Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and south India)

Transcription

1 Lesson: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to Lesson Developer: Anisha Saxena and Niharika Sankrityayan College/ Department: Lady Shri Ram College/Center For Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University

2 Table of Contents Chapter 20: Regionalism: Art and Architecture of the Regional Styles 750 AD to c.1200 (Deccan and South India and Deccan) Introduction 20.1 Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple, Ellora 20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukyan Architecture 20.3 Art and Architecture in South India I: Pallava Architecture 20.4 Art and Architecture in South India II: Chola Architecture Art and Architecture: Early Phase Art ad Architecture: Second Phase Art and Architecture: Third Phase 20.5 Metal Sculpture 20.6 Other Architectural Achievements 20. 7Exercise Glossary Further Readings

3 Introduction The previous chapter (chapter 19) discussed in detail various schools of architecture and sculpture that developed in northern India from 750 to 1200 CE. The chapter also discussed how temples in the early medieval India were not merely spaces for religious activity, they were important structures that legitimized political authority and regulated economic life, sometimes even acting as banks providing loans to traders. The present chapter in continuation with the previous chapter will discuss the growth of architecture and sculpture in south India and Deccan from 750 to 1200 CE. The early beginnings of architecture and sculpture in south India and Deccan under the patronage provided by the Pallavas and the Chalukya rulers has already been discussed in great detail in chapter 10 (see chapter on cultural development). The foundations of the Dravida or the south Indian style of architecture were laid under the Pallava rulers, who ruled from the sixth to the ninth century CE. The architecture of the Deccan or Vesara style was an amalgamation of the Nagara and Dravida style of architecture and developed under the Chalukyas. Politically by the eighth century CE the Deccan and southern India were experiencing changes in political environment. From the middle of the sixth century to the thirteenth century, the Deccan region of peninsular India came under the sway of a line of rulers. An important dynasty was the Chalukyas of Badami ruling from their capital at Badami or Vatapi. The Early Chalukyas achieved political unification of much of the Deccan for almost 200 years, even though during this period portions of their territories were temporarily lost to the Pallavas from the Tamil country in southern India. Just after 750 CE the Chalukyas of Badami succumbed to the Rashtrakuta invasion from Maharashtra in the northern Deccan. From 757 CE for about two centuries, the Rashtrakutas ruled over the Deccan. In 973 CE the Rashtrakutas were ousted by Taila II, a scion of the Chalukya family, who established his capital at Kalyani/Kalyana. The decedents of Taila

4 ruled from there until 1161 CE, when the region was temporarily occupied by the Kalachuris with their capital at Annigeri and was afterwards shifted to Kalyani. The Chalukyas of Kalyani regained power and ruled until 1189 CE. Due to the declining strength, the southern part of their territory was occupied by the Hoysalas and the northern by the Yadavas of Devagiri. The Yadavas ruled from CE. The Kakatiyas who were vassals of the Chalukyas of Kalyani became independent after the defeat of the Chalukyas by the Kalachuris. The Kakatiyas rose to power and ruled over a large part of the Deccan for nearly three centuries. The Eastern Chalukyas has established themselves in Vengi by the second half of the eighth century and ruled till late tenth century, when they defeated by the Cholas. The Pallavas of Kanchi continued to rule till the ninth century coming constantly in conflict with the Chalukyas, Pandyas and Rashtrakutas, their power slowly dwindling replaced by the Cholas. The Cholas came to power at Tanjore under Vijayalaya, who defeated the Muttaraiyar chiefs. In the beginning of their rule the Cholas accepted Pallavas as their overlords, but by the end of the ninth century, beginning of tenth the Cholas under the leadership of Aditya I ( CE) had become one of the strongest dynasty ruling from south India. By mid twelfth century under the rule of the later Chola kings the empire began to dwindle loosing territory to the western chalukyas and the emerging Hoysalas, who ruled Karnataka from the tenth to the fourteenth century. Each of the political dynasties that ruled south India and Deccan created some of the exquisite examples of art, both in terms of temple architecture and sculpture Art and architecture of the Deccan I: Kailashnatha temple, Ellora In Deccan the most fascinating traditions of rock-cut and structural temples emerged from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries CE. The religious monuments of the Chalukyas of Badami are of outstanding interest for their transition from cutting into rock to free-standing construction, as well as for their range of distinctive architectural styles. Hardly anywhere else in India it is possible to find cave-temples and structural temples of the same period beside each other at the same site, as in Badami and Aihole; nor at other sites can temples be seen next to each other built in contrasting Dravida and Nagara styles, as at Mahakuta and Pattadakal. One of the finest examples of rock cut architecture in Deccan is the Kailasa temple at Ellora. It is one of the largest and the biggest

