does not come to the head-master he treats his earlier life as dead and his later life as a new birth. So far as death is

11 ZJSj [123] viewed as transformation of life, the mythical Savitri diversifies into two fictional characters, i.e., Krishnan and the headmaster. Savitri s undaunted faith revives Satyavan. Similarly, Krishnan s faith enables him to establish a direct contact with his wife eventually. The Bhasmasura myth operates in The Man- Eater of Malgudi. The myth presents a miraculous origion of Bhasmasura. Bhasmasura is born suddenly out of the ashes smeared on the body of Lord Shiva. Similarly, Vasu s appearance in Malgudi is equally sudden. Bhasmasura offers himself to the service of Shiva. Vasu is an M.A. in History, Economics and Literature. He is also a pahelwan trained by a pahelwan. he is a taxidermist too, trained by one Suleiman. Vasu establishes himself as a taxidermist soon after his arrival in Malgudi. The divine dimension of the myth is displaced in the novel through the moral dimension. Further, Shiva is diversified into two fictional characters, i.e. Suleiman and the pahelwan. Besides, Bhasmasura s origin in the myth takes a linear narrative. Vasu s origin in the novel is bifurcated. Vasu appears in the linear fictional narrative. And he is also narrated retrospectively with reference to Suleiman and the pahelwan. Thus, the novel is displaced from the myth

12 24J [124] through a change in the sequence of events. In the myth, Bhasmasura is originated and sheltered by Shiva. Though Natraj in the novel is not responsible for Vasu s origin in Malgudi, Vasu is unwillingly sheltered by him. Besides Nataraj, Vasu is also sheltered earlier by the pahelwan. Thus, displacement takes place in the context of shelter. Shiva, a mythical character, is diversified into two fictional characters, i.e. Nataraj and the pahelwan. Further, Bhasmasura begins his sevice as a bearer of bhasma. Bringing fresh bhasma to Shiva daily marks his routine. In a similar manner, Vasu s routine begins as an apprentice to the pahelwan and comprises exercises and dietetic rigour. But Vasu s training under the pahelwan is retrospectively narrated in the novel. Thus, the novel is displaced from the myth through the change in the sequence of events. The rise of ambition and egotism takes place in Bhasmasura in the course of delivering bhasma to Lord Shiva. Bhasmasura fails to understand the true significance of Bhasma as meant by Shiva. Therefore, he begins to cause great massacres. In a similar way, Vasu in the novel shows the first sign of moral corruption only when he grows

13 *>J [125] stronger than his master. Vasu then mal-treats his master. Moreover, Bhasmasura and Vasu are equally cunning. For instance, in order to secure a speciaj boon from Shiva, Bhasmasura pretends to Him saying that the fresh bhasma is no more available on earth. Similarly, Vasu in the novel feigns politeness before the forest officer to procure a game licence. The special boon makes Bhasmasura allpowerful. he can now turn anyone to ashes on whose head he fancies to place his palm. Similarly, the rigorous training makes Vasu a strong man in the novel. Besides, Vasu is given the make-up of a rakshasa. The image of a black halo and the symbol of the hammer-fist embody his demonic nature. In the myth, Bhasmasura misuses the boon in many ways, he brings about in indiscriminate massacre of the innocents, rebels against Shiva, his originator, and attempts to seduce Parvati, Shiva s consort. This component of the myth is largely elaborated in the novel.vasu in the novel shoots the innocent creatures of the Mempi forest. He misuse his game license. As a hunter, Vasu is allowed to shoot duck and dear only. But he shoots animals of all varieties, including a tiger. Besides, he kills

