World Cultures. Grants Pass High School. Global Religions and Philosophies. Name: Period #

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1 World Cultures Grants Pass High School Global Religions and Philosophies Name: Period # 1

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3 Table of Contents Global Religions Overview 4 Hinduism and Buddhism Religions Comparison Chart 6 India Invaded: Hinduism 7 Hinduism 9 Overview of the Caste System in India 12 Hindu Creation Myth and the Caste System 14 Cast(e)aways? Women in Classical India 17 Desire, Denial, Dharma: Buddhism 20 The Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path 24 Suffering and the Problem of Evil 29 Buddhism: Moral Thought and Action 31 The Buddha 33 Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Religions Comparison Chart 36 People of the Covenant: The Jews and Judaism 37 Judaism 39 The Book of Job and Jewish Literature 40 The 13 Foundations of Judaism 43 The Carpenter and the Cross: Christianity 46 The Sermon on the Mount 51 Excerpt from The Gospel According to Luke 57 Excerpt from The Gospel According to Matthew 61 Overview of the History and Teachings of Islam 63 Five Pillars, Many Dimensions 66 Islam 68 English Translation of the Quran 73 I am both a Muslim and a Christian 77 Notes and Activities Global Religions Notes 80 Triple Venn Diagram 87 Living Situations 88 Inside Islam Video Notes 96 Flood Story Comparison Chart 97 Maps and Charts 102 Index 111 3

4 Global Religions Overview Prior to the day of the assessment you need to define each Key Term/Person/Place (1-2 sentences) and thoroughly answer the Learning Target/Concept questions (2-5 sentences). We will spend some time in class but much of this needs to be completed at home. You should use all class notes and text to find the answers. Hinduism Buddhism Judaism Vishnu Rig Vedas Karma Moksha Caste System Enlightenment Siddhartha Gautama 4 Noble Truths Nirvana Israel Abraham Torah Moses Noah Muhammad Qu ran Five Pillars Sunni Shi s Mecca Islam Christianity Multiple Religions Jesus Christ Bible (Old and New Testament) Apostle Paul Resurrection Communion Polytheism Universal Reincarnation Monotheism Salvation and Damnation Jerusalem Ethnic Proselytizing Sects Learning Targets/Concepts 1. Explain the common questions that all religions seek to answer. 2. How does the monotheistic view of God differ from the polytheistic view of the gods? 3. Explain the similarities and differences in how Buddhists and Hindus view reincarnation. 4. Why is Judaism one of the smallest global religions? 5. What reasons help explain why Christianity and Islam are the two most practiced religions? 6. Describe and explain the five pillars of Islam. 4

5 Hinduism and Buddhism 5

6 Mono, Poly or Non Theistic Name of God(s) Sacred Text Founder Place or Origin Universal or Ethnic Symbol (draw) Key Beliefs Key Practices Regions/Countri es where it is practiced today Religions Comparison Chart South Asian Origins Hinduism Buddhism 6

