Practice precedes theory. The example of the Mamluk Qur an manuscripts

Transcription

1 Practice precedes theory. The example of the Mamluk Qur an manuscripts Jan Just Witkam Leiden University Institute of Area Studies (LIAS) Hamburg University, Centre for the Study of Manuscript Cultures, December 14, 2017(source image: sagda in MS Cairo, DAK, Masahif 9, vol. 1, f. 363a)

2 Introduction (1): It is a wide-spread mistake that if you wish to research a certain subject, the best way is to start with reading what others have written about it, then start writing yourself. There also is, on the other hand, the open mind, unfettered by any theoretical approach and uninfluenced by any set of experiences formulated by others, that brings us new perspectives. This is especially valid in a field that still needs pioneering research on many crucial aspects. Of course, earlier secondary literature plays a role in the final result, but not necessarily from the beginning of the research onwards. One cannot begin from scratch. I had to think of this mindset, that since a long time I have developed for myself by trial and error, when I was asked, now some seven years ago, to write a book about the Qur anic manuscripts of the Mamluk period ( ), taking the hardly explored collection in the Egyptian National Library as a point of departure. That collection was brought together in the early 1880 s when mosque libraries were transferred to the newly founded Khedivial Library.

3 Introduction (2): Presently, it is probably the largest such collection in existence, and at the same time the least researched. At the time, I had no idea what I was beginning. Yet, I had no intention to create a theoretical framework on the basis of what others had written about the subject, nor to fit into such a framework the data that I would collect from the manuscripts. I just started looking at the manuscripts themselves, and wrote down what I was observing. Theory could wait. I have been making such notes now for several years, and my many hundreds of pages of observations are far from homogeneous. In the years of my work on the Mamluk Qur ans in Cairo I have, of course, learned a lot, although from the beginning of my work I was far from unexperienced. The continuous growth of my knowledge of my study material reflects a certain lack of homogeneity in my working notes.

4 Introduction (3): The Mamluk Qur ans that I have intimately seen in the past few years are an interesting cross-section of Mamluk book production. There are a few extraordinary copies, the rest is run of the Mamluk mill. These Qur ans show numerous features that also can been discovered in non-qur anic manuscripts. In addition to that, the production of Masahif has had its own requirements, which made it different from the production of the rest of books. One of these differences is caused by the mass production of the same text, for which the workshops of Qur anic manuscripts in the Mamluk period have been developing special techniques. My lecture focusses on a number of these newly developed techniques of manufacture, that were all empirically observed in actual manuscripts. Acknowledgment: In the period the Foundation Thesaurus Islamic (al-maknaz al-islami) in Cairo sponsored my work on the Mamluk Qur an manuscripts in Egypt s National Library. I had an unhindered look at several hundreds of volumes, and I had unlimited photography privileges. In all I made some 100,000 images.

5 The practice that is my origin with books: My father s private library. Henricus Joannes Witkam ( ) and part of his collection. Situation of ca The Gratianus folio of Basel 1476 stands in the centre on the lower shelf in front. The lamp behind him is made of a parchment leaf of an old Antiphonarium. Source image: Th.H. Lunsingh Scheurleer, e.a., Het Rapenburg. Geschiedenis van een Leidse Gracht, deel 1 (Leiden 1986), p Colophon of the Gratianus of Basel, dated June 10, 1476.

6 Working conditions in the Egyptian National Library, Corniche, Bab al-khalq (right) My working place in the Qurʾān room, Hall 1 in Egypt s National Library. Awaiting ministerial permission to restart the Masahif project, I work on another collection, here rearranging disparate leaves of a Damīrī manuscript. Photo by Ana Beny, March 20, The exhibition area in the Bāb al-khalq building of the National Library just after the bomb blast of January 24, The show cases (now emptied) have withstood most of the explosion s impact. Photo Madā Miṣr. All manuscripts were transferred to the Corniche building.

7 Working conditions in the Egyptian National Library, Corniche My old working place in Egypt s National Library, March 29, On the table is MS Cairo, DAK Mushaf 13 (weight 97 kg). For each double-page image I had to climb the stairs, all together about a hundred times for each opening with one or more Sura headings. My new working place in Egypt s National Library, May 4, On the table is MS Cairo, DAK Mushaf 142. Portrait with one of my minders, Muhammad Zeinhom, a library employee. Making friends is an important part of the work.