14 16] [126] two pets, a dog and a cat. As far as Vasu s atrocity to human beings is concerned, he menaces and bullies them. He is a man to be feared and avoided. As a money-gatherer he bullies people into paying and finally embezzles the amount. In the myth, Bhasmasura s atrocity extends to the point of rebellion against Shiva. He asks Shiva to hand him Parvati. Then he sets out to place his palm on Shiva s head, Rebellion against Shiva renders Bhasmasura ungrateful. And the demand of Parvati characterizes his lust. Similarly, Vasu in the novel hits his master, the pahelwan, with his palm and knocks him down. Vasu s lust for women is expressed through his association with women of mean character, especially Rangi, the temple dancer. Like the pahelwan, Natraj also falls a victim to Vasu s ingratitude and maltreatment. Vasu lives in the attic of Nataraj s press. He does not pay Nataraj and rent. Instead he lodges a complaint against Natraj. Vasu even shows a motiveless enmity to Nataraj and harasses him in many ways. There also exists a parallel between Shiva and Nataraj. Shiva in the myth and Nataraj in the novel are both innocent and altruistic. Shiva grants boon to any demon that propitiates him. Similarly, Nataraj cannot say

15 27J [127] no to anyone neither to a temple prostitute nor to a taxidermist. Nataraj s very name refers to Shiva. But the Shiva-Nataraj parallel is ironic also. Shiva is the most powerful of all the gods. He is the god of destruction. Nataraj, on the other hand, is a weak, timid and harmless man. Finally, the myth and the novel alike present the ironic death of Bhasmasura and Vasu. Bhasmasura s sacrilegious threat to kill Shiva and his lust for Parvati and Vasu s evil purpose to kill the temple elephant are finally nullified. Bhasmasura and Vasu at this stage become equally ferocious and untamable. Bhasmasura terrifies all, including Shiva. All become panicky and run helter-skelter to save their lives. Similarly, Vasu s ferocity provokes terror in the novel. He breaks the police inspector s wrist. Bhasmasura is killed through a divine trick. Lord Vishnu appears in the form of Mohini, a divine damsel. Mohini persuades the infatuated Bhasmasura to dance with her, if he really wishes to marry her. And she also tells the demon to follow her movements and gestures closely. In the course of the dance, Bhasmasura unwittinglyy places his hand on his own head. He is instantly reduced to ashes. Similarly, Vasu in the novel paves a way for his own

16 8] [128] destruction. He breaks the frame of his iron cot, furnished! with a mosquito-net. so, he is forced to recline on an easy chair. He orders Rangi to fan him. After some time, he dozes off. Providentially, Rangi also dozes off. As the fanning ceases, the mosquitoes arrive for a fresh attack on Vasu. Vasu florishes his arms like a madman. He strikes his forehead by bringing the flat of his palm with all his strength and plaster two mosquitoes on his brow. It also brings an end to Vasu s life. Bhasmasura is destroyed through a divine trick. But Vasu is destroyed through a providential trick. Thus, the divine dimension of the myth is displaced in the novel through a secular dimension. Thus, the novel is displaced through a change in dimension. Further, there also exists a parallel between Mohini and Rangi. Mohini is a divine dancer and Rangi is a temple dancer. Secondly, the name Rangi is also mythical. But the comparison between the divine damsel, Mohini, and Rani, a woman of mean character, is quite ironic. The Painter of Signs is based on the Shantanu- Ganga myth. In the myth, Shantanu is ignorant of Ganga s background. Therefore, Ganga s act of throwing her own children into the river is viewed by Shantanu as cruel and

17 9J [129] unmotherly. Similarly, Raman in the novel is ignorant of Daisy s identity. She is a sudden descent on Malgudi. Raman knows nothing about her caste and life. Raman, despite his intense curiosity to know about Daisy, is purposely held in the dark by Daisy. Further, the identity of Ganga in the myth and that of Daisy in the novel are revealed eventually by themselves. But in the novel, the hermit also through his mystical power reads Daisy s past. Thus, displacement takes place in the fiction. Ganga of the myth is diversified into two fictional characters, i.e. the hermit and Daisy. Moreover, death in the myth and the novel suggests essentially a way to regeneration. In the myth Ganga throws her children into the river to regenerate and immortalize them. In the novel, Daisy also kills the potential birth through her birth-control programme. The divine dimension of the myth is displaced through moral dimension in fiction. Moreover, the desire of Raman s aunt to die on the bank of the sacred river Ganga echoes the regeneration of the Vasus in the myth. In the myth, Shantanu is fascinated with Ganga on the river. Soon his fascination is consummated happily in their marriage. Raman in the novel is also charmed by