7 India Invaded: Hinduism India is an ancient culture. Thousands of years ago, a tribe of warlike nomads, the Aryans, moved from central Asia into India, where they first subjected then mingled with the natives, or Deccans. The Aryans brought their religion with them which evolved into Hinduism. For centuries, Hindu princes ruled kingdoms in the culturally and linguistically diverse expanse of the Indian subcontinent. At times, great emperors subjugated the princes and united India; but after a century or two, India again devolved into multiple kingdoms. Buddhism arose in India, but it won few converts there. However millions of East Asians later followed the Buddha s teaching. Hinduism, which accepted so many different modes of faith, remained the one great constant in India. When your intellect, confused by the conflicting opinions and the ritualistic doctrines of the Vedas, shall stay steady and firm within the Self, then you shall attain Self-realization. - The Bhagavad-Gita Hinduism is a deceiving word because it covers a dizzying array of religious practices, not just one set of rules. It is a broad term that refers to the dozens of sects in India which all hold the ancient texts of the Vedas sacred but differ widely in actual practice and theology. Says one writer, It is not one religion, but rather a family of religions fluid and changing; they can be pantheists (god is nature is god), polytheists (multiple spirit-gods as many as 350 million), monotheists, agnostics, or atheists. 1 Thus, any short description of Hinduism can be provided only with generalities; a truly thorough exploration of the myriad Hindu sects would take volumes. Hinduism developed around 1400 to 500 BC, when the Vedas were written, based on earlier oral traditions. The Upanishads are additional texts developed around 700 BC. There are other sacred texts, including the Bhagavad Gita, written in the first century, AD. Hindus generally believe in a transcendent spirit (Brahman) which can manifest itself in hundreds of gods, or avatars. Each god s requirements are different; there are literally hundreds of ways to be a Hindu, though traditional Hindu philosophers draw a sharp distinction between the many Hindu ways (all of which accept the Vedas) and non-hindu faiths. The three main gods the mother goddess Kali (or Durga), Vishnu, and Shiva dominate the pantheon of god-manifestations of Brahman. Innovations of India * 7000 BC Dentistry, including drilling. * 4500 BC Irrigation and sewers in Indus Valley * c BC Concept of zero and Hindu numerals (later called Arabic numerals). Later negative number concept is developed for bookkeeping. Hindus believe in reincarnation, the soul living multiple lives in multiple bodies. Hindus ultimately strive for moksha, when the * c. 600 BC eye cataract surgery soul, seeking to fulfill its inherent divine nature, * c. 100 AD spinning wheel is released from the cycles of reincarnation; freed from the body it unites and merges with Brahman. Many sects hold that animals have souls (this can be traced back to the ancient Aryans, 1 John B. Noss Man s Religions NY, MacMillan,

8 who were herding peoples), and especially in many parts of India, people believe cows to be sacred. Hindus refer to the continual cycle of birth, death, and reincarnation as the wheel of life (samsara), and argue that the soul within a physical body is living in a world that is illusory; reality can only be known upon union with Brahman in the afterlife. A devout Hindu will live his life in four stages. First, as a young man, he will study life. Second, he will raise a family. Third, he will return to the study of the divine and humanity, seeking to know dharma (duty as assigned by fate and moral truths leading to good) and practicing yogas (disciplines of denial and submission to fate). Finally, he will give up possessions and live a life of simple holiness, perhaps as a hermit. A Hindu performs good acts in order to build up good karma, which is one s destiny or fate in part determined by the laws of cause and effect one is not forgiven, but is rewarded or punished based on one s actions. Eventually, a person can accumulate enough positive karma through good deeds (especially duty to one s community), intensive study, and meditation, or a life of religious devotion to dharma to be free of the wheel of reincarnation. Yet, Hindus simultaneously believe in predestined fate. This adherence to the simultaneous existence of opposites is found in Hinduism and other Eastern ideals; mystical truth makes rationality a lower and ultimately irrelevant way of seeking truth. Hindus hold special festivals and services in temples, but generally practice daily or weekly worship at home with their local and family idols representing their chosen avatars. They consider it a holy act to give alms to poor holy men (fakirs) who often live lives of extreme self denial. Hindus are especially concerned with purity (applied to the proper preparation of foods or cleanliness), sacrifices, and meditation. Hinduism is a cultural faith, meaning that one is born a Hindu (and usually an Indian) and therefore is not usually concerned with missionary efforts. Indian society is broken up into four castes, or social classes. The separate castes are divided into dozens of sub-castes, each with its distinct identity and concept of its place on the social ladder. 1. Brahmins are the priestly caste at the top of the order. 2. Kshatriya are the warrior and princely caste. Originally they were at the top, but as Indian society became more settled, they were surpassed by the Brahmins. 3. Vaisyas are the merchants and artisans. 4. Sudras are the farmers. Below the four castes are the outcastes. These are the poorest people, given the foulest tasks, and often the darkest skinned. Other castes will not associate with them, and they suffer discrimination and ill treatment. One can not change castes, except after dying and being reincarnated in a different (and one hopes a higher) caste, and marriages out of one s caste were and are very rare. The caste system, though frowned upon by India s modern secular government, is still very powerful. 8

