Absolute certainty and asouzu s transcendent unity of consciousness
|
|
- Leslie Newton
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES ISSN Print: , ISSN Online: , doi: /ajsms , ScienceHuβ, Absolute certainty and asouzu s transcendent unity of consciousness Bisong, Peter Bisong and Udo, Inameti Lawrence ABSTRACT It is generally believed that epistemology grew out of the sceptic challenge of the sophists. The sophists argued and taught that no knowledge is certain. These teachings woke up philosophers who attempted to show why knowledge could be certain. Right from the days of Socrates and Plato therefore, philosophers have battled strenuously to show that certain knowledge is possible and attempted to provide the best route to arrive at such knowledge. It is however, unfortunate that this quest has not yielded a satisfactory result. This has made a lot of philosophers to give up the search in despair and has resulted in the postmodern thinking, where attacks are directed at absolutes. Innocent Asouzu is one of the few philosophers who still believe in the possibility of attaining absolute certainty. This work therefore, surveys Asouzu Ibuanyidanda philosophy with the intent of unravelling his doctrine of absolute certainty. With this new insight into the way to absolute certainty given by Asouzu, this research hopes to quench the despair philosophers are presently enveloped in and thus, arouse anew the desire in them to theorize on absolute certainty. The research through Asouzu ideas would show why the various theories of knowledge failed in their attempt to reach absolute knowledge and thereby provide them with a better method to go about their quest. Keywords: Absolute certainty, transcendent unity of consciousness, truth and authenticity criterion INTRODUCTION Innocent Asouzu is an African philosopher who is the founder of the philosophical movement known as ibuanyidandaism. Ibuanyidanda (which means no load is insurmountable for danda the ant) is derived from three Igbo words: ibu meaning load or task, anyi meaning not insurmountable for and danda which means a species of ants. This idea of Ibuanyidanda connotes to the Igbo people the importance of mutual dependence and interdependence in complementarity. As the ants when working in unison and complementarity could lift loads that appear heavier than them, the African philosophers believe that humans could achieve or solve difficult tasks when acting in complementarity. Thus they hold that, for anything to claim existence, it has to fulfil a minimum condition, which subsists in its commitment to a mutual complementary relationship between it and the other units with which it shares a common framework (Asouzu, Ibuanyidanda 11-12). The philosophy of Ibuanyidanda was therefore, contrived based on Asouzu s personal knowledge of authentic African traditions in Igbo community. The world view of the traditional Africans he claims, shows to a large extent, strong moments of the transcendent ontological categories of unity, totality, universality, comprehensiveness, wholeness and future referentiality as authentic dimensions of thoroughgoing complementarity (Heinz, A Reaction to Innocent Asouzu 10). Based on this African worldview therefore, Asouzu regards reality as an allembracing whole, where all missing links of reality exist in complementarity. Being is not seen by this philosophy in its old traditional clothing, but as that on account of which anything that exists serves a missing link of reality (Asouzu Ibuanyidanda 10). Thus, a thing can be said to exist, it has the capacity to be grasped within the framework of mutual complementary relationship of all existent realities. Failure to perceive being as missing links of realities as many philosophers and thinkers are wont to do will lead to polarization, fragmentation, bifurcation, reduction, hegemonic tendencies and negative wisdom. This paper attempts an exposition of ibuanyidandaism version of how to reach certainty in knowledge through complementarity. The quest for absolute certainty: Absolutely certain knowledge is one that is indubitably true and as such no scepticism can occur. It is knowledge that is infinitely correct in every way and relates every idea to every other idea. Philosophy generally seeks this state of absolute certainty, and over the years has been in its pursuit. It is to grasps this state that Plato
2 postulated the world of Forms as a place where certitude could be found. It was in search of absolute knowledge that Aristotle the disciple of Plato bifurcate reality into two substance and accidents. Substance is that which is not predicated of a subject, but of which all else is predicated. (1625). Thus substance for Aristotle when grasped fully by the mind produces absolute knowledge. The quest for this absolute knowledge also led Rene Descartes to the cogito argument which ends up postulating reason as the seat of absolute knowledge. Other rationalists followed his lead in upholding absolute knowledge to be a product of reason. On the other hand, John Locke and other empiricists located absolute knowledge in sense experience. The pragmatists on their part claim that, what is absolutely true is what works in practical life. The traditional African philosophers believe that with recourse to the supernatural, man could know with certainty. Other strands of philosophy with their own idea of how to attain absolute certainty abound. In spite of the efforts by philosophers over the years, the controversy as to absolute certainly and its mode of attainment is still on and has led to a lot of people giving up in despair. For instance, Voltaire exclaimed in despair, doubt is not a pleasant condition, but certainty is absurd. ( Carlo Rovellli adds, Certainty in real life is useless or often damaging ( sherlock-observation-deduction). According to Ozumba, to insist on absolute certainty is completely outside the scope of human knowledge and will doubtless make epistemology an unnatural enquiry that is simply idealistic (100). Innocent Asouzu is one of the philosophers that still believe absolute certainty is possible and attainable. But he believes this in a radically different way from the way majority of thinkers believe this. To Plato and Aristotle who bifurcated the world into two (for Plato, the sensible and the intelligible, for Aristotle, substance and accident), Asouzu would think of them as having a mythological mindset which sees the world in a divided mood. Asouzu calls this the worst form of superstition (Ibuaru 101) and declares that knowledge in terms of grasping the cause can only occur in the ontological horizon of Ibuanyidanda. To the traditional African philosophers who see the world only in terms of the transcendental, Asouzu would think of them as reductionists, which he describes as supernaturalism. To the empiricists and the rationalists who see the world in terms of what is experienced by the senses and what is grasped by reason respectively, he