18 U] [130] an unknown woman in the river. Raman s fascination is significant in two ways. First, it anticipates Raman s later fascination for Daisy. Second, it allows the element of the water recur, particularly in relation to Daisy. Later Raman is fascinated with Daisy. But Raman s fascination with Daisy is elaborated in the novel. Thus, the fascination episode in the myth is displaced in the fiction in terms of Raman s two encounters with two different women characters over a period of time. Further, myth is displaced in the novel also through elaboration of this mythical component. In the myth, Ganga s identity is revealed by her on the river. Daisy in the novel also reveals her identity on the river. Both the identities are revealed much later in the mythical and fictional narratives. But in the myth, Ganga at this point leaves Shantanu, whereas Raman in the novel still continues to pursue Daisy. Thus, the novel is displaced from the myth through the change in the sequence of events. Shantanu s rejection of the eighth death marks his moral insistence on birth and life. It inspires Shantanu to overpower his fascination for Ganga. So, Shantanu s moral insistence militates against the human (his

19 *1] [131] fascination for Ganga) as well as the divine (the conditions). In the novel, Raman s insistence at Daisy s coming home while she is about to leave him presents a similar situation. Raman quite justifiably reminds Daisy of her move to his house as decided by them mutually. But Daisy rejects married life because she finds it an obstacle to the pursuit of her chosen vocation. Raman s moral right as a husband clashes with Daisy s moral.conviction. Thus, at this level, the novel is displaced from the myth in terms of dimension. Moreover, Shantanu s insistence on saving the eighth child in the myth also parallels the hermit s as well as Raman s insistence on procreation. Thus, at this level, the character of Shantanu diversifies into the characters of the hermit and Raman and causes displacement in the friction. Besides, Devavrata in the myth and Raman in the novel seem to parallel each other. As Devavrata sacrifices his glorious future for his father s happiness, Raman also sacrifices his happiness for Daisy s missionary zeal. After Daisy s departure, Raman chooses to live a celibate life. The Town Hall professor s message and the Boardless hotel also pave a way for Raman s selfrealization. Besides, the mythical Devavrata and Shantanu seem to parallel the fictional hermit. Devavrata and the

20 2] [132] hermit live celibate lives. And Devavrata, by uniting his father with Satyavati, the daughter of a fisherman, allows him to regenerate life. Similarly, the hermit, himself a celibate, graces the barren women with conception. Shantanu in the myth places considerable emphasis on birth. He allows Ganga, his first wife, to bear eight children and Satyavati, his second wife, two sons. Therefore, the hermit, a fictional character, is a unification of two mythical characters, Shantanu and Devavrata. Many significant points have come out as a result of myth criticism. For instance, the application of the Savitri-Satyavan myth to The English Teacher determines the importance of the southern direction in the novel, which symbolically portends the tragic fate of Krishnan and Susila. The myth enables one to relate Yama s southward mover after taking Satyavan s life to the fictional southward trip, where Krishnan and Susila move in search of a house that must face south. Without the use of myth criticism, such an important point would have been ignored. And similarly, the Krishnan-headmaster parallel also emerges as a significant outcome of myth criticism. Like Satyavan s death in the myth, the headmaster s death is also predicted in the novel. Satyavan