9 Hinduism About 1500 BC E, Indo-Aryan speaking pastoral peoples migrated from Inner Eurasia across the Khyber Pass and other passes into India, though we have little idea of their numbers. In any case, they established military dominance over the native, Dravidian-speaking populations. Eventually, they settled on the plains of the Indus and Ganges River basins and developed an agrarian civilization with a distinctive social structure. Much intermarriage with Dravidians probably occurred. By the mid-seventh century BCE, this civilization became the basis of the Magbadha Kingdom. The Beginnings of the Caste System As in the rest of the world, complex society in India involved social division. At the top, a small elite concentrated in its hands most of the power, authority, wealth, and privilege. Everyone else, which was the vast majority, worked hard, got little and, most of the time, did what they were told. In India this system of social division became, over many centuries, especially elaborate and rigid. It is called, in English the caste system. The caste system did not fully emerge until later in Indian history, but fundamentally it involved a hierarchal system of four levels or castes (varna in Hindi) which can best be understood when seen as a pyramid. The Brahmins, the top caste, were the priestly families whose main job was to perform sacrificial rituals in order to satisfy the Indo-Aryan gods. The Kshatriyas were the governing families. They collaborated with and supported the religious authority of the priests and shared the wealth of the land with them. In return, the priests asked the gods to favor society and instructed the people to obey the Kshatriyas. The Vaishyas were the farmers, herders, merchants, and artisans who produced most of the wealth. The Shudras, the lowest level class, tended to be socially despised by other groups, and they did manual labor. Gradually, this social order came to be enforced by elaborate custom. Rules existed about who could have which jobs, who could or could not eat with whom, who could or could not intermarry, who was ritually polluted and who was not. In later centuries, the four main castes were divided into hundreds of sub-castes (jaisit), each with its own complex obligations and taboos. As time went on, the castes and sub-castes became rigid. For example, if one was born a 9

10 member of the clothes washing sub-caste, then that person s children and children s children would be clothes washers as well. In addition to the four major castes, there was a fifth group of people, the outcasts. As the name implies, they existed outside the caste system. As such, they were assigned to jobs that were considered unclean, or polluting. These jobs included cremating the dead, disposing of trash, and disposing of the corpses of dead animals. Outcasts were considered untouchable by members of the four castes. In some areas of the country, just making contact with the shadow of an outcast was considered polluting and required ritual cleansing. Note: The government of India legally abolished the caste system in While the law has been effective in urban centers, caste restrictions, especially with regard to outcasts today known as Dalit, persist in many rural communities. Hindu Gods Early Hindu theology is known to us mainly from the Upanishads, a collection of sacred texts composed in Sanskrit, the Indo-European language of Brahmin devotion. These texts, which emerged between about 800 and 500 BCE, present the idea of Brahman, the infinite essence of the universe and the principle of all being. Brahman is the soul of the universe which contains the soul of every individual. Other principal gods are aspects or manifestations of Brahman the Creator. Those deities include Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the Destroyer, both of whom are worshiped in more than one form. Hindus worship hundreds of other gods as well. Hinduism has neither a centralized religious organization nor a specific set of doctrines. As it has spread, Hinduism has taken varying forms in various parts of South Asia and incorporated local gods and ideas. Reincarnation By the sixth century BCE, the concept of reincarnation had appeared in Hinduism. Reincarnation is the belief that, when a person dies, his or her soul is born again in a new body. After being purified in a number of existences, the soul is finally released from this earth and becomes one with the soul of Brahman. A Hindu s life, therefore, is an attempt to achieve oneness with Brahman. This is done by obedience to the moral law (dharma), which involves self-knowledge, productive labor, and strict dedication to the rituals and duties of family, occupation, and caste. In short, one has to be the best Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Sutra, or outcaste that one can be in order to progress to a higher caste. Progress is governed by karma, the force of one s past life. If one has lived properly in a past life, then one may find oneself reborn in a higher caste. Eventually, if a person continues to live well, she or he will be reborn as a Brahmin. When one has lived life perfectly as a Brahmin, one s soul will be freed. If, on the other hand, one does not live a righteous life, that person risks being reincarnated into a lower caste or, even worse, as an animal. One s social rank in life, then, reflects one s past lives. The principal of reincarnation provided religious support to the rigid caste system. It justified the privileges of the upper caste at one extreme and ill-treatment of outcasts at the other. According to belief, Brahmin s had clearly earned their high status by living good lives in previous 10