accuses of a form of reduction, he calls scientism. Supernaturalism according to Asouzu is a form of reduction that sees things only in the transcendental, and dismisses all knowledge claims that cannot be seen in this plane. In supernaturalistic reduction, we are dealing with that situation where the mind submits to the existence of supernatural forces and believes that the explanation of all complex situations can be reduced only to ideas drawn from these forces and allied phenomena (Asouzu, Ibuaru ). This approach to reality for Asouzu, divides, discriminates, conceals unduly, creates cognitive barriers and most importantly creates special types of laws and conditions needed to penetrate its claims. Thus, only those in possession of these conditions and laws could obtain knowledge. The other type of reduction called scientism Asouzu claims is overburdened with the tendency towards extremism (Ibuaru 102). Empiricism and rationalism for him negate the complementary nature of all missing links in their mutual interrelatedness by their introducing an artificial divide in their dealing with phenomena. Scientism has that mindset he claims, that makes human person the ultimate arbiter in all matters of inquiry, and which can always be called in to intervene at very critical moments in the form of dues ex machine (Ibuaru 103). Supernaturalism makes recourse to the transcendental alone shunning the human reason and other forms of acquisition of knowledge. Scientism on the other hand, enthrones reason or data gotten from sense experience as the only authentic source of certitude shunning other possible forms of knowing. The same is true of pragmatism, which tends to divide reality into what works in practical life and what does not. The former is considered as truth and the later false. To divide reality this way to Ibuanyidandaism is a crime that has hindered the grasping of being making philosophy so abstruse and abstract devoid of life to the common man. To assume that insight based on pure reason or sense experience is the only admissible credible foundation for valid knowledge means that what cannot be explained rationally or by reference to some testable data, remains perpetually false. To assume also that the plane for certain knowledge is the supernatural means that any knowledge that cannot be explained in this plane is nonexistent. And 40
3 also to assume that what works in practical life is truth means that what cannot be proven to work is false. Asouzu sees these forms of reduction which many theories of knowledge are based on as limited and could lead to hegemonic wisdom. He avers that the Mind could make true explanation of reality impossible where it places falsehood to resources unknown to it or where it unduly dismisses those regions of reality not immediately accessible to it as irrational, the mind find itself in a form of self imposed delimitation, which can make true explanation of reality impossible (Ibuaru 103). When this happen Asouzu claims, the mind is restricted in operations to known causes alone, such that explanation does not attain that level of refinement arising from comprehensiveness similar to the nature of reality. Reality is comprehensive, thus, every explanation or claim to knowledge must be comprehensive enough to capture it. On the basis of this tendency to reductionism and polarization of reality by philosophers and thinkers all over the world Asouzu claim that certainty in knowledge will continually elude us. Unlike these two forms of reduction, Asouzu Ibuanyidanda recognizes the fact that human consciousness is not predetermined based on some sets of immutable laws. For Ibuanyidanda, all missing links are windows to reality and the way we manage them determines the level of truth we arrive at. To attain certainty, he introduced the concepts transcendent categories of the unity of consciousness. He therefore opines that, if we allow the mind to act in full harmony with the dictates of the transcendent categories it can never err (Ibuanyidanda 324). It is when the mind performs its operation in keeping with the dictate of these transcendent categories that it can never err. Asouzu s transcendent categories of unity of consciousness: Asouzu believes that the mind can only have a clear and evident intuition of being not through reduction, but when it operates in keeping with the transcendent categories of unity of consciousness. When it operates in keeping with the transcendent categories, it recognizes the complementary relationship that exists in all beings. This is why he claims that, that mind is fit and healthy in which the transcendent categories of the unity of consciousness, acts as its active ingredient or forms remain operative (Ibuanyidanda 327). On the contrary therefore, we could say that, that mind is unhealthy which does not act according to the dictates of the transcendent categories. Such minds Asouzu believes, would not reach absolute certainty. This is because it is the categories that aid the mind to perceive all beings in their fragmentation and relativity, and also in full consciousness of the comprehensive, whole future reference dimension of their determination it is when being is captured this way that the subject grasps it real nature. The transcendent categories according to Asouzu are the forms of the mind through which the harmonising faculty (Obi/mmuo eziokwu) secures the transcendent experience of the mind, so that its action is beyond all forms of arbitrariness and divisiveness. There are the natural forms or windows through which the mind perceives reality. But sometimes these forms are concealed, so that the mind no longer sees reality through them, thereby leading it to error. These transcendent categories, the mind operates with include: fragmentation (relativity), unity, totality, universality, comprehensiveness, wholeness and future reference (Asouzu, Ibuanyidanda 323). Whenever the mind grasps a thing with the full applicability of this, it can never err; in order words, the knowledge acquired would be certain. When the categories are totally active in an individual, Asouzu believes such an individual would capture being in its totality, relativity, comprehensiveness and future reference. When all the categories are not active, an individual could capture being only in fragmentation or universality and not in all its essential determination, thereby leading to error. This is the case with the empiricists, rationalists, pragmatists, supernaturalists, etc would capture being from one determination, in total neglect of others. One whose transcendent categories are fully active, would capture being in its fragmentation (relativity), unity, totality, universality, comprehensiveness, wholeness and future reference. However, for a subject to be able to grasps a given reality in keeping with all the transcendent categories, what Asouzu calls, the harmonizing faculty must be in charge. The harmonizing faculty is the faculty that harmonises all forces that tends toward divisiveness, bifurcation, polarization and exclusiveness it regulates our ambivalent tension laden existential situation and thereby bringing it in control (Asouzu, Ibuanyidanda 316). The harmonising faculty is the seat of equilibration, which regulates our ambivalent tension and brings it in control. This ambivalent tension has the capacity to lead the mind astray so that it becomes hegemonic and run towards polarization and bifurcation. But when the 41
