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1 Some Remarks on the "Three-in-One Doctrine" and its Manifestations in Singapore and Malaysia By Wolfgang Franke (Hamburg) I. Efforts at harmonizing the Three Doctrines, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, reach back as far as pre-t' ang tim es. They became rnore evident during the Sui and T'ang periods 1 Tendencies towards an amalgamation of the Three Doctrines appeared during the Sung and Yüan periods 2, and are found with increasing frequency under the Ming dynasty up to the point when LIN Chao-en ( ) establislj;ed the San-i-chiao, "Three-in-One Doctrine'\ or Hsia-chiao in which the Three Doctrines were merged into one. Lin was a native of P'u-t'ien County, which, together with Hsien-yu County constituted the former prefecture of Hsing-hua in central Fukien province 3 Similarly to his more famous younger contemporary and Fukien countryman LI Chih ( ) 4, Lin Chao-en was a popular figure during his lifetime, but was later denounced as a heretic by the Confucian orthodoxy. Thus CHu I-tsun ( ) called Li Chihand Lin Chao-en together "the two heretics of Fukien" Quite a nurober of authors of the 17th century wrote biographies of Lin or mentioned him in short notices. The editions of the Fu-chien tung-chih of 1684 and of 1737 contain a biography of Lin 6, but not the later editions of this work nor the P'u-t'ien hsien-chih of 1758 (with supplements of 1879 and 1926). Since the early 18th century Lin Chao-en as a historical personality has been almost forgotten. Only the followers of the Three-in-One Doctrine remernher Lin. They pay their respects to his tomb (fig. 1) - which is even mentioned in P'u-t'ien hsien-chih (4,27a) - and worship him as the founder of their religion, San-i chiao-chu (GI. The first part of this article is a slightly revised version of a paper read at the International Congress of Orientalists, Canberra, in January See MoROHASHI Tetsuji, Dai Kanwa Jiten (Abbreviated DKWJ) s. v. Sanchiao i-chih /un 1 1; Otto FRANKE: Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches, Berlin und Leipzig , Vol. li, p. 590, and vol. III, p. 382; Lru Ts'un-yan, in TP 53, 1967, PP ; JAo Tsung-i, usan-chiao lun yü Sung Chin hsüeh-shu", Tung-Hsi wenhua, 11, Taipei 1968, p Lru, /oc. cit. pp ; JAo, loc. cit. pp DKW J Out of the numerous writings on LI Chih in Chinese, Japanese, and Western langu~ges only the most recent biography written by K.C. HsiAo in Drall Ming BiographleB 7, 1967, need be mentioned. 5 Ming Shih tsung (ed. 1705), eh. 50, 27b. e Ch. 51, sect. Hsien shih, Hsing-hua-fu, and eh. 60, Ba. ( 1 ) -=-~-!X ~ifti ( 6) ~~ ( 2 ) **~ls.~. ( 7 J *~il c 3 J 1a m c 4 J fili lq! c s J ~1 t c s J r;., ~ =14~ c g J -=- -~3:. 121

In modern times, the first sd10lar to point out the role of Lin Chao-en in Ming intellectual life and amoung those thinkers who were influenced by Wang Yang-ming was ÜYANAGI Shigeta 1 10 1, whose