11 incarnations while outcasts, obviously, had lived badly and could justifiably be despised. At the same time, reincarnation gave members of the lower castes and the outcasts hope that they too might move farther up the social ladder in their next life. It also tended to keep the lowest castes in line. If people revolted against their status, then they were insuring that their soul would not move up in the next life. If the caste system seems rigid, unfair, and cruel to us in the twentyfirst century, it did have arguable social uses. It provided a framework for society in which all individuals knew where they stood in relation to other members of society. Also, castes and sub-castes had privileges of regulating their own internal affairs without interference from other castes. In times of rapid economic or social change, the caste system provided an anchor of stability. However, its principles, like slavery, are incompatible today with ideals of equality and human rights. World History for Us All Big Era 4 Landscape 1 11

12 OVERVIEW OF THE CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA UPPER CLASS Brahmins included Hindu priests and scholars Kshatriyas included rulers and warriors MIDDLE CLASS Vaisyas included merchants, traders and farmers LOWER CLASS Shudras included peasants bound to the land Outcastes also known as Untouchables, included butchers, gravediggers, trash collectors, etc. In approximately 1500 B.C., a group of people known as the Aryans invaded India. The Aryans were semi-nomadic people who brought many new ideas to India, including their religion. Their religious beliefs were included in the Vedas, a collection of prayers, chants, sacrificial details and other meditations. The caste system began in India after the Aryans invaded and established their own rules for governing the society. The Aryans prohibited marriages between their own people and the people of the civilizations they conquered. From 1000 B.C. to 500 B.C., rigid social classes emerged in India. They included the subgroups of the caste system listed above. The Outcastes or Untouchables were considered such a low group that they were never mentioned or acknowledged in society. Over time, each of the subgroups, or castes, became subdivided into over 3,000 castes. Each caste had a specific place in society based on their purity determined at birth. They socialized, ate, married, worked and worshipped with their own caste. They would never consider marrying or working outside their caste. The Indians believed that they could attain a higher caste position in the next life by leading a good life. This belief was derived from the Hindu religious teachings of karma and reincarnation. They also believed that they could be reincarnated into the body of an insect if they did not lead a good life in their current position. 12

13 GROUP ACTIVITY - The Caste System of Ancient India Directions: After reading the handout titled "Overview: The Caste System of Ancient India" you are to discuss the handout with the members of your group. Each person in your group should be wearing a name card, placing him or her into a specific Indian caste. You should treat the people in your group as if they are actually members of that caste. Roles: THE BRAHMAN is the most important person in your group. Agree with anything s/he says. Do anything s/he tells you to. This is the wisest person in your group. Because s/he is so intelligent, any answer s/he gives is acceptable. THE KSHATRIYA is the most important person in your group. Ask the Kshatriya to protect you from the other groups in the room who may try to invade your group and steal your answers. Also, ask the Kshatriya to keep the Untouchables out of your group. THE VAISYAS is in an important caste, but, not nearly as important as the others already mentioned. Tell the Vaisya to record the answers on your assignment sheet. This is his job. The Vaisya may try to give you answers, however, they will be wrong, so laugh off anything s/he says. THE SUDRAS have little importance to your group. Ignore anything the Sudras says. When the Brahman has finished expounding his profound knowledge and the Vaisya has recorded it, tell the Sudra to hand in the assignment sheet. Otherwise pretend s/he doesn't exist. THE UNTOUCHABLES should be completely ignored. Do not talk to them nor should you acknowledge their presence in any way. If they come near you move away quickly so that you are not contaminated. 13