4 harmonising faculty is in control, it regulates our ambivalent tensions and makes the mind able to grasp reality through the transcendent categories. Most people are not able to operate in keeping with the transcendent categories, because their minds have been led astray by the ambivalent existential conditions and the phenomenon of concealment. Reality presents itself to us in ambivalences: good bad, superior inferior, powerful weak, rich poor, et cetera. The phenomenon of concealment often conceals the mind from these ambivalences of life, and thus making it to pursue and affirm one side of these ambivalences in total negation of the other side of the ambivalence that is also important. For instance, the mind concealed by the phenomenon of concealment could tend to affirm and uphold the existence of those closest to it, negating those who are not so close (the other side of the ambivalence). It is also the case where the poor are negated and the rich affirmed in all aspect of societal life including religious houses. The harmonising faculty works on the phenomenon of concealment, bringing them in control, so as the divide we often encounter in our daily lives would be bridged. When the harmonising faculty is at work therefore, the rich and the poor, the strong and the weak, members of one s ethnic closet and non members would all be captured and equally affirmed as members of the same complementary horizon. When the harmonising faculty is functional in individuals, exaltation and upholding of one s perspective, idea or opinion in total negation of the others would give way to the affirmation of the others viewpoints as units that add up to the complementary whole which becomes absolute certainty. The harmonising faculty in its capacity as the seat of mediation and equilibration of all existential tensions, harmonizes all differences in reality to a complementary absolute whole. Asouzu avers: it is when we are imbued with this type of mindset that we have better chances of capturing being in its dynamic essentiality, truly, insightfully and authentically, and can share or communicate it content in the knowledge and experience of missing links in their fragmentary relational essentially devoid of ambivalences (Ibuanyidanda 321). It is therefore from this transcendent mindset that we are capable of encountering the opposite other in its otherness and embrace the otherness as an extension of ego without discrimination. Truth and authenticity criterion as the regulatior of the transcendent categories: Truth and authenticity criterion according to Asouzu is the measure by which we can state if a thing conforms to demands of the principles, method and imperative of complementarity as far as these are founded on the principle of non-contradiction. (Complementary Reflection 310). The demand of this criterion is that we never elevate a world immanent missing link to an absolute instance (Ibuaru 197). It urges us to always concede to the type of unity existing between world immanent realities and the foundation of all existing realities (Ibuanyidanda, 320). This means that all truth and knowledge claims must relate to the totality and comprehensiveness of being as the foundation of all existent realities. When this is so, we could claim certainty. Getting at truth and authenticity is a transcendent act according to Asouzu, whereby the mind seeks to go beyond the immediacy. Therefore in all matters of truth and authenticity, the mind seeks the best possible way to comprehend and explain facts totally and comprehensively this is its natural propensity. This is why all experiences that are not directed to the universal, total and comprehensive dimension of what is expected to be explained, would hardly give us an authentic and true insight into what we want. And when we do not have authentic and true insight into being, we cannot claim certainty. Therefore any truth claim that ignores the relativity of human existential situation as to state apriori and apodictally what the case would be in all situations and fails to acknowledge the fragmentary and referential nature of all missing links of reality is bound to err (complementary Reflection 315). The truth and authenticity of all modes of reality depends on how far the mind recognizes the total, comprehensive and ultimate foundation, which gives legitimacy to their existence. Truth and authenticity criterion also serves as a regulative mechanism which checks against misuse and helps to minimize error of judgement in all contentious and difficult existential situations of life (Complementary Reflection 317). Therefore all actions and claims to knowledge that concur to the demands of truth and authenticity criterion cannot err, since this criterion binds internally and externally. Thus, those statements, decisions, actions, claims to knowledge are authentic which conform to demands of truth and authenticity criteria you must not elevate a world immanent missing link to an absolute mode (Ibuaru 197). This implies that any knowledge claim or theory of knowledge that raises itself to an absolute mode cannot be certain. Empiricism, 42
5 rationalism, pragmatisms and other reductionist s theories of knowledge that see themselves as absolute, bridge the truth and authenticity criterion of Asouzu. All knowledge claims according to Asouzu, agree with the truth and authenticity criterion if it does not breach the harmonious unity existing in realities that is, when it captures being in a comprehensive, total and future referential and proleptic manner (Complementary Reflection 316). All experiences and knowledge claims that do not encompass the universal, total and comprehensive dimension of what is expected to be explained would rarely give us any authentic insight into the actual nature of that thing we inquire after. CONCLUSION Ibuanyidanda philosophy as propounded by Asouzu is, against bifurcating and reductionist tendencies of some theories and asserts that in all modes of explanation, there is always something left unexplained and unattended to. This could be explained using the story of the four blind men that experienced the elephant. One touched the tail of the elephant and exclaimed that the elephant is like a snake. Another touched the leg and explained that the elephant is like a trunk of tree. Another touched the stomach and explained that the elephant is like a wall. The fourth touch the ear and explained that elephant is like mushroom. Ibuanyidanda