2 In modern times, the first sd10lar to point out the role of Lin Chao-en in Ming intellectual life and amoung those thinkers who were influenced by Wang Yang-ming was ÜYANAGI Shigeta , whose paper of 1928 on the Three Doctrines du ring the late Ming period includes a separate paragraph on Lin 1. A Chinese translation of this paper appeared in A short notice on Lin Chao-en is contained in Shina gakugei daijii by KoNnö Moku In 1952 MANO Senryü published an article on the same subject with a special consideration of Lin Chao-en 10, succeeded by a contribution on Lin and his Work in the Memorial Volume for Shimizu Taiji in The most thorough study of Lin Chao-en's thought to date was made by SAKAI Tadao (13J in his Chügoku sensho no kenkyü (Tökyö 1960) one of the most important recent contributions to Ming intellectual history. Chapter 3 of this work deals with the trends towards syncretism of the Three Doctrines, and Section 8 of this chapter with the thought of Lin Chao-en in particular (pp ). No reference to Lin Chao-en can be found in Western sinologicalliterature prior to Tu Lien-che's biography of Lin in Draft Ming Biographies No. 6, The first introductory study on Lin's life and thought was published in 1967 by Lru Ts'un-yan under the title "Lin Chao-en ( ). TheMaster of the Three Teachings" 12. No reference to the Three-in-One Doctrine during the 19th and 20th centuries can be found in Western, Chinese, or Japanese literature. During the late 19th or early 20th century the Three-in-One Doctrine spread to Southeast Asia, transmitted by immigrants from Hsing-hua, Lin's native prefecture where the Doctrine was most popular. In Malaysia and Singapore today quite a number of temples dedicated to this doctrine exist in various places 13 They are, however, never called miao, szu, or kuan, the usual names of Buddhist or Taoist temples, but t'ang, yüan, tung, tz'u, or kung!tsj. There arenot a few temples scattered throughout West Malaysia. These and some more general aspects regarding the Three-in-One Doctrine will be dealt with in the second part of this paper. This partwill be limited to the temples of Singapore. 7 "Mimmatsu no sankyö kankei", Takase hyakushi kanreki kinen Shinagaku ronsö, Kyöto 1928, pp , in particular pp "Ming-mo-ti Fu-chien ssu-hsiang-chia chi san-chiao kuan-hsi", Fu chien wen-hua, 2, 1, 1944, pp Tökyö 1936, p "Mindai ni okeru sankyö shisö - toku ni Lin Chao-en wo chüshin to shite", Töyöshi-kenkyü 12, 1, Kyöto 1952, pp _ 11 "Lin Chao-en to sono chosaku", Shimizu Taiji tsuitö kinen Mindai-shi ronso, Tökyö 1962, pp TP 53, 1967, pp A paper by the present writer, "Some Remarks ~n Lin Chao-en ( ) ", in the forthcoming Festschrift for J. PRUSEK deal~. 1D particular with the evaluation of Lin by scholars of the late Ming and early Ch mg periods. 13 I am indebted to Mr. CHoo Chin Tow (14) of Singapore who first drew my atte~tion to the San-i chiao temples at Kuala Lumpur by his unpublished Master's thes~s (University of Malaya) of 1968 Some Sociological Aspects of Chinese Temples m Kuala Lump ur (in Chinese) and later located the temples at Singapore. ( 10) 'J'fgp P] ~:}.( (14) *~71 ( 11) ili:ii~ (12) ra,!f?lft (15) ~,~,7fül,iii'JJ,'8 122

The biggest temple is Chiu-li tung [ 16 1, "Nine-Carps-Grotto", at Tiwary Road, corner of Muar Road (fig. 2). Smaller temples are Ch'iung-san t'ang 1 7 1, 347 Thompson Road (fig.