14 Hindu Creation Myth and the Caste System About the Document The Aryan invasion of the subcontinent around 1,500 B.C.E. brought with it a new religion that featured a pantheon of gods that the Aryans worshiped through ritualism and with burnt sacrifices. Over the next thousand years, the religion matured, probably incorporating some elements of Harappan theology and certainly establishing a rigid social structure. Centuries later, Europeans would dub this five-tiered social structure "the caste system." The caste system became a central element of both Hindu theology and Indian society. The brahman, or priest class, followed by the kshatriya, or warrior class, and the vaishya, or merchant class, were at the top of Indian society. The bulk of India's population were shudra, peasants and artisans. A fifth element of that society, one not even acknowledged in religious writings but certainly existing, were the pariahs, or untouchables. These menials labored at jobs considered demeaning or taboo for the four classes. To understand the future development of India and Hinduism, one must recognize and understand the caste system. Around 500 B.C.E., Indians began to record their extensive oral religious traditions in what has become known as the Vedic literature. The oldest of the four Vedas is the Rig-Veda, and it is there that the Hindu creation myth and the basis for the caste system can be found. Another glimpse of the origins of the Hindu caste system can be seen in The Law of Manu, written around 200 C.E., viewed as a guide to proper behavior for Hindus. Selections from both texts are included below. From the Rig-Veda Thousand-headed Purusha, thousand-eyed, thousand-footed he, having pervaded the earth on all sides, still extends ten fingers beyond it. Purusha alone is all this whatever has been and whatever is going to be. Further, he is the lord of immortality and also of what grows on account of food. Such is his greatness; greater, indeed, than this is Purusha. All creatures constitute but one quarter of him, his three-quarters are the immortal in the heaven.with his three-quarters did Purusha rise up; one quarter of him again remains here. With it did he variously spread out on all sides over what eats and what eats not. From him was Viraj born, from Viraj evolved Purusha. He, being born, projected himself behind the earth as also before it. When the gods performed the sacrifice with Purusha as the oblation, then the spring was its clarified butter, the summer the sacrificial fuel, and the autumn the oblation. The sacrificial victim, namely, Purusha, born at the very beginning, they sprinkled with sacred water upon the sacrificial grass. With him as oblation the gods performed the sacrifice, and also the Sadhyas [a class of semidivine beings] and the rishis [ancient seers]. From that wholly offered sacrificial oblation were born the verses and the sacred chants; from it were born the meters; the sacrificial formula was born from it. 14

15 From it horses were born and also those animals who have double rows [i.e., upper and lower] of teeth; cows were born from it, from it were born goats and sheep. When they divided Purusha, in how many different portions did they arrange him? What became of his mouth, what of his two arms? What were his two thighs and his two feet called? His mouth became the brahman; his two arms were made into the rajanya; his two thighs the vaishyas; from his two feet the shudra was born. The moon was born from the mind, from the eye the sun was born; from the mouth Indra and Agni, from the breath the wind was born. From the navel was the atmosphere created, from the head the heaven issued forth; from the two feet was born the earth and the quarters [the cardinal directions] from the ear. Thus did they fashion the worlds. Seven were the enclosing sticks in this sacrifice, thrice seven were the fire-sticks made, when the gods, performing the sacrifice, bound down Purusha, the sacrificial victim. With this sacrificial oblation did the gods offer the sacrifice. These were the first norms [dharma] of sacrifice. These greatnesses reached to the sky wherein live the ancient Sadhyas and gods. Source: The Rig-Veda, 10.90, in Sources of Indian Tradition by Theodore de Bary (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958), pp From The Law of Manu But in the beginning he assigned their several names, actions, and conditions (created beings), even according to the words of the Veda. He, the Lord, also created the class of the gods, who are endowed with life, and whose nature is action; and the subtile class of the Sadhyas, and the eternal sacrifice. But from fire, wind, and the sun he drew forth the threefold eternal Veda, called Rik, Yaius, and Saman, for the due performance of the sacrifice. Time and the divisions of time, the lunar mansions and the planets, the rivers, the oceans, the mountains, plains, and uneven ground, Austerity, speech, pleasure, desire, and anger, this whole creation he likewise produced, as he desired to call these beings into existence. Whatever he assigned to each at the (first) creation, noxiousness or harmlessness, gentleness or ferocity, virtue or sin, truth or falsehood, that clung (afterwards) spontaneously to it. As at the change of the seasons each season of its own accord assumes its distinctive marks, even so corporeal beings (resume in new births) their (appointed) course of action. But for the sake of the prosperity of the worlds, he created the Brahman, the Kshatriya, the Vaishya, and the Shudra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet. To Brahmans he assigned teaching and studying (the Veda), sacrificing for their own benefit and for others, giving and accepting (of alms). The Kshatriya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures. 15