philosophy recognizes that, the ideas of the four blind men with respect to the elephant have some degree of truth. But when one blind man attempts to make his position absolute, negating the view of the others, it leads to error in knowledge. This is exactly what the empiricists, rationalists, pragmatists, supernaturalist and other claims to knowledge that see their position as absolute falls into. Absolute knowledge of the elephant according to Ochulor is all that the blind men defined it to be and much more. (Logical Thinking). Similarly, absolute knowledge or certainty to Ibuanyidanda philosophy goes beyond all that the empiricists, rationalists, pragmatists, supernaturalists individually believe. Because no single experience, taken on its own is sufficient as a guarantor for truth. Thus, all experiences that are not directed to the universal, total and comprehensive dimension of what is expected to be explained would hardly give us an authentic and true insight into what we want (Complementary Reflection 314). Not seeing reality this way according to Asouzu, would lead to error in judgement and knowledge. To capture being truly, one must operate with a global mindset. Any attempt to capture being in its absolute mode of existence leads to error of judgement as is the case with the blind men that tried to capture the whole elephant through part of it. To capture being in a global mindset means grasping being through the transcendent categories of unity of consciousness which are fragmentation, unity, totality, universality, comprehensiveness, wholeness and future reference. These concepts are held into place the harmonising faculty, without which the transcendent categories cannot be operative. REFERENCES Aristotle (1984). The Complete Works of Aristotle. Ed. J. Barnes. Princeton University Press. Asouzu, I. (2007). Ibuanyidanda; New Complementary Ontology beyond World-Immanetism, Ethnocentric Reduction and Impositions. Zweigniederlassung Zurich; Litverlag GmBh & Co. KG Wien. Asouzu, I (2007). Ibuaru; The Heavy Burden of Philosophy beyond African Philosophy. Zweigniederlassung Zurich; Litverlag GmBh & Co. KG Wien. Asouzu, I. (2004). The Method and Principles of Contemporary Reflection in and beyond African Philosophy. Calabar: University of Calabar Press. Ochulor, C. (2009). The Logical Thinking and Strategic Planning. Calabar: Focus Prints & Publishers. Ozumba G. (2001). A Concise Introduction to Epistemology. Calabar: Jochrisam publishers. Rovelli, C. (2013). How to Develop Sherlock Holmes-Like Powers of Observation and Deduction Retrieved April 21, Voltaire. The Importance of Doubt, Asking Questions and Not Knowing. 43
Ibuanyidanda (Complementary Reflection), African Philosophy and General Issues in Philosophy
HOME Ibuanyidanda (Complementary Reflection), African Philosophy and General Issues in Philosophy Back to Home Page: http://www.frasouzu.com/ for more essays from a complementary perspective THE IDEA OF
More informationIbuanyidanda (Complementary Reflection), African Philosophy and General Issues in Philosophy
HOME Ibuanyidanda (Complementary Reflection), African Philosophy and General Issues in Philosophy Back to Home Page: http://www.frasouzu.com/ for more essays from a complementary perspective Essays on
More informationThe abortion debate: a contribution from Ibuanyidanda perspective
Online Journal of Health Ethics Volume 12 Issue 2 Article 6 The abortion debate: a contribution from Ibuanyidanda perspective Peter B. Bisong University of Calabar, pbbisong@yahoo.com Joseph N. Ogar University
More informationComplementary Ethics
HOME Ibuanyidanda (Complementary Reflection), African Philosophy and General Issues in Philosophy Back to Home Page: http://www.frasouzu.com/ for more essays from a complementary perspective Complementary
More informationCan Christianity be Reduced to Morality? Ted Di Maria, Philosophy, Gonzaga University Gonzaga Socratic Club, April 18, 2008
Can Christianity be Reduced to Morality? Ted Di Maria, Philosophy, Gonzaga University Gonzaga Socratic Club, April 18, 2008 As one of the world s great religions, Christianity has been one of the supreme
More informationThe Middle Path: A Case for the Philosophical Theologian. Leo Strauss roots the vitality of Western civilization in the ongoing conflict between
Lee Anne Detzel PHI 8338 Revised: November 1, 2004 The Middle Path: A Case for the Philosophical Theologian Leo Strauss roots the vitality of Western civilization in the ongoing conflict between philosophy
More informationTHE STUDY OF UNKNOWN AND UNKNOWABILITY IN KANT S PHILOSOPHY
THE STUDY OF UNKNOWN AND UNKNOWABILITY IN KANT S PHILOSOPHY Subhankari Pati Research Scholar Pondicherry University, Pondicherry The present aim of this paper is to highlights the shortcomings in Kant
More informationAspects of Western Philosophy Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly Department of Humanities and Social Sciences Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Aspects of Western Philosophy Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly Department of Humanities and Social Sciences Indian Institute of Technology, Madras Module - 21 Lecture - 21 Kant Forms of sensibility Categories
More informationThe Paradox of the stone and two concepts of omnipotence
Filo Sofija Nr 30 (2015/3), s. 239-246 ISSN 1642-3267 Jacek Wojtysiak John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin The Paradox of the stone and two concepts of omnipotence Introduction The history of science
More information24.01 Classics of Western Philosophy
1 Plan: Kant Lecture #2: How are pure mathematics and pure natural science possible? 1. Review: Problem of Metaphysics 2. Kantian Commitments 3. Pure Mathematics 4. Transcendental Idealism 5. Pure Natural
More informationA Brief History of Thinking about Thinking Thomas Lombardo
A Brief History of Thinking about Thinking Thomas Lombardo "Education is nothing more nor less than learning to think." Peter Facione In this article I review the historical evolution of principles and
More informationThe British Empiricism
The British Empiricism Locke, Berkeley and Hume copyleft: nicolazuin.2018 nowxhere.wordpress.com The terrible heritage of Descartes: Skepticism, Empiricism, Rationalism The problem originates from the
More informationVol 2 Bk 7 Outline p 486 BOOK VII. Substance, Essence and Definition CONTENTS. Book VII
Vol 2 Bk 7 Outline p 486 BOOK VII Substance, Essence and Definition CONTENTS Book VII Lesson 1. The Primacy of Substance. Its Priority to Accidents Lesson 2. Substance as Form, as Matter, and as Body.
More informationA HOLISTIC VIEW ON KNOWLEDGE AND VALUES
A HOLISTIC VIEW ON KNOWLEDGE AND VALUES CHANHYU LEE Emory University It seems somewhat obscure that there is a concrete connection between epistemology and ethics; a study of knowledge and a study of moral
More information! Jumping ahead 2000 years:! Consider the theory of the self.! What am I? What certain knowledge do I have?! Key figure: René Descartes.