21 [133] dies the very day his death is predicted. But quite interestingly, death does not come to the headmaster while all the other predictions about his life have come true. But this prediction also realizes itself because the headmaster considers his earlier life as dead and his later life as a birth of new life. The peculiar adaptation of the myth to the novel accords the headmaster, a minor character, a central position, enabling him to parallel Satyavan at this level. Moreover, the revival of Satyavan and the rebirth of the headmaster s life embody the theme that death is a transformation of life. Further, the application of the Bhasmasura myth to The Man-Eater of Malgudi highlights the roles of two minor fictional characters, the pahelwan and Suleiman, to the extent that they both parallel Shiva jointly, so long as the origin of evil is concerned. In the myth, Shiva originates Bhasmasura as a strong demon who later misuses Shiva s boon for the destruction of the world. Similarly, in the novel, the emergence of Vasu as a strong man is materialized by the pahelwan through a rigorous training. Vasu misuses this strength for bullying and browbeating people. Further, Vasu s origin as a successful taxidermist leads Vasu to indiscriminate killing of the wild life. Though Vasu s story

22 4] [134] in relation to the pahelwan and Suleiman is narrated retrospectively in the novel, it allows one to see Shiva, the mythical character, diversifying into two fictional character, the pahelwan and Suleiman. Similarly, the application of the Shantanu- Ganga myth to The Painter of Signs also brings many issues to a larger canvas which may otherwise be ignored. Fro instance, the regeneration of the Vasus in the myth echoes in Raman s aunt, a minor character in the novel. In the myth, the Vasus are regenerated by the holy water of the river Ganga. Raman s aunt in the novel devoutly believes in the regenerating power of the river Ganga and determines to conclude her life on its bank. Thus, the Ganga-Raman s aunt parallel at this stage emerges as a significant outcome of myth criticism. The use of myth criticism accommodates the unknown woman, a minor character in the novel, to a larger design in the narrative as she anticipates Raman s fater fascination with Daisy. Moreover, Raman s encounter with this woman on the river and his passing fancy for her echo Shantanu s fascination for Ganga. Thus, Raman s encounter with the unknown woman also serves as the specific outcome of myth criticism.

23 5] [135] The adaptation of the myth to the novel also establishes the importance of the water image which recurs very often in the myth as well as in the novel. In the myth, Ganga, Shantanu s wife, is herself a human form of the river Goddess Gartga. She is closely associated with water. Even the fascination episodes occurs on the bank of the river. And later, water image intensifies itself as each time Ganga proceeds to the river to throw her children there. In the novel, Daisy is also closely associated with the water image. Daisy likes Raman s house on the river. When she runs away from her house, as she later tells Raman, she is ultimately tracked by her father in a hut besides the sea. Moreover, she reveals her identity to Raman on the river. This recurrence of the water image in the novel and Daisy s insistent association with it strengthens the Ganga-Daisy parallel and it also emerges as a significant outcome of myth criticism. In fact, R.K. Narayan s novels are not literal translations of the myths. Therefore, a major displacement takes place. The displacement of the Savitri-Satyavan myth, the Bhasmasura myth and the Shantanu-Ganga myth in the respective novels is brought about through various ways:

24 [136] 1. a change in gender of the protagonist {The English Teacher) 2. a change in dimensions, 3. a change in the sequence of events. 4. an elaboration of a mythical component. 5. diversification of a mythical character into two or more than two fictional characters, 6. a fictional character as a unification of two or more than two mythical characters. R.K. Narayan is primarily a realist. Still he beautifully transcreates the ancient myths in terms of the twentieth century India. Narayan s mode of using myths is evident from what he himself says: The myriad gods and demons in our ancient literature are all symbolic figures. Though their actions take place in the world of legends and superterrestrial geography, still they could be read in plain terms in relation to contemporary life. He observes further: The details may be different but the pattern is the same today as it was in ancient times. It convinces me that motives and methods remain unchanged whether we are watching the epic age or the events of today. Narayan says that basically there is no difference between the epic age and the present day world.