5 monolithic temple in India. The temple was the result of the munificence of Rashtrakuta king Krishna I ( CE) and was named after him as Krishnesvara. The style of carving for the main complex is uniform. Its architectural and elevational impact is marred by the fact that it is located as if in a huge pit or hollow of a rocky hill. The plan of the temple has a square mandapa with sixteen columns, three porches, sandhara plan of shrine and ambulatory passage (pradakshina-patha). Its ambulatory passage is an open terrace. The iconography of the south wall of its mandapa is rich with Ramayana panels. Kailasa temple, Elevation Source: AIIS, Gurgaon 20.2 Art and architecture of the Deccan II: Chalukya Architecture In the first half of the 8 th century, climax of the Dravida and Nagara styles appeared, with emergence of other idioms and stylistic intermingling. In the later years of Chalukya ruler Vijayaditya s reign ( CE), and reigns of Vikramaditya II ( CE) and Kirttivarma II ( CE) a number of temples were constructed. Some of the temples are: Sangameshvara,Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna temples at Pattadakal. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami, Gaudargudi, Chikkigudi Hucchappayyamatha, Hucchappayyagudi and Hucchimalligudi, Durga and Ladkhan, Galaganatha and Mallikarjuna

6 temples at Aihole. The largest of the Pattadakal temples and the most elaborately planned and artistically embellished monument of the Chalukya period, the Virupaksha stands at the southern perimeter of the site s landscaped compound. The temple is associated with Lokamahadevi, queen of Vikramaditya II, and was original named after her as Lokeshvara. That the temple must have been considered the outstanding achievement of the era is borne out by two inscriptions on the eastern gateway to the complex. These give the names of the principal architects: Tribhuvan and Sarvasiddhi Acharyas, Master of the Three Worlds and Master of the Abode of Good Qualities. Many of the sculptors involved on the project also have their names engraved beneath the carved panels that they worked on. Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal Source: Author The Virupaksha temple is the focus of a symmetrically planned complex, with a stone paved compound bounded by walls and sub-

7 shrines, entered through gateways on the east and west. A Nandi pavilion stands freely within the compound, between the temple and the eastern gateway. The temple consists of a linga sanctuary surrounded by a passageway on three sides, lit by windows on three sides and preceded by a vestibule. This opens into a square mandapa with sixteen free-standing columns creating five aisles running in both directions, the central aisles being slightly wider. The sculptures on the outer walls are among the greatest masterpieces of Chalukya plastic art. Panels on the passageway walls are mostly devoted to Shiva, which include icons of Bhikshatana, Bhairava, Lakulisha holding a club, and Harihara. The central projection on the north passageway walls has a formally posed eight-armed image of Vishnu armed with disc, conch, sword, shield, bow and arrow, with a dwarf at the feet. That this may be a replacement image is suggested by Shiva and Parvati between exquisitely modelled makaras with open jaws, riders and cascading tails on the walls above, and diminutive Mahishasuramardini beneath. An image of Varaha occupies the adjacent recess Art and Architecture in south India I: Pallava Architecture A definite architectural and iconographical vocabulary had developed in south India under the Pallavas by the seventh century CE. This is clear indicated in the rock cut structures that the Pallavas created at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu). It was also under the Pallavas that the first structural temples were created in south India. The Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is considered the first structural temple built in south India. The temple is constructed out of blocks of granite and was constructed under the patronage of the Pallava king Narsimhavarman II Rajasimha ( CE). The temple has an unusual plan with three distinct worship areas constructed on a same platform; the primary worship area faces east and is dedicated to Shiva. This worship area has the highest pyramidal superstructure. The second, smaller shrine is also dedicated to Shiva and consists of a smaller superstructure. The third shrine is located at the western edge and is dedicated to Vishnu as Anantashayin and has no superstructure. The figure of Anantashayin was carved out of existing rock at situ.

8 Shore temple, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu Notice the two rising pyramidal shaped shikaras Source: Shore_temple,_mahabalipuram.jpg

9 20.4 Art and Architecture of south India II: Chola Architecture Art and Architecture: Early Phase The Cholas were the successors of the Pallava rulers in south India and had established themselves firmly by the ninth century CE. Their religious and artistic activity centered in and around Tanjore. Early stages of temple architecture began under the reign of Aditya I ( CE) and Paratntaka I ( CE). The first phase of Chola artistic activity can be dated from the ninth to the early half of the tenth century CE, the temples during this early phase were generally constructed entirely in stone and were smaller in size. The plan of the early temples consisted of a vimana and an ardhmandapa. The entire complex was surrounded by a prakara and a small gopuram was placed at the principal entrance, the superstructure of which was constructed in brick. One of the finest examples of the early Chola architecture is the Brahmapurishvara temple at Pullamangai in Papanasam district, twenty kilometers from Tanjore. The temple is dated to 910 CE and was constructed under the reign of Parantaka I, dedicated to Shiva the temple faces east and consists of a vimana and an ardhmandapa. The outer walls of the temple contain images of various Brahmanical gods and goddesses, these sculptures are some of the finest Chola sculptures carved in stone and show extraordinary grace and delicacy. The adhisthana of the temple has a beautifully carved frieze of yalis. Sculptures of exceptionally beautifully carved ganas appear at various places on the temple walls, they are carved with great skill and delicacy and are represented in various moods and poses.