! Jumping ahead 2000 years:! Consider the theory of the self.! What am I? What certain knowledge do I have?! What is the relation between that knowledge and that given in the sciences?! Key figure: René
More informationChapter 16 George Berkeley s Immaterialism and Subjective Idealism
Chapter 16 George Berkeley s Immaterialism and Subjective Idealism Key Words Immaterialism, esse est percipi, material substance, sense data, skepticism, primary quality, secondary quality, substratum
More informationJohn Buridan. Summulae de Dialectica IX Sophismata
John Buridan John Buridan (c. 1295 c. 1359) was born in Picardy (France). He was educated in Paris and taught there. He wrote a number of works focusing on exposition and discussion of issues in Aristotle
More informationEPISTEMOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF KANT S NOTION OF SPACE AND TIME
EPISTEMOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF KANT S NOTION OF SPACE AND TIME Kyrian A. Ojong, PhD Enyimba, Maduka Department of Philosophy University of Calabar, Calabar Abstract: Immanuel Kant is by far one of the
More informationFACULTY OF ARTS B.A. Part II Examination,
FACULTY OF ARTS B.A. Part II Examination, 2015-16 8. PHILOSOPHY SCHEME Two Papers Min. pass marks 72 Max. Marks 200 Paper - I 3 hrs duration 100 Marks Paper - II 3 hrs duration 100 Marks PAPER - I: HISTORY
More informationSelf-Evidence in Finnis Natural Law Theory: A Reply to Sayers
Self-Evidence in Finnis Natural Law Theory: A Reply to Sayers IRENE O CONNELL* Introduction In Volume 23 (1998) of the Australian Journal of Legal Philosophy Mark Sayers1 sets out some objections to aspects
More informationCONTENTS PREFACE
CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER- I 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 What is Man... 1-3 1.1.1. Concept of Man in Greek Philosophy... 3-4 1.1.2. Concept of Man in Modern Western Philosophy 1.1.3. Concept of Man in Contemporary
More informationRationalist-Irrationalist Dialectic in Buddhism:
Rationalist-Irrationalist Dialectic in Buddhism: The Failure of Buddhist Epistemology By W. J. Whitman The problem of the one and the many is the core issue at the heart of all real philosophical and theological
More informationIntroduction to Philosophy PHL 221, York College Revised, Spring 2017
Introduction to Philosophy PHL 221, York College Revised, Spring 2017 Beginnings of Philosophy: Overview of Course (1) The Origins of Philosophy and Relativism Knowledge Are you a self? Ethics: What is
More informationOutline Lesson 2 - Philosophy & Ethics: Says Who?
Outline Lesson 2 - Philosophy & Ethics: Says Who? I. Introduction Have you been taken captive? - 2 Timothy 2:24-26 A. Scriptural warning against hollow and deceptive philosophy Colossians 2:8 B. Carl Sagan
More informationAMONG THE HINDU THEORIES OF ILLUSION BY RASVIHARY DAS. phenomenon of illusion. from man\- contemporary
AMONG THE HINDU THEORIES OF ILLUSION BY RASVIHARY DAS the many contributions of the Hindus to Logic and Epistemology, their discussions on the problem of iuusion have got an importance of their own. They
More informationTopics and Posterior Analytics. Philosophy 21 Fall, 2004 G. J. Mattey
Topics and Posterior Analytics Philosophy 21 Fall, 2004 G. J. Mattey Logic Aristotle is the first philosopher to study systematically what we call logic Specifically, Aristotle investigated what we now
More informationEVIL, SIN, FALSITY AND THE DYNAMICS OF FAITH. Masao Abe
EVIL, SIN, FALSITY AND THE DYNAMICS OF FAITH Masao Abe I The apparently similar concepts of evil, sin, and falsity, when considered from our subjective standpoint, are somehow mutually distinct and yet
More informationRationalism. A. He, like others at the time, was obsessed with questions of truth and doubt
Rationalism I. Descartes (1596-1650) A. He, like others at the time, was obsessed with questions of truth and doubt 1. How could one be certain in the absence of religious guidance and trustworthy senses
More informationQué es la filosofía? What is philosophy? Philosophy
Philosophy PHILOSOPHY AS A WAY OF THINKING WHAT IS IT? WHO HAS IT? WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A WAY OF THINKING AND A DISCIPLINE? It is the propensity to seek out answers to the questions that we ask
More informationA Studying of Limitation of Epistemology as Basis of Toleration with Special Reference to John Locke
A Studying of Limitation of Epistemology as Basis of Toleration with Special Reference to John Locke Roghieh Tamimi and R. P. Singh Center for philosophy, Social Science School, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
More informationTHE CRISIS OF THE SCmNCES AS EXPRESSION OF THE RADICAL LIFE-CRISIS OF EUROPEAN HUMANITY
Contents Translator's Introduction / xv PART I THE CRISIS OF THE SCmNCES AS EXPRESSION OF THE RADICAL LIFE-CRISIS OF EUROPEAN HUMANITY I. Is there, in view of their constant successes, really a crisis
More informationOn Being and Essence (DE ENTE Et ESSENTIA)
1 On Being and Essence (DE ENTE Et ESSENTIA) By Saint Thomas Aquinas 2 DE ENTE ET ESSENTIA [[1]] Translation 1997 by Robert T. Miller[[2]] Prologue A small error at the outset can lead to great errors
More informationPhil 114, Wednesday, April 11, 2012 Hegel, The Philosophy of Right 1 7, 10 12, 14 16, 22 23, 27 33, 135, 141
Phil 114, Wednesday, April 11, 2012 Hegel, The Philosophy of Right 1 7, 10 12, 14 16, 22 23, 27 33, 135, 141 Dialectic: For Hegel, dialectic is a process governed by a principle of development, i.e., Reason
More informationTHE ROLE OF APRIORI, EMPIRICAL, ANALYTIC AND SYNTHETIC IN PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS.