25 7] [137] His novels bear a testimony to it. For instance, the Savitri- Satyavan myth expounds the concept of life after death and views death as a transformation of life. Yama, the Lord of death, shows the living Savitri an ugly vision of the dead. And the myth tells that the life of the people put to torture there, is a transformed life of the people who had committed sin in their life on earth. In The English Teacher, Susila keeps alive the concept of life after death by communicating to Krishnan, her husband, after her death. The novel tells that after her death Susila is transformed into a spirit. Further, the Bhasmasura myth holds that the evil paves a way for its own destruction. In the struggle between Shiva, the merciful benefactor of Bhasmasura, and Bhasmasura, the ungrateful and sacrilegious demon, it is Bhasmasura who is destroyed eventually. Similarly, The Man-Eater of Malgudi presents a battle between faith and faithlessness. The faith of the religious-minded Malgudians, headed by Kumar, the temple elephant, in a procession and the faithless Vasu bent upon committing a sacrilege by killing the temple elephant, represent two opposing forces at work. Vasu, the evil, is killed eventually. The Bhasmasura story of the epic age and the Vasu story

26 8] [138] of the twentiety-century India confirm the everlasting presence of evil. But they also prove that the evil cannot last long; it has its own seeds of destruction. It seems that The English Teacher is less close to its myth than The Man-Eater of Malgudi and The Painter of Signs as it presents the gender reversal of the mythical and the fictional protagonists. Further, tragic mode operated in it. But comic mode operates freely in The Man- Eater of Malgudi and The Painter of Signs. It seems that The Man-Eater of Malgudi is closer to its myth than the other two novels. The origins of Bhasmasura in the myth and that of Vasu in the novel are equally sudden. The rise of ambition and egotism in Bhasmasura and Vasu are vividly described. Vasu s physical and mental make-up are portrayed realistically so as to impart him a demonic appearance. Further, Bhasmasura and Vasu are depicted as cunning, ungrateful, rebellious and lustful. They both revolt against their originatgors And alike they perpetrate the act of annihilation. Moreover, the ends of Bhasmasura and Vasu are presented as ironic, dramatic and just. Besides the Bhasmasura-Vasu parallel, the novel traces other parallels the Shiva-Natraj parallel and the Mohini-Rangi

27 -9] [1391 parallel. Further, the names of the characters in the novel Vasu, Nataraj, Rangi are all mythical. Commenting upon the close parallel between the Bhasmasura myth and The Man-Eater of Malgudi, Britta Olinder observes: The most sustained myth that Narayan presents in his novels is that of the man-eater or rakshasa in The Man-Eater of Malgudi. R.K. Narayan s mode of using myths is comic and characterized by irony. Further, his comic mode is characterized by an all-pervading humour. But The English Teacher presents a picture of gloom caused by the demise of Krishnan s young wife. Moreover, Krishnan s obsessed attempts to conceal the truth of Susila s death from Leela, their young daughter, add to the gloom of disconsolate Krishnan and also heighten the tragic effect. In this context C.D. Narasimhaiah observes : But The English Teacher is the farthest Narayan could go in the tragic mode. But the novel still retains its comic mode. For instance, Krishnan s concern for the safe arrival of his wife and daughter while they are about to join him in Malgudi is presented comically. And later the presentation of the life after death lessens the tragic note. The novel describes the life after death as ecstatic which is felt in the Divine Light flooding the spirits there, as the dead Susila tells

28 3] [1401 Krishnan. Further, the ample leisure, the freedom enjoyed by the spirits there, and then the music transporting the spirits to the higher planes, provide a great comic relief. This presentation of the life after death brings in humour also. As S.C. Harres observes : Even the great souls or Helpers of the after-life share Narayan s sense of humour, and they tell Krishnan, on one occasion when Susila is too convulsed with laughter to speak, that she said he should not take anything too tragically. And again, towards the close of the novel humour seems to pervade all around when Principal Brown expresses his doubt over Krishnan s ability to teach school children. Similarly, Narayan s comic mode sustains itself in the story of the terrible Vasu in The Man-Eater of Malgudi. The terror of Vasu is mitigated by the reminding of the Bhasmasura myth in the novel by Sastri. This provides a comic relief. Next, the point that Vasu will never het anyone unless he is hit first mitigates the year of the lawless Vasu.The comic mode of Narayan finds a good expression in The Painter of Signs. For example, the very interpretation of the regeneration theme of the myth in terms of the familyplanning programme of the twentieth-century India has a humourous touch. Besides, the Ganga-Daisy parallel is