16 The Vaishya to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend money, and to cultivate land. One occupation only the lord prescribed to the Shudra, to serve meekly even these (other) three castes. Source: Manu, The Law of Manu, in The Sacred Books of the East, vol. XXV, ed. F. Max Müller (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1886), pp , 24. Glossary Oblation Offering made to a deity. Indra Chief of the Vedic gods; the god of rain and thunder. Agni Hindu god of fire. Analysis Questions 1. Compare caste to your society. 2. Describe the Hindu caste system as given in the two passages. 3. In your own words, describe the Hindu creation myth. Why are creation myths important? 4. The word "sacrifice" appears several times in the first passage. What could this tell us about Hinduism? 5. What hints that the caste system will be integral to Hindu society? 16

17 Cast(e)aways? Women in Classical India - (200 CE, 6th c. CE) Gender relations and the societal conditions experienced by women became a topic of intense study and debate in the second half of the twentieth century. Central to that study are the place of religion and its impact on the experience of women throughout history. Hindu beliefs, as expressed in the Vedic literature, placed the Indian woman in a thoroughly subservient position within the caste system. Her entire life was circumscribed by rigid laws, and even in death she could not guarantee escape from domination by men. The Law of Manu offers one of the clearest statements of dharma as its relates to Hindu women. Jainism and Buddhism offered little in the way of improving the lot of Indian women, though the Buddha reluctantly agreed to accept female nuns among his followers. In striking contrast to the strictures related by the scribe Manu are the second and third selection included below: poems by two Buddhist nuns, Mutta and Sumangalamata. Though still treated as second-class citizens, the two women revel in the freedom of their unique social position. The Law of Manu The Laws of Manu By a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently, even in her own house. In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent. She must not seek to separate herself from her father, husband, or sons; by leaving them she would make both (her own and her husband's) families contemptible. She must always be cheerful, clever in (the management of her) household affairs, careful in cleaning her utensils, and economical in expenditure. Him to whom her father may give her, or her brother with the father's permission, she shall obey as long as he lives, and when he is dead, she must not insult (his memory). For the sake of procuring good fortune to (brides), the recitation of benedictory texts and the sacrifice to the Lord of creatures are used at weddings; (but) the betrothal (by the father or guardian) is the cause of (the husband's) dominion (over his wife). The husband who wedded her with sacred texts, always gives happiness to his wife, both in season and out of season, in this world and in the next. Though destitute of virtue, or seeking pleasure (elsewhere), or devoid of good qualities (yet) a husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a faithful wife. No sacrifice, no vow, no fast must be performed by women apart (from their husbands); if a wife obeys her husband, she will for that (reason alone) be exalted in heaven. 17