American Journal of Social Issues & Humanities (ISSN: 2276-6928) Vol.1(2) pp. 82-94 Nov. 2011 Available online http://www.ajsih.org 2011 American Journal of Social Issues & Humanities THE ROLE OF APRIORI,
More informationCopyright 2000 Vk-Cic Vahe Karamian
Kant In France and England, the Enlightenment theories were blueprints for reforms and revolutions political and economic changes came together with philosophical theory. In Germany, the Enlightenment
More informationAspects of Western Philosophy Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly Department of Humanities and Social Sciences Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Aspects of Western Philosophy Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly Department of Humanities and Social Sciences Indian Institute of Technology, Madras Module - 22 Lecture - 22 Kant The idea of Reason Soul, God
More information1/9. The First Analogy
1/9 The First Analogy So far we have looked at the mathematical principles but now we are going to turn to the dynamical principles, of which there are two sorts, the Analogies of Experience and the Postulates
More informationThe Theory of Reality: A Critical & Philosophical Elaboration
55 The Theory of Reality: A Critical & Philosophical Elaboration Anup Kumar Department of Philosophy Jagannath University Email: anupkumarjnup@gmail.com Abstract Reality is a concept of things which really
More informationThree Fundamentals of the Introceptive Philosophy
Three Fundamentals of the Introceptive Philosophy Part 9 of 16 Franklin Merrell-Wolff January 19, 1974 Certain thoughts have come to me in the interim since the dictation of that which is on the tape already
More informationAspects of Western Philosophy Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly Department of Humanities and Social Sciences Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
Aspects of Western Philosophy Dr. Sreekumar Nellickappilly Department of Humanities and Social Sciences Indian Institute of Technology, Madras Module - 20 Lecture - 20 Critical Philosophy: Kant s objectives
More informationAN INTRODUCTION TO THE SPIRIT OF ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SPIRIT OF ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY Omar S. Alattas Alfred North Whitehead would tell us that religion is a system of truths that have an effect of transforming character when they are
More informationHume on Ideas, Impressions, and Knowledge
Hume on Ideas, Impressions, and Knowledge in class. Let my try one more time to make clear the ideas we discussed today Ideas and Impressions First off, Hume, like Descartes, Locke, and Berkeley, believes
More informationOn Interpretation. Section 1. Aristotle Translated by E. M. Edghill. Part 1
On Interpretation Aristotle Translated by E. M. Edghill Section 1 Part 1 First we must define the terms noun and verb, then the terms denial and affirmation, then proposition and sentence. Spoken words
More informationBased on the translation by E. M. Edghill, with minor emendations by Daniel Kolak.
On Interpretation By Aristotle Based on the translation by E. M. Edghill, with minor emendations by Daniel Kolak. First we must define the terms 'noun' and 'verb', then the terms 'denial' and 'affirmation',
More informationIntroduction. 1 Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, n.d.), 7.
Those who have consciously passed through the field of philosophy would readily remember the popular saying to beginners in this discipline: philosophy begins with the act of wondering. To wonder is, first
More information1/8. Introduction to Kant: The Project of Critique
1/8 Introduction to Kant: The Project of Critique This course is focused on the interpretation of one book: The Critique of Pure Reason and we will, during the course, read the majority of the key sections
More informationChapter 2 Test Bank. 1) When one systematically studies being or existence one is dealing with the branch of metaphysics called.
Chapter 2 Test Bank 1) When one systematically studies being or existence one is dealing with the branch of metaphysics called. a. ontology b. agrology c. cosmology d. agronomy Answer: a. ontology 2) The
More informationCHAPTER III KANT S APPROACH TO A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI
CHAPTER III KANT S APPROACH TO A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI Introduction One could easily find out two most influential epistemological doctrines, namely, rationalism and empiricism that have inadequate solutions
More informationThe Quest for Knowledge: A study of Descartes. Christopher Reynolds
The Quest for Knowledge: A study of Descartes by Christopher Reynolds The quest for knowledge remains a perplexing problem. Mankind continues to seek to understand himself and the world around him, and,
More informationRule-Following and the Ontology of the Mind Abstract The problem of rule-following
Rule-Following and the Ontology of the Mind Michael Esfeld (published in Uwe Meixner and Peter Simons (eds.): Metaphysics in the Post-Metaphysical Age. Papers of the 22nd International Wittgenstein Symposium.
More informationUNIVERSITY OF CALICUT QUESTION BANK
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION B.A PHILOSOPHY (2011 ADMISSION ONWARDS) VI SEMESTER CORE COURSE MODERN WESTERN PHILOSOPHY QUESTION BANK Unit-1: Spirit of Modern Philosophy 1. Who among
More information1/9. Leibniz on Descartes Principles
1/9 Leibniz on Descartes Principles In 1692, or nearly fifty years after the first publication of Descartes Principles of Philosophy, Leibniz wrote his reflections on them indicating the points in which
More informationFirst Principles. Principles of Reality. Undeniability.