3 The biggest temple is Chiu-li tung [ 16 1, "Nine-Carps-Grotto", at Tiwary Road, corner of Muar Road (fig. 2). Smaller temples are Ch'iung-san t'ang 1 7 1, 347 Thompson Road (fig. 3), T'ien-shu t'ang 1 8 1, 18 Petain Road, established in 1964 (fig. 4), T'ien-hsing tz'u 1 9 1, Kampong Potong Pasir (oft Meyappa Chettiar Road, off Upper Serangoon Road) (fig. 5), and Hsing-sheng kung , in the upper floor of 280 A Changi Road, 5 miles 14 Most temples are kept up by people from Hsing-hua. They speak a particular dialect. It was common in Singapore and elsewhere in Malaysia, and seems to a certain degree still tobe the case today, that people speaking the same dialect "formed associations clearly centered upon particular temples" 15 Chiu-li tung is situated in the midst of an area of motor car spare part and repair shops, a profession carried on in particular by Hsing-hua people. But, in some cases, such as T'ien-shu t'ang important members of the Board of Trustees, Tung-shihhui , originate from Fu-ch'ing [ 22 1 county, which adjoins P'u-t'ien in the North and belongs to Fu-chou Prefecture, or even come from one of the counties of former Ch'üan-chou Prefecture in the South. The better equipped temples have idols of Confucius, Lao-tzu, and Sakyamuni. In every temple, however, the idol of Lin Chao-en, the Faunder of the Three-in-One Doctrine, San-i chiao-chu, also called Hsia-wu-ni , is worshipped (fig. 6). Usually he has at least two associates (p'ei ), the Taoist adepts and "True Men", Chen-jen [ 25 1, Chang San-feng [ 26 1 to his left, and Cho Wan-ch'un to his right (fig. 7). The formerwas from Southern Manchuria and lived in the early Ming period 16, the latter came from Hsing-hua and was a friend of Lin Chao-en 17. Quite often the Faunder of the Three-in-One Doctrine has additional associates, such as the Taoists Lu Shih-yüan , Hsieh Yüan-hui , Wang Ch'eng-kuang [ 30 1, and Ch'en Shan-te [ 31 1 (see below); so far none of these can be identified. In some temples further idols of popular saints and deities are worshipped, such as Kuan-yin, T'ai-i chen-jen , Ch'it'ien ta-sheng , Hsüan-t'an yüan-shuai , and others 18. On a scroll kept 14 The temple with the same name at 605 Bukit Timah Road is likewise kept up by people from Hsiang-hua, but it has no relation to the Three-in-One Doctrine. 15 Maurice FREEDMAN and Marjorie ToPLEY, "Religion and Social realignment among the Chinese in Singapore", JAS 21, 1, 1961, p. 7.- The authors, however, do not mention the Three-in-One Doctrine, nor does Marjorie ToPLEY in her paper, "The emergence and social function of Chinese religious associations in Singapore", Comparative Studies in Society and History III, 3, 1961, pp , or in L.A. FALLERS (ed.), Immigrantsand Associations, The Hague 1967, pp See DKW J (2); Pa-shih-chiu chung Ming-tai chuan-chi tsung-ho yin-te, Ha~vard-Yenching Institute, Peiping 1935, III, 59b; E. T. C. WER1 ER, A Dictionary of Chmese Mythology, Shanghai 1932, pp ~ 7 See Fu-chien t'ung-chih (ed. 1868) 263, 57a-b; (Hsing-hua Iu) P'u-t'ien hsienchih (ed. 1758/ 1926) 32,4b-6b. 18 They all are mentioned by E. T. C. WERNER, Ioc. eil. (n. 16) andin other pertinent reference works. (16) :fl~!wlj (17) ~-=.g: (18) :R.g: (19) :R't1:ifffiJ (20) ~Mf~ (21) I~-wt (22) m;rn: (23) ILffß (24) ~G (25) lf.a (26) ~* (27)!j!B~* (28) Jil±:lG (29) W:lG~ (30) :EnX:J't (31) ~t~~ (32) 7.:.."G1f.A (33) ;pf:r*~ (34) ~:tf:lggrtj 123