18 A faithful wife, who desires to dwell (after death) with her husband, must never do anything that might displease him who took her hand, whether he be alive or dead. At her pleasure let her emaciate her body by (living on) pure flowers, roots, and fruit; but she must never even mention the name of another man after her husband has died. Until death let her be patient (of hardships), self-controlled, and chaste, and strive (to fulfil) that most excellent duty which (is prescribed) for wives who have one husband only. Many thousands of Brâhmanas who were chaste from their youth, have gone to heaven without continuing their race. A virtuous wife who after the death of her husband constantly remains chaste, reaches heaven, though she have no son, just like those chaste men. But a woman who from a desire to have offspring violates her duty towards her (deceased) husband, brings on herself disgrace in this world, and loses her place with her husband (in heaven). Offspring begotten by another man is here not (considered lawful), nor (does offspring begotten) on another man's wife (belong to the begetter), nor is a second husband anywhere prescribed for virtuous women. She who cohabits with a man of higher caste, forsaking her own husband who belongs to a lower one, will become contemptible in this world, and is called a remarried woman. By violating her duty towards her husband, a wife is disgraced in this world, (after death) she enters the womb of a jackal, and is tormented by diseases (the punishment of) her sin. She who, controlling her thoughts, words, and deeds, never slights her lord, resides (after death) with her husband (in heaven), and is called a virtuous (wife). In reward of such conduct, a female who controls her thoughts, speech, and actions, gains in this (life) highest renown, and in the next (world) a place near her husband. 18

19 Poems from Two Buddhist Nuns MUTTA So free am I, so gloriously free, Free from three petty things -- From mortar, from pestle and from my twisted lord, Freed from rebirth and death I am, And all that has held me down Is hurled away. SUMANGALAMATA A woman well set free! How free I am, How wonderfully free, from kitchen drudgery. Free from the harsh grip of hunger, And from empty cooking pots, Free too of that unscrupulous man, The weaver of sunshades. Calm now, and serene I am, All lust and hatred purged. To the shade of the spreading trees I go And contemplate my happiness. Analysis Questions: 1. According to Manu, what are the primary duties of a Hindu women? 2. What words would you use to describe the life of a Hindu Women? 3. Describe the nature of the poems written by Buddhist women? 4. What part do you think that religion has played in the gender relationships throughout history? The Law of Manu: The Sacred Books of the East. E Poems: Women Writing in India. 600 B.C. to the Present. 19

20 Desire, Denial, Dharma: Buddhism There are comparatively few Buddhists in India, but that is where Buddhism began. There are various stories about the founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama (c BC), a Hindu prince probably from the far north, near or in Nepal. The wealthy prince lived a sheltered life in a palace, never seeing the lives of the commoners. One day he slipped out and walked the streets, encountering an old man, a sick man, a funeral, and a tranquil beggar-monk. Gripped with the realization of mortality and yearning for the tranquility he saw in the monk s face, the young prince decided to renounce his wealth, and become a wandering holy man seeking truth. He spent days in meditation. Various teachers failed to satisfy his questions. He became disillusioned with Hinduism, especially its caste system and the futility of worshipping idols and animals. Neither extreme indulgence nor extreme asceticism appealed to the prince-monk. Then one day, sitting under a fig tree, he received a flash of truth or enlightenment that became the foundation of his philosophy. The Four Noble Truths, or tenets of Buddhism are: I. All life is an endless chain of suffering and reincarnation. The essence of human existence is suffering. Like Hindus, Buddhists seek freedom from the wheel of reincarnation. II. Suffering is caused by desire, therefore one must be free from desire. Desire comes from the delusion that one is an independent physical being. III. Escape from desire and delusion will release mortals from the karma of reincarnation this is the point of enlightenment (bodhi). IV. A person can escape desire and the cycle of death and rebirth by pursuing the Eight Fold Path: the eight things a Buddhist must do rightly are: 1. Have the right understanding that the physical is not the higher reality. This should lead to Middle Way of non-extremism and an understanding that things exist/do not exist simultaneously. 2. Have right intentions renounce desire and do no harm. 3. Engage in right speech. 4. Perform right actions. 5. Have a livelihood that does no harm. 6. Make sincere efforts to improve oneself. 7. Be mindful of self, renouncing desire, and mindful of one s place in the universe by practicing meditation and developing mental discipline. The prince became known as the Buddha, or Enlightened One, and he began to teach this to others. Buddha condemned struggle, which included war, slavery, murder, and the caste system of Hinduism. Indeed, when asked spiritual questions, the Buddha often refused to answer, seeming to 20