29 *1J [141] comic. As K. Chellappan point out: The very just a position of the family-planning girl with the divine Ganga is comic. Irony is a powerful weapon in the hands of R.K. Narayan. But it is often gentle and mild. It runs throughout the novel and changes the events radically. But in The English Teacher, irony seems to work its worst upto the half of the novel. For instance, on their way to the search for a new house, Krishnan promises to his wife to take her on an all-india tour some day. The irony lies in Krishnan s failure to know that this very walk is enough to lead Susila to sickness and eventually to her death. Similarly, when Susila is suddenly shut in the foul lavatory of the house, Krishnan s remark that perhaps she is thinking of a very grand kitchen garden in the backyard, brings irony. The end of The Man-Eater of Malgudi present irony at its best. That the death of Vasu, an exterminator of animals, is cause by a mosquito is full of irony. Even the parallels between characters in the novel, the Shiva-nataraj para I el, the Mohini-Rangi parallel, present irony. M.K. Naik observes these parallels as Ironic contrast. In The Painter of Signs, irony brings an element of pathos also. When Raman goes to bring Daisy, his bride, home, he is stunned to find her leaving him, ironically for ever. The ironic mode

30 [142] of Narayan can be summed up in the words of Shernaz Mehta : Narayan s chief asset is his voice, his attitude, which is ironic but never harsh, sympathetic but never sentimental. It is a wonderful balance. R.K. Narayan s mode of using myth in these three novels is distinct from other writers who have also used myth in their works. Narayan allows a single myth to operate in the novel. It is also possible to use the fragments of various myths. For instance, T.S. Eliot uses the fragments of many myths. For instance, T.S. Eliot uses the the fragments of many myths, i.e. the Fisher King- Grail myth, the ancient fertility myth of Egypt, India and Greece in The Waste Land. Similarly, Saul Bellow, the American novelist, uses the fragments of the Western myths in Henderson the Rain King. Eugene O Neill, the American dramatist, like R.K. Narayan uses only one myth, i.e. the Greek myth of the house of Atreus in Mourning Becomes E/ectra. R.K. Narayan^s novels are rooted in sociocultural ethos of India, especially of the south India. But the fictional Malgudi, the very setting of his novels, like Thomas Hardy s Wessex, transcends the regional or national boundary and attains a universal recognition. Hari

31 [143] Mohan Prasad says that Narayan s Malgudi is a regional world but it gains a representativeness by concentration and extends into a national range covering even a cosmic canvas. R.K. Narayan s novels bear a stamp of Indianness. For instance, in The English Teacher; Krishnan s mother has a sense of piety for the cows. She says that she goes near the cows only when she has cleaned the house, bathed and worshipped. This is purely an Indian faith as the Hindus in India worship the cow and call her Gow-Mata This Indian faith extends to a universal faith because the sense of piety to some animal or the other is a common human belief in communities all over the world. Similarly, the belief of Krishnan s mother-inlaw that Susila is haunted by an evil spirit and her way of curing Susila through mantras indicate superstitious faith which is peculiarly Indian. But such a superstition is a universal phenomenon. Further, Krishnan s psychic union with his dead wife becomes available to the Indian as well as the Western occult traditions. And his intense sorrow caused by the premature death of his wife has a wide human appeal. Similarly, The Man-Eater of Malgudi presents

32 4J [144] a religious faith of the Malgudians who are joyously celebrating a festival. Such festivals and religious processions are prevalent universally. Further, Vasu as an oppressor of men and killer of animals is not only confined to Malgudi in the twentieth - century India; he epitomizes the evil that is eternal.