4 at Ch'iung-san t'ang a whole pantheon of the Three-in-One Doctrine is painted (fig. 8). On the top are Sakyamuni, K'ung-tzu, and Lao-tzu. In the second row the Faunder of the Three-in-One Doctrine, Lin Chao-en, accompagnied by Chu Hui-hsü and Lin Chen-ming on the left, and Lu Hsing-ju (Wenhui) (37) and Chang I-lin to his right. They are all called "master", tu-tzu. Lu Wen-hui is known as a pupil and foliower of Lin, but the identity of the three others cannot as yet be established. In the third row there is Buddha Maitreya, Mi-lo-fo, in the centre, accompanied by Lin Chao-en's followers Tung Shih on the left and Ch' en Chung-yü on the right. Both were from Hsing-hua, lived during the late Ming and early Ch'ing periods, and were engaged in the publication of Lin Chao-en's writings 19 The bottom-row is flanked by the legendary Bodhisattvas Chia-lan , Sangarama 20, on the left, and Wei-t'o , Veda, guardians of Buddhist temples 21 In the centre there is the "True Man" Chang San-feng, to the right the "True Man" Cho Wanch'un, and to his left Ho Hsin-yin The inclusion of the latteras an adherent of the Three-in-One Doctrine is remarkable. Ho Hsin-yin ( ) 22 was a non-conformist comparable to Lin Chao-en and Li Chih. He is said to have visited Lin Chao-en when he travelled to Fukien in , and to have praised Lin's writings 23, but it is not known that he shared Lin's ideas on the amalgamation of the Three Doctrines or even became a foliower of the Threein-One Doctrine. This scroll, as well as all Three-in-One Doctrine temples, Blustrate the religious syncretism taught and practised by that sect. Sometimes the Taoistelement seems to predominate over Buddhist and Confucian elements. Chiu-li tung preserves two stone-inscriptions dated 1948 and 1954 (figs. 9 and 1 0); these afford some information on the Three-in-One Doctrine in Southest Asia and on the history of the temple. In particular it shows the very strong Taoistelement in the Three-in-One Doctrine of recent time. This trend towards Taoism was, however, not dominating in the writings of Lin Chao-en himself. Quite to the contrary, Lin advocated that "the Three Doctrines should be united in Confucianism and take K'ung-tzu as master" ; he was merely "a Taoist-inclined Confucianist" 25 The text of the first Chiu-li tung inscription reads as follows 26 : 19 See the preface of Lin-tzu pen-hsing shih-lu, reprint P'u-t'ien See E. T. C. WERNER, loc. cit. (n. 16}, pp See ibid. pp Seehis biography in Draft Ming Biographies No. 14, See the biography of LIN Chae-en in Draft Ming Biographies 6, 1966, p See SAKAI, Joc. cit. (p. 122}, pp Lm, loc. eil. (n. 12), p I am indebted to Professor Jao Tsung-i, University of Singapore, for gtvmg me a first copy of the inscription which I compared with the original text in October At the sametime I copied the second inscription. (35) *~~ (39) I~ ( 43) fpj Je,, ~ 124 ( 36) ~~'*Jl ajj ( 37) lil~tzu t x c 40) ~~~~ ( 44) ~fiiifi*1l c 41) fbne C3sJ ~a tt (42) -~x

Stone tablet in memory of the public construction of the Nine-Carps Grotto: We can trace the origins of the doctrine of the Holy Immortals (Hsien) 27 in our country back to Kuang Ch'eng-tzu at the

5 Stone tablet in memory of the public construction of the Nine-Carps Grotto: We can trace the origins of the doctrine of the Holy Immortals (Hsien) 27 in our country back to Kuang Ch'eng-tzu at the time of the Yellow Emperor 28. It is recorded in the historical traditions. Through more then five thousand years the Tao [of this doctrine] has been successively truthfully transmitted. During the Chien-yüan period of the Han dynasty ( B. C.), when our Min area had not yet come under the administration of the Empire, first the nine brothers of the Ho family went there travelling to the district of Hsing-hua. They lived a the Nine-Carps-Lake, cultivated themselves, and became senior Holy Immortals29. Therefore this county was named Hsien-yu, uwhere the Holy Immortals travel u 30 On the island P'u-hsi in the Southeast of the sea 31 there lived the Holy Immortal's elder Lu Shih-yüan, and the masters Hsieh (Yüan-hui), Wang (Ch'eng-kuang), and Ch'en (Shan-te) 32 who tagether cultivated the excellent [tradition of the] Tao of the Holy Immortals. Their descendants built dykes for protection against the sea and prepared arable land, and they also established the county of P'ut'ien ss. Since ancient times the mountains at the Nine-Carps-Lake area have been a natural scenery for Holy Immortals. The recent investigations for water-conservancy are farnaus in China and abroad 34 Moreover, during the Sung and Ming dynasties, one after another the filial 27 On the meaning of this term see J. NEEDHAM, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 2, Cambridge 1956, pp. 39 and The term is used herein a rather vague meaning. 28 A legendary Taoist eremite at the time of the Yellow Emperor. See DKWJ ~ During the period of Yüan-shou ( B. C.) the nine brothers Ho from Lin-ju in present Honan are said to have come to the Iake and practised alchemy (lien-tan) They were successful and each of them mounted a carp, which transformed itself into a dragon and went away as Holy Immortals. See (Hsing-hua-fu) P'u-t'ien hsien-chieh (ed. 1758/1926) 32, la-b; DKWJ LIN Chao-en is reported to have visited this lake in See Lin-tzu pen-hsing shih-lu , ed. 1939, 7a. Good coloured photographs of the Nine-Carps-Lake are contained in Magnificent China, ed. by Wu Luen Tak, 2nd. ed., Hongkong 1968, pp , p. 31, and pp Established as apart of P'u-t'ien in Sheng-li 2, 699 A.D., later as Ch'ing-yüan 1 48 } county, renamed Hsien-yu during the early T'ien-pao period ( ). See ~KWJ according to Tu-shih fang-yü chi-yao; Hsin T'ang-shu (ed. Wu-chou t ung-wen) 41, 13b, which gives the first year T'ien-pao, P'u-hsi has been identified as a small island near to Mei-chou yü The four names could not be identified (see above}. P'u-t'ien hsien-chih, sect. Hsien-shih chuan 32, 2a, mentions only a certain Holy Immertal named Ch'en for the Sung period. 33 First established in 589, then abolished, and re-established in 622. See DKW J according to Tu-shih fang-yü chi-yao; P'u-t'ien hsien-chih 1,3a. 34 About three quarters of P'u-t'ien hsien-chih eh. 2 deals with water conservancy, shui-ji. (45) ~~ (46) ~f]- c 48) m~ c 49) fmlf (50) 7J m!dgli! 125