8 Finding the rules Lay-out rules of a Mamluk Qur an, dated 858/ ), with the ex-libris of Sultan Abu Sa id Khushqadam. Source: MS. Cairo, DAK, Masahif 90, ff. 1b, 2a

9 Lay-out rules for a Mamluk Qur an, Arabic text (Taken from MS. Cairo, DAK, Masahif 90, f. 1b, dated 858/1454-5, copy with on f. 2a an ex-libris of Sultan Abu Sa id Khushqadam):... وأما ما هو ىف مجموع صفحاته فالول أن لك صفحة أولها أول أية وأ خرها أ خر أ ية والثاىن أن أية لك جسدة من جسود التالوة أخرها أ خر سطر والثالث أ خر لك سورة أ خر سطر والرابع أن لك حزبني ىف عرشة أوراق وصفحة اال اجلزء الول والخري فان الك مهنام اثنا عرش ورقة كوامل لجل الفاحتة والغالقة ابذلهب واخلامس أن لك حزب جمزا ابلمثن والربع والنصف ىف لك دائرة اذلهب ىف هامش لك صفحة وان وجد شئ من ذكل ىف غري موضعه املذكور فهو سهو من الاكتب وقد مت ذكل حبمد هللا عز وجل فاهلل تعاىل يغفر لاكتبه وللقارئ فيه وملن نظر فيه...

10 Lay-out rules for a Mamluk Qur an, English text (Taken from MS. Cairo, DAK, Masahif 90, f. 1b, dated 858/1454-5, copy with on f. 2a an ex-libris of Sultan Abu Sa id Khushqadam): First, the beginning of each page should be the beginning of an aya, and the end of each page should be the end of an aya. Second, the end of each aya in which there is one of the sagdas should end with the end of the line. Third, the end of each sura should coincide with the end of the line. Fourth, every two hizbs should be written on ten leaves plus one page, except the first guz and the last guz, because these two should be written on twelve complete leaves because of the illuminated Fatiha and closing sura. Fifth, every hizb must be divided into an eighth, a quarter and a half, [which words must be] written in an illuminated circle in the margin of each page. If there is something missing in this respect, it is the copyist s negligence. This is the end [of the rules], thanks the God, the Almighty. May God, the Highest, forgive the copyist, the reader and whoever looks into it.

11 The application of some of the lay-out rules of a Mamluk Qur an, dated 858/ ). Size of the original: 86.5 x 60 cm, showing the closing text of Surat Yusuf (12) and heading of Surat al-ra d (13). The page shows the complete text of Qur an 12: The page begins and ends with a full aya. Stages of writing: - Rasm, the undotted script line; - Tanqit, I gam, placing of dots on and below the Rasm; - Possibly simultaneously with the Tanqit: Tashkil, vocalization, and partial Ihmal, indication of lack of I gam. - Thumn (one eighth, of the Hizb) in illuminated circle. - Tahlil, expressions with reference to God s name, written in red ink, optional for this copyist. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Masahif 90, f. 132b.

12 29. [ ] No word is cut into two, one part being at the end of the line, the other part at the beginning of the (next) line, and everything that must be observed is written in red ink. Example by comparison: Lay-out rules for 19 th -century Ottoman Qur ans Twenty-nine rules are formulated: (separate sheet found in MS. Leiden, Or , ff. 90b-91a, copied 1279/ ) 1. Each one of the thirty agza is written on ten leaves [ ]. 2. The beginning of each guz coincides with the beginning of the page. 3. On the beginning of each page is the beginning of an aya, and at the end of each page is the end of an aya. 4. The end of each sura coincides with the end of the lines. (Then follows a large number of rules about the handling by the copyists of specific words or phrases, such as fil-qur an al- Azim, al-hamdu lillah, which must be written at the beginning of a line, etc.).

13 The giant volumes Several exceptional Qur an manuscripts of the Mamluk period are of large size. It is the literal meaning of Ta zim al-qur an, making the Qur an bigger, or rather making the Qur an more grandiose. That is still being done. Modern examples can be seen e.g. in the Bayt al-qur an in Jakarta, Indonesia, and in the new main mosque in Kazan, Russia. Making MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 18, ready for research, and this one is still of moderate size. Scholarly consideration: - How the large leaves have been made? - In one go, or by gluing two halves together? - Or in leaves on a stub and not in sheets? - Paper specially made? Probably yes, because normal paper would tear by the sheer weight of the leaf. - My solution for measuring the thickness of the paper: in mm per one hundred leaves, which gives an average thickness. - Some giant volumes have thickness of 35 mm per 100 leaves. - Some giant volumes are much heavier than others.