First Principles. First principles are the foundation of knowledge. Without them nothing could be known (see FOUNDATIONALISM). Even coherentism uses the first principle of noncontradiction to test the
More information1/8. Reid on Common Sense
1/8 Reid on Common Sense Thomas Reid s work An Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense is self-consciously written in opposition to a lot of the principles that animated early modern
More informationSummary of Kant s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
Summary of Kant s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals Version 1.1 Richard Baron 2 October 2016 1 Contents 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Availability and licence............ 3 2 Definitions of key terms 4 3
More informationChapter 24. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: The Concepts of Being, Non-being and Becoming
Chapter 24 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: The Concepts of Being, Non-being and Becoming Key Words: Romanticism, Geist, Spirit, absolute, immediacy, teleological causality, noumena, dialectical method,
More informationThe Human Science Debate: Positivist, Anti-Positivist, and Postpositivist Inquiry. By Rebecca Joy Norlander. November 20, 2007
The Human Science Debate: Positivist, Anti-Positivist, and Postpositivist Inquiry By Rebecca Joy Norlander November 20, 2007 2 What is knowledge and how is it acquired through the process of inquiry? Is
More informationWorldview Basics. What are the Major Worldviews? WE102 LESSON 01 of 05
Worldview Basics WE102 LESSON 01 of 05 Our Daily Bread Christian University This course was developed by Christian University & Our Daily Bread Ministries. Nineteenth-century American poet John Godfrey
More informationETHICAL THEORIES. Review week 6 session 11. Ethics Ethical Theories Review. Socrates. Socrate s theory of virtue. Socrate s chain of injustices
Socrates ETHICAL THEORIES Review week 6 session 11 Greece (470 to 400 bc) Was Plato s teacher Didn t write anything Died accused of corrupting the youth and not believing in the gods of the city Creator
More informationIntro. The need for a philosophical vocabulary
Critical Realism & Philosophy Webinar Ruth Groff August 5, 2015 Intro. The need for a philosophical vocabulary You don t have to become a philosopher, but just as philosophers should know their way around
More informationRethinking Knowledge: The Heuristic View
http://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783319532363 Carlo Cellucci Rethinking Knowledge: The Heuristic View 1 Preface From its very beginning, philosophy has been viewed as aimed at knowledge and methods to
More informationPhilosophy 427 Intuitions and Philosophy. Russell Marcus Hamilton College Fall 2011
Philosophy 427 Intuitions and Philosophy Russell Marcus Hamilton College Fall 2011 Class 4 The Myth of the Given Marcus, Intuitions and Philosophy, Fall 2011, Slide 1 Atomism and Analysis P Wittgenstein
More informationDescartes: A Guide for the Perplexed
Praxis, Vol. 3, No. 1, Spring 2011 ISSN 1756-1019 Descartes: A Guide for the Perplexed Reviewed by Chistopher Ranalli University of Edinburgh Descartes: A Guide for the Perplexed By Justin Skirry. New
More informationCHAPTER THREE ON SEEING GOD THROUGH HIS IMAGE IMPRINTED IN OUR NATURAL POWERS
BONAVENTURE, ITINERARIUM, TRANSL. O. BYCHKOV 21 CHAPTER THREE ON SEEING GOD THROUGH HIS IMAGE IMPRINTED IN OUR NATURAL POWERS 1. The two preceding steps, which have led us to God by means of his vestiges,
More informationResolutio of Idealism into Atheism in Fichte
Maria Pia Mater Thomistic Week 2018 Resolutio of Idealism into Atheism in Fichte Introduction Cornelio Fabro s God in Exile, traces the progression of modern atheism from its roots in the cogito of Rene
More informationIn Search of the Ontological Argument. Richard Oxenberg
1 In Search of the Ontological Argument Richard Oxenberg Abstract We can attend to the logic of Anselm's ontological argument, and amuse ourselves for a few hours unraveling its convoluted word-play, or
More informationLecture 18: Rationalism
Lecture 18: Rationalism I. INTRODUCTION A. Introduction Descartes notion of innate ideas is consistent with rationalism Rationalism is a view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.
More informationCritique of Cosmological Argument
David Hume: Critique of Cosmological Argument Critique of Cosmological Argument DAVID HUME (1711-1776) David Hume is one of the most important philosophers in the history of philosophy. Born in Edinburgh,
More informationCarvaka Philosophy. Manisha Dutta Hazarika, Assistant Professor Department of Philosophy
Carvaka Philosophy Manisha Dutta Hazarika, Assistant Professor Department of Philosophy Introduction Carvaka Philosophy is a non-vedic school of Indian Philosophy. Generally, Carvaka is the word that stands
More informationFrom Transcendental Logic to Transcendental Deduction
From Transcendental Logic to Transcendental Deduction Let me see if I can say a few things to re-cap our first discussion of the Transcendental Logic, and help you get a foothold for what follows. Kant
More informationChapter Summaries: Three Types of Religious Philosophy by Clark, Chapter 1
Chapter Summaries: Three Types of Religious Philosophy by Clark, Chapter 1 In chapter 1, Clark begins by stating that this book will really not provide a definition of religion as such, except that it
More informationLogic: Deductive and Inductive by Carveth Read M.A. CHAPTER VI CONDITIONS OF IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
CHAPTER VI CONDITIONS OF IMMEDIATE INFERENCE Section 1. The word Inference is used in two different senses, which are often confused but should be carefully distinguished. In the first sense, it means
More information0.1 G. W. F. Hegel, from Phenomenology of Mind
Hegel s Historicism Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 1831) was perhaps the last great philosophical system builder. His distinctively dynamic form of idealism set the stage for other nineteenth-century
More informationGROUP A WESTERN PHILOSOPHY (40 marks)
GROUP A WESTERN PHILOSOPHY (40 marks) Chapter 1 CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY (4 marks allotted) MCQ 1X2 = 2 SAQ -- 1X2 = 2 (a) Nature of Philosophy: The word Philosophy is originated from two Greek words Philos
More informationDivisibility, Logic, Radical Empiricism, and Metaphysics
Abstract: Divisibility, Logic, Radical Empiricism, and Metaphysics We will explore the problem of the manner in which the world may be divided into parts, and how this affects the application of logic.
More informationIntroduction: Discussion:
Science Arena Publications International Journal of Philosophy and Social-Psychological Sciences Available online at www.sciarena.com 2016, Vol, 2 (4): 1-7 The Theory of Knowledge in Western and Eastern
More informationTHE FREEDOM OF THE WILL By Immanuel Kant From Critique of Pure Reason (1781)
THE FREEDOM OF THE WILL By Immanuel Kant From Critique of Pure Reason (1781) From: A447/B475 A451/B479 Freedom independence of the laws of nature is certainly a deliverance from restraint, but it is also
More informationCartesian Rationalism
Cartesian Rationalism René Descartes 1596-1650 Reason tells me to trust my senses Descartes had the disturbing experience of finding out that everything he learned at school was wrong! From 1604-1612 he
More informationThe CopernicanRevolution
Immanuel Kant: The Copernican Revolution The CopernicanRevolution Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) The Critique of Pure Reason (1781) is Kant s best known work. In this monumental work, he begins a Copernican-like
More information1/10. The Fourth Paralogism and the Refutation of Idealism
1/10 The Fourth Paralogism and the Refutation of Idealism The Fourth Paralogism is quite different from the three that preceded it because, although it is treated as a part of rational psychology, it main
More informationWHAT IS HUME S FORK? Certainty does not exist in science.