daughter Lin, who was canonized as Heavenly Ernpress and Holy Mother 3 5, the utrue Man u Cho Wan-ch'un 36, and the Founder of the Doctrine Lin Lung-chiang {i.e. Lin Chao-en) who put his faith in the amalgamation ofthe Three Doctrines, became famous.

6 daughter Lin, who was canonized as Heavenly Ernpress and Holy Mother 3 5, the utrue Man u Cho Wan-ch'un 36, and the Founder of the Doctrine Lin Lung-chiang {i.e. Lin Chao-en) who put his faith in the amalgamation ofthe Three Doctrines, became famous. Sacrificial rites for the Holy Immortals and sages and temples were established everywhere in China and abroad. Many years have passed already since the idols of the Holy Immortals came to the South; they widely spread the right doctrine (i. e. the Three-in-One Doctrine), set forth testimonies, made me believe in the faith, and saved and helped the people to prepare against calamities and to ward off evil. From 1944 onwards when Singapore was under Japanese occupation for five years, redemption festivals 37 were held and, on eight occasions, religious ceremonies were observed. Their virtue covered far and near; their achievement spread everywhere among ghosts and men. People of our faith made provisions to start construction work but have not yet finished the whole work. When in the Autumn of 1945 victory in the war was achieved, the Grotto had been completed and rules were fixed to held a redemption festival every ten years (Chia! 54 1 years) in order to commemorate it. The adherents of the Doctrine as weil as good and believing women compatriots contributed funds under very difficult conditions with great enthusiasm. They collected the I arge amount of more than dollars. Thus they completed the precious covered seat (for the Founder of the Doctrine) for ten thousand years and established fragrant offerings for a hundred generations. To recompense virtue and to exalt merit we have engraved this stone tablet for everlasting transmission. Composed by Kuan Ch'iung-k'ai from Chin-chiang of P'u-yang (= P'u-t'ien), a foliower of the Doctrine, who was 61 years of age when he respectfully washed hirnself to write this inscription. (Then the names of the initiators and sponsors follow.) On a lucky day in the first moon of the 37th year of the Chinese Republic, wu-tzu (1948), the trustees initiating and aiding the building and the treasurer and followers of the Doctrine Liu Yüan-Iin together with their friends set up this stone. 35 Sixth daughter of a certain Lin Yüan (51). She lived in the late 10th or early 11th century, died at a young age, and was worshipped later under various, nclflles as the goddess of the sea. She is best known as Ma-tsu [ Lin was from P u-t Ien. See P'u-t'ien hsien-chih 32, 2a-4b; DKWJ ; Bodo WIETHOFF, "Der staatliche Ma-tsu Kultu, ZDMG 116, 2, 1966, pp ; De GRooT, Les fetes annuellement celebrees a Emoui, Paris 1886, Vol. 1, pp See above note P'u-tu [ 53 1: Religious ceremonies and offerings, primarily Buddhist, for the redemption of living men as weil as of the spirits of the dead. See DKWJ ; DE GRooT, loc. cit. vol. II, p (51) t*!! (52) t~tll (53) -tt-~ (54) Efl 126

7 127

The second inscription reads as follows: Stone tablet in memory of the second big redemption festival held each decade in the Nine-Carps-Grotto in 1954.