10 Standing sculpture of Brahma, Brahmapurishvara temple, Tamil Nadu. Source: 087/in/set

11 Images of ganas in various poses and moods, Brahmapurishvara temple, Tamil Nadu. Source: The next impetus for the Chola architecture came under the patronage of the Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi, wife of Chola king Gandaraditya ( CE). Though not many new temples were constructed under her, she is said to have replaced a number of existing brick temples with stone. The quality of Chola stone sculpture became deteriorated, the sculpture became stiff marking a deviation from the early graceful and delicate style. The Agastyeshvara temple at Anangur, Tamil Nadu is said to be built by her in 979 CE Art and Architecture: Second Phase The next phase of Chola architecture began with the accession of Rajaraja I ( CE) and continued under the reign of his son Rajendra Chola ( CE). Under the rule of Rajaraja the Chola empire reached its zenith, he conquered parts of Kerala, Coorg, lower and eastern Karnataka. In 993 CE he also led naval expeditions to Sri Lanka and Maldives. Rajaraja not only patronized Brahmanical temples and deities, under his rule a number of Jaina and Buddhist religious structures were also constructed.

12 This phase of Chola architecture was marked by construction of large, grand temples with multiple stories- Brihadishvara temples at Thanjavur and at Gangaikondacholapuram are two examples of this phase of Chola architecture. The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjore during its time of construction was one of the largest buildings to be constructed in the world. The temple has a number of inscriptions and inform that the temple was constructed between 1003 CE CE. Dedicated to Shiva the temple was originally surrounded by two prakara walls, the inner prakara is 800 feet long (east-west) and 400 feet broad (north-south) and has gopuram on the east entrance and three small torana on the other three sides. The outer prakara is now completely lost, but the gopuram attached to it still stands on the east. Seen in the photograph are the two entrance gopuram to the Brihadishvara temple, notice the barrel valuted roof that finishes the shikhara of the gopuram. Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu Source:

13 Both the gopurams are same in design though the outer gopuram is taller and has five tiers and inner gopuram has three tiers. In front of the temple rests an enormous stone image of Nandi, which is sixteen feet long and thirteen feet high. The main temple itself is constructed out of granite and is one hundred and eighty feet in length and consists of a mukhamandapa, ardhmandapa, an antarala, a garbhagriha and a pradakshinapath. The niches on outer walls of the temple contain images of various forms of Shiva. The Vimana of the temple is two hundred and sixteen feet high and consists of sixteen stories Brihadishvara temple, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu Source: a-temple-in.html

14 Similar to the architectural style of Brihadesvara at Tanjore, Rajaraja I s son Rajendra I constructed another temple with same name at his new capital city of Gangaikindacholapuarm. Constructed in about 1023 CE, the temple marked his victory over Pala king Mahipala. The temple has only one prakara wall with an all-stone gopuram on the east. Brihadesvara temple, Gangaikondacholapuram, Tamil Nadu Source: viewer/file:gangaikonda_cholapuram(front_view).jpg Art and Architecture: Third Phase The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in 1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the old temples and made additions to the existing temples than undertaking new temple projects. Vikrama Chola ( CE) added a Nrittya mandapa and covered the roof of the Tirumalikai temple. Kulotunga III ( ) added a Nrittya mandapa at the Chidambaram temple. Both these rulers also added a prakara wall and a gopuram to the already existing goddess shrine at

15 Chidambara. Another feature that became common during this time was construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which came to be known as the Amman shrines. The addition of free standing mandapas that are popularly called the thousand pillared halls also became popular the mandapas of the temple became more ornate and started receiving special attention; one of the architectural feature peculiar to this phase of Chola architecture was the shape of the mandapas which imitated form of a chariot. The number and size of gopurams increased, they also became more ornate than before Metal Sculpture The Cholas created some of the most exquisite metal sculptures known to humankind. Their bronze sculptures are world famous for their exquisite quality, beauty, grace and precision. Pratapaditya Pal rightly notes that the Chola sculptors found an ideal balance between form and ornamentation. Although the figures are idealized, they appear to be naturalistically modeled. Chola bronzes have found their way in all major museums in the world. Before the Cholas, even the Pallavas were aware of the knowledge of bronze casting, but only few examples of Pallava bronze sculpture survive. The technique used to create the bronze sculpture by the Cholas is called cire perdue or the lost wax process. According to this process a wax model of the image created was made with all complete details of jewellery, clothes etc, then this image was coated with three layers of clay. This clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax melted out leaving a hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted bronze was then carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was allowed to cool. Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken revealing a bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given its final shape. Out of all the images created by Chola sculptors the image of Shiva as Nataraja is their best-known creation, they are best known for their high aesthetic quality. These bronze images unlike the stone sculptures that were sculpted on the temple walls, were movable images. These images were regularly taken out of the temple during religious festivals.