WHAT IS HUME S FORK? www.prshockley.org Certainty does not exist in science. I. Introduction: A. Hume divides all objects of human reason into two different kinds: Relation of Ideas & Matters of Fact.
More informationAn Epistemological Position: Knowledge by Sensation is the only Knowledge that can be regarded as Truth. Leon Reynolds
An Epistemological Position: Knowledge by Sensation is the only Knowledge that can be regarded as Truth Leon Reynolds Introduction Most Empiricists from Locke through Russell to the present have... taken
More informationSome Notes Toward a Genealogy of Existential Philosophy Robert Burch
Some Notes Toward a Genealogy of Existential Philosophy Robert Burch Descartes - ostensive task: to secure by ungainsayable rational means the orthodox doctrines of faith regarding the existence of God
More informationAyer on the criterion of verifiability
Ayer on the criterion of verifiability November 19, 2004 1 The critique of metaphysics............................. 1 2 Observation statements............................... 2 3 In principle verifiability...............................
More informationMEANING AND TRUTH IN THEOLOGY
MEANING AND TRUTH IN THEOLOGY Before giving my presentation, I want to express to the Catholic Theological Society of America, to its Board of Directors and especially to Father Scanlon my deep gratitude
More informationImportant dates. PSY 3360 / CGS 3325 Historical Perspectives on Psychology Minds and Machines since David Hume ( )
PSY 3360 / CGS 3325 Historical Perspectives on Psychology Minds and Machines since 1600 Dr. Peter Assmann Spring 2018 Important dates Feb 14 Term paper draft due Upload paper to E-Learning https://elearning.utdallas.edu
More informationEXAMINERS REPORT AM PHILOSOPHY
EXAMINERS REPORT AM PHILOSOPHY FIRST SESSION 2018 Part 1: Statistical Information Table 1 shows the distribution of the candidates grades for the May 2018 Advanced Level Philosophy Examination. Table1:
More informationIntroduction. I. Proof of the Minor Premise ( All reality is completely intelligible )
Philosophical Proof of God: Derived from Principles in Bernard Lonergan s Insight May 2014 Robert J. Spitzer, S.J., Ph.D. Magis Center of Reason and Faith Lonergan s proof may be stated as follows: Introduction
More informationHume s An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
Hume s An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding G. J. Mattey Spring, 2017 / Philosophy 1 After Descartes The greatest success of the philosophy of Descartes was that it helped pave the way for the mathematical
More informationThe Divine Nature. from Summa Theologiae (Part I, Questions 3-11) by Thomas Aquinas (~1265 AD) translated by Brian J.
The Divine Nature from Summa Theologiae (Part I, Questions 3-11) by Thomas Aquinas (~1265 AD) translated by Brian J. Shanley (2006) Question 3. Divine Simplicity Once it is grasped that something exists,
More informationIntroductory Kant Seminar Lecture
Introductory Kant Seminar Lecture Intentionality It is not unusual to begin a discussion of Kant with a brief review of some history of philosophy. What is perhaps less usual is to start with a review
More informationPOLI 343 Introduction to Political Research
POLI 343 Introduction to Political Research Session 3-Positivism and Humanism Lecturer: Prof. A. Essuman-Johnson, Dept. of Political Science Contact Information: aessuman-johnson@ug.edu.gh College of Education
More informationTHE LEIBNIZ CLARKE DEBATES
THE LEIBNIZ CLARKE DEBATES Background: Newton claims that God has to wind up the universe. His health The Dispute with Newton Newton s veiled and Crotes open attacks on the plenists The first letter to
More informationIntroduction to Philosophy
Introduction to Philosophy As soon as Sophie had closed the gate behind her she opened the envelope. It contained only a slip of paper no bigger than envelope. It read: Who are you? Nothing else, only
More informationAnalyticity, Reductionism, and Semantic Holism. The verification theory is an empirical theory of meaning which asserts that the meaning of a
24.251: Philosophy of Language Paper 1: W.V.O. Quine, Two Dogmas of Empiricism 14 October 2011 Analyticity, Reductionism, and Semantic Holism The verification theory is an empirical theory of meaning which
More information1/12. The A Paralogisms
1/12 The A Paralogisms The character of the Paralogisms is described early in the chapter. Kant describes them as being syllogisms which contain no empirical premises and states that in them we conclude
More informationThe Greatest Mistake: A Case for the Failure of Hegel s Idealism
The Greatest Mistake: A Case for the Failure of Hegel s Idealism What is a great mistake? Nietzsche once said that a great error is worth more than a multitude of trivial truths. A truly great mistake
More informationOn the epistemological status of mathematical objects in Plato s philosophical system
On the epistemological status of mathematical objects in Plato s philosophical system Floris T. van Vugt University College Utrecht University, The Netherlands October 22, 2003 Abstract The main question
More information7/31/2017. Kant and Our Ineradicable Desire to be God
Radical Evil Kant and Our Ineradicable Desire to be God 1 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Kant indeed marks the end of the Enlightenment: he brought its most fundamental assumptions concerning the powers of
More informationHeidegger Introduction
Heidegger Introduction G. J. Mattey Spring, 2011 / Philosophy 151 Being and Time Being Published in 1927, under pressure Dedicated to Edmund Husserl Initially rejected as inadequate Now considered a seminal
More information