14 Details of writing - Complex Mistara, one height for the Rasm and the signs, one lesser height for the tops of the ascenders and the tails of the descenders, and for the interline. - Unusual Ihmal marks (dotting). - Unusual reading marks (e.g. Sukun). - Inside the Aya-divider the word Aya in neo-kufic script. - Frame written after text, blue is always the finishing touch. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 13, f. 4a, detail.

15 Division of labor in placing the aya-dividers (1). 1. Stamping the red circle at the place where the divider must come. This must be done by someone who can read the text, and who knows where the dividers must be placed. He is the learned specialist in the operation. He needs to have a stable hand. 2. Covering the red circle with gold leaf, ideally making the red circle invisible. This is often done in a sloppy way, and the red circle remains visible. This is done by hand. 3. Stamping the gold leaf with a black floral design with petals. Occasionally mistakes are made, and this how we know of the stamping procedures. 4. Dotting the circumference and the centre of the floral stamp with blue and red ink. This is done by hand. Operations 2-4 can be performed by people who are not necessarily able to read the text.

16 Efficiency and division of labour in the production of Mamluk Qur ans. Mixed techniques (2). A detailed study of Mamluk Qur an manuscripts shows that these are produced in workshops where an elaborate division of labour was put in place. Some twenty workers of different qualifications can be identified in the production of high quality manuscripts. The work on the aya-dividers is a case in point. Source image: MS Istanbul, Milli Kütüphane, C 44. Taken from: Nil Baydar, Newly identified techniques in the production of Islamic manuscripts, 2010, p. 72, fig. 8 This process was first discovered by the Turkish researcher Nil Baydar, who described it as a Seljuq (Turkish!) technique in Qur an production. I believe it is a Mamluk technique.

17 Division of labor in placing the aya-dividers (3) A study copy, written in Naskh script, with select Tafsir in the margins in red ink (not visible here). Look at the constitution on the corrected aya divider. Look at the traces of the Mistara, for both script and interline. The script has a selective use of Ihmal. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 143, f. 23a, detail; ff. 362b-363a.

18 Division of labor in placing the aya-dividers (4) Example of a red circle (line 2), in a Qur an with handmade dividers (e.g. in line 3). The word Karim, that carries the mistaken divider, often is the last word of the aya, but at first not here. The dividers are placed on top of the text. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 144, vol. 2, f. 117a, detail.

19 Hybrid form of Sagda and Ashar Carpets for prostration At a number of places in the Qurʾān the reciter of God s word is required to bow down (Sagda), to prostrate. In modern editions of the Qurʾān these moments are often indicated in the margin of the text with a small ornament in which the word Sagda is written in neo-kufic script. Such indications, usually non-circular, with or without ornaments, we find also in the Mamluk manuscripts of the Qur an, albeit not very frequently. Sagda ornaments are less often added than the counters of the Qur anic verses in the margin, by which every five and ten verses are indicated. Apparently, ornaments for Sagda, are an additional luxury, at least that is my impression. The outlines are sometimes stamped. Source images: MS Cairo, DAK, Masahif 9, vol. 1, ff. 307a, 335a, 363a, 363b; vol. 2, f. 53a.

20 Corrections (1) In the Mamluk Masahif numerous corrections in the text can be observed. The repetitiveness of the Arabic text, that some of the copyists must have known by heart, either in whole or in part, is a possible cause of scribal mistakes. Sometimes these are downright mistakes, e.g. homoioteleuton misreadings, or mistakes ad sententiam, like in the example. It makes the task of the corrector all-important. In general, readers have the duty to correct any mistakes they may come across. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 142, f. 90b, detail, beginning of Surat Ibrahim (14) with eulogy.

21 Corrections (2) Interlineary correction of an easily forgettable phrase: min ba d dhalika, because omitting does not change very much of the meaning. Also visible: - Tahlil in gold - Aya dividers on top of the script. - Aya dividers hand made. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 144, vol. 1, f. 40b, detail.

22 Corrections (3) The incorrect text was covered with a thin layer of fluid paper pulp, then the correction is written on top of that, after it has dried. The new paper pulp has a slightly different colour. The paper with the new pulp is slightly thicker than the paper without extra pulp, as can be ascertained with the help of a micrometer (not with the fingertips). Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 13, f. 163b, detail.