16 Shiva as Nataraja, Chola eleventh century Bronze Dallas Museum of Art, Texas, U.S.A

17 Bronze image of Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as Parvati Chola bronze, 990 CE Freer Gallery, Washington D.C, U.S.A Photograph: Author

18 20.6 Other Architectural Achievements It was during the early medieval period that Shravana Belagola in Karnataka, became an important Jaina pilgrimage site. The famous 17.5 meter standing stone image of Bahubali or Gommata, the son of the first tirthankara Rishabhnath or Adinatha was erected under the patronage of Chamunda Raya, minister of the Ganga king Rachamalla ( CE). The rulers of the Hoysala dynasty also created some of the most exquisite temples during this period. The Hoysala for,ed a small kingdom in region around Belur and Halebid in eleventh century, in the begening they were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyan, but by the twelfth century they were becoming powerful defeating and acquiring territories both from the Cholas and the Chalukyas. Tht Hoysala temple consists of several connected parts and consisted of a porch, a vestibule, a hall and a sanctum sanctorum. The Hoysala temple plans are one of the most complex temple plans and their sculpture are much celebrated for their intricate detailed carvings Exercise Explain the following architectural elements 1. Prakara 2. Vimana 3. Gopuram Ans. 1. Prakara- outer wall in south Indian temple architecture 2. Vimana- The main temple consisting of garbhagriha and Shikhara 3. Gopuram- Large entrance gateways, peculiar to south Indian or Dravida architecture

19 Match the following Pallava rock cut temples Earliest structural temple in south India Lost wax process Sembiyan Mahadevi Kailashnath temple, Ellora Brahmapurishvara temple Rahtrakuta Chola queen Mahabalipuram Shore temple Parantaka I Chola Bronzes Answer Pallava rock cut temples Earliest structural temple in south India Lost wax process Sembiyan Mahadevi Brahmapurishvara temple Kailshnath temple, Ellora Mahabalipuram Shore temple Chola Bronzes Chola queen Parantaka I Rashtrakuta Describe the Lost wax process Ans. According to the lost wax process or cire perdue a wax model of the image created was made with all complete details of jewellery, clothes etc, then this image was coated with three layers of clay. This clay-encased wax image was heated, the wax melted out leaving a hollow cavity within the clay image. The molted bronze was then carefully poured inside the hollow clay image and was allowed to cool. Once the metal was called and set the clay was broken revealing a bronze image. Details were reworked and image was given its final shape. What were the important landmarks of Chola architecture in third phase of architecture? Ans. 1. The last phase of architecture under the Chola patronage began in 1070 CE and lasted till 1279 CE 2. During this phase the Chola rulers focused on restoration of the old temples and made additions to the existing temples than undertaking new temple projects. 3. Construction of separate shrine for the female goddesses, which

20 came to be known as the Amman shrines became popular. 4. The addition of free standing mandapas, popularly called the thousand pillared halls became popular. The so called Nrittya mandapa imitated chariots. 5. The number and size of gopurams increased, they also became more ornate than before Glossary Adhisthana-platform Antarala-vestibule Ardhmandapa-intermediary space between the sanctum and the temple exterior. Dravida-Form of south Indian architecture Ganas-pot bellied attendants of Shiva Garbhagriha- womb house, sanctum Gopuram-gateway Mukhamandapa-the front hall or porch of the temple Nrittyamandapa-dancing hall Pradakshinapath-circumambulatory path Prakara-outer wall Torana- gateway, archiform gateway pattern Vesara-Form of architecture in Deccan Vimana-the main temple, including garbhagriha and shikhara Further Readings Champakalakshmi, R. Trade, Ideologyand Urbanization: South India 30 BC to AD 1300, Oxford University Press, Foekema, Gerard. A Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples, Abhinav Publications, Hardy, Adam. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transform, IGNCA, Huntington, Susan L. The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, University of Michigan, Meister, Michael W., M.A. Dhaky, and Krishna Deva (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India. Lower Dravidadesa 200 B.C.-A.D.1324, American Institute of Indian Studies,

21 1988. Pal, Pratapaditya. Indian Sculpture, Vol.2, , Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Soundararajan, K. V. Early Temple Architecture of Karnataka and its Ramifications, Dharwar, Srinivasan, K. R. Temples of South India, New Delhi, Yazdani, G., ed., The Early History of the Deccan, Oxford, 1960.