8 The second inscription reads as follows: Stone tablet in memory of the second big redemption festival held each decade in the Nine-Carps-Grotto in The history of our doctrine of the excellent law has been already described in detail on the other stone tablet. When in 1944 the first redemption festival was held and extensive construction work was started, the difficulties caused by the J apanese occupation 38 prevented the completion of the Grotto. The Holy Immortals master prophesied that by the Autumn of 1945 there would be victory in China and Europe. And actually it happened this way and the Grotto was completed. A vow was taken to open widely once every ten years the gate of the law [of our Doctrine]. This year we have invited trustees from in and outside the Doctrine, have trained masters in the canonical scriptures of the Three Doctrines, and have assembled former Mu-lien 39 actors. Con-. 38 Chao-nan, Shönan [ 55 1 was the Japanese designation of Singapore during th.. e time of occupation, See: Lee Ting-Hui, "Singapore under the Japanese NYHP XVII, 1961, Pt. 1, pp Moginlin or Maudgalyayama, the main person in a Buddhist legend pe: fonned on the stage too. Apparently the Three-in-One Doctrine has taken over this custom from Buddhism in connection with its festivals of redemption. See DKW_J : DE GROOT, Joc. cit., vol. 11, pp : E.T.C. WERNER, Joc. Cll. (n. 16), pp (55) BlH~ 128

9 tributions were asked for in order to complete the place for the redemption festival, to contruct a worship shelter with iron pillars and, so as to preserve a recorded history [of the temple] to erect in the main hall a stone tablet which clearly records the fragrant names of the trustees and of those having contributed more than twenty dollars, and two copper tablets which record in succession the fragrant names of the masters in the canonical scriptures, of the actors and of all those having contributed more than five dollars 40 The necessary expenses amounted altogether to more than 26,000 dollars Singapore currency. So that in future permanent memory might be incited. Again composed and written by (Kuan) Ch'iung-k'ai at the age of 66. (The names of the trustees and of the donors with the amount each of them had contributed follow) Publicly set up on the day chia-wu in the seventh moon of Chia-wu, the 43rd year of the Chinese Republic (6 August 1954). 1L -~! ~ro) f!f ~.::. )t 2!. 'f k -t Jt.~e.. -tr!. ~~ ~ 4_ i~' ~~ 1f lt -:~I~~ *- ~ 1: ~ ~' oo, ft 8 ~ ~ J ~ 1( ~~ fg "_.;. J:. #. -~~ A... " The two copper tabl~t~ are fixed on tb~ wall of t~e temple belü.n~ *e stones. I i I ', 1 l29

10 /~.il. 0 It is evident from these inscriptions that to this day the Three-in-One-Doctrine is a living religious sect among the Chinese in Singapore. Inscriptions are thus not only of historical interest, but they may also be relevant to the understanding of the present. They are read by living people and may have an influence on their thinking and perhaps even on their actions. (Tobe continued) 130

11 .-, t 1. Lin Chao-en's tomb at P'u-t'ien. Taken in 1957 from an earlier photo dating proba hly from the 1920s or 1930s.

12 2. Chiu-li tung 3. Ch'iung-san t'ang

13 4. T'. Ien-shu t ' ang

14 5. T'ien-hsing tz'u 6. Idol of San-i chiao-chu in T'ien-shu l'ang

15 7. San -i dliao-chu with four associates: Chang San-feng, Cho Wan-ch'un, Hsüan-t'an yüc:n-shuai and Wei-t'o. From a photograph (kept in T'ien-hsing tz'u) of a painting. 8. San-i chiao pantheon of Ch'iung-san t'ang

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MEDICINE IN CHINA A History of Pharmaceutics

MEDICINE IN CHINA A History of Pharmaceutics * PAUL U. UNSCHULD UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley Los Angeles London Contents Illustrations and Supplementary Material Acknowledgments xiii A. Introduction