23 Corrections (4) The mistake is corrected in the margin by the craftsman who usually writes the text of the Sura headings. Use of reference symbols visible (applied later?). Maybe the use of gold ink with black outline can be explained by the intention of the corrector to indicate that the text in the margin is really Qur anic. Large part of Sura 2:93 had been omitted. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 141, f. 11a, detail.

24 Corrections (5) Handmade correction of an aya divider, that had been overlooked by the gildener, even if the red circle had been there. Three dividers on one line may have been too much. Nine petals are now written by hand, not stamped, and a colour has been added (in order to make up for the absence of gold?). Manuscript made for Sultan Sha ban, copied 757/1356. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 8, f. 393b, details.

25 Corrections (6) Correction by erasure and/or covering. Cause of mistake is possibly assonance in the text. Qur an 3: Manuscript made for Sultan Sha ban, with Waqfiyya of 770/ Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 9, vol. 1, f. 85b, detail.

26 Status in society (1) The colophon (second half shown here, on f. 39a) mentions as the patron the Sultan himself, al-malik al- Nasir Muhammad. Waqfiyya added at the bottom of one carpet page of a luxury Qur an in 30 volumes, dated Gumada II 726/1326. The Waqif is a high Mamluk military, Abu Sa id Sayf al-din Bektamir. The Mushaf s place will be the Qubba that this general is building in al-qarafa, near the Sultan s own monument. The Waqfiyya also organizes the management of the library in the mausoleum over the next generations. Such luxury books remain rare, however. Source images: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 72, guz 26, ff. 1b, 39a.

27 Status in society (2) Possibly a Qur an written in the Mamluk barracks. Arguments for this: - Relatively late copy (Sha ban 911/1506). - Name copyist with mention of status and rang (colophon). - Special style of Naskh script. Further research also with non-qur anic manuscripts. Source images: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 131, ff. 291b- 292a.

28 Anomalies (1) An uncorrected mistake: Illuminated Sura heading upsidedown (Surat al- Ankabut, Sura 29), in an alternative and imperfect wording in neo-kufic script <al-sura> allati tudhkaru fiha al- Ankabu<t>. It raises questions about the degree of literacy of the illuminator. It also asks for which rules apply for the naming of the Suras. Also visible: - Tahlil in red ink. - Corrective addition of the final words of Sura 28. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 144, vol. 2, f. 251b, detail.

29 Anomalies (2) Variant readings Variant readings are rare in Mamluk Masahif, even in the form of interlinear additions. Also visible: - Sloppily executed ayadividers. - Coloured Tahlil. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 145, f. 80a, detail.

30 Anomalies (3) Use of representants Representants are often trimmed off the page, but it is evident that they have been in wide use. Occasionally they can be seen, often only partly, as is indeed the maker s intention. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 150, guz 28, f. 36a, and idem, detail

31 Anomalies (3) Study copies of the Qur an can be distinguished in contradistinction to ceremonial or luxury copies by these features: - Copied in Naskh script. - Ample space between the lines and in the margin. - Numerous notes of varied nature: Tafsir, Qira at, general information. - Divided into Agza : Mugazza. The present guz begins with a basmala, but the opening text is Sura 2:142. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 101, guz 2, ff. 1b-2a (Waqfiyya dated 857/1453).

32 Anomalies (3) A Chinese Qur an? Or an atypical Qur an MS? No further data available. Qur an (text 21:1) on paper. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 118, ff. 1b-2a.

33 Anomalies (4) Mamluk refurbishing of an earlier manuscript? The colophon on f. 389b is difficult to read to to the deteriorated condition of the MS, but it seems that it says that the copying was completed on Saturday 25 Ǧumādā II 5?7 AH. The patron is, according to the colophon, a Zangid ruler. This means that the volume predates the Mamlūk era. Some features of this Muṣḥaf may have influenced Mamlūk scribes. It also possible that part of the additions were written in the Mamlūk era (covered Sura titles; Aya dividers?). The marginal additions are: - Aya counters (five and ten). - Hizb indications, not consistently added, and sometimes supplied in a later hand without illumination. - Division in seven (not a distinguishing feature). - Variant readings with references as have been explained in the beginning of the volume. - At the beginning of the Suras statistics and information about variants in the order of revelation are given. Source image: MS Cairo, DAK, Mushaf 2, f. 120a.