21 indicate that answers were insignificant in a cosmos where opposite and seemingly mutually exclusive truths existed simultaneously. After his death, his followers (Buddhists) proclaimed his deity. Many Buddhists pray at statues of Buddha in temples, but there are some Buddhists who reject the deification of Buddha and even argue that Buddhism is not a religion at all but an atheistic philosophy with little to say about the supernatural. Many Buddhists believe in evolution, since there is no entity that is creator-god, but merely an impersonal consciousness. The Buddhist scriptures are the Pali Canon or Tipitaka. Buddhists worship through meditation and chants, seeking to connect and submerge the individual consciousness with the universal Great Soul. The Buddhist concept of god is not of a person or persons, but of a presence or force; some even call Buddhism atheistic in the sense that god is the cosmic spirit in all of us, all of life, rather than a distinct and separate being. Buddhism is not about either believing or not believing in gods. Rather, Buddha taught that the question of god or gods is irrelevant in seeking enlightenment. God is unnecessary in Buddhism. While Hinduism is about the realization of self or atman and the divine within, Buddhism is about the denial or the extinction of self [anatman]. This state of nirvana is to lose self and identity in the blending of one s soul into the Great Soul (or god-force) in a state of nonexistence and bliss. This extinction will end one s suffering, which is an illusion since the physical is not as real as the spiritual. Many Buddhists become monks or nuns, though unlike Christianity, Buddhists are not necessarily committed to monasticism for life, and a good number become monks for only their final years. Good works, meditative activities, and worship of Buddha or another master teacher all acquire merit on the road to nirvana, though there are many variations and sects. As in Hinduism, there is no forgiveness for bad actions; rather one hopes to earn enough good karma to cancel or outweigh bad karma. Ultimately however, Buddhists generally seek enlightenment by eliminating their desires through self-awareness, self-discipline, and self-denial. Although only a small sect in India, Buddhist teachings spread north and east into China, Japan, and the southeast Asian peninsula. Thus Buddhism became a dominant religion to the Far East. It is possible to be both Buddhist and something else; in Asia many Buddhists also admire the Chinese philosopher Confucius or practice traditional veneration of ancestors. Theravada Buddhism (dominant in Southeast Asia) tends to be more philosophical, seeking wisdom (reason), reserving religious activities for monks, having a limited number of holy writings, and seeing Buddha as a saint. Mahayana Buddhism (which developed around the first century AD and is popular in East Asia) focuses more on compassion, believes in saviors (bodhisattvas) who transmit their enlightened views through religious acts, and reveres a large number of holy writings, since bodhisattvas (enlightened guides) are constantly appearing and adding new scriptures. It has various sub-branches, including Zen Buddhism which abandons all scripture, teaches that every person is a potential Buddha, and believes that truth is found within one s self by meditation as taught by a master, often using verbal puzzles called koans. Tibetan Buddhism includes traditional Tibetan spirit worship and the belief that several key religious leaders or lamas are to be revered as reincarnated great teachers, the most significant of whom is the Dalai Lama. Since Buddhism and Hinduism are related (though not identical), let s summarize both worldviews: What is prime reality? 21

22 Hinduism: The physical world we see is not real, or it is less real, than a greater spiritual reality called Brahmin. Buddhism: The physical world we see is illusion; there is a greater cosmic reality which is the Universe itself. 2. Who am I? Hinduism: Your body, personality, and identity on the outside are merely temporary; the real you is your soul (atman) which reincarnates until you have enough karma to reach heaven and even then there is something beyond heaven which is to no longer desire pleasure at all. Buddhism: Your body, personality, and identity on the outside are merely temporary; the real you is your soul which is itself an illusion it is part of the universal Great Soul (anatman) which reincarnates until you are enlightened. At that point your anatman merges with the cosmos and you cease to exist at all, and this no longer suffer. 3. What about god? Hinduism:Some believe Brahmin is a supreme god and that there are lesser gods (polytheism) while others believe that Brahmin is a god-force that is in all the god/avatars and perhaps in all living beings (pantheism). Buddhism: Buddhists reject the idea of a person called god; many consider Buddhism to be a spiritualized atheism while others believe that there are spiritual beings and a spiritual world but that god is the ultimate real force behind the universe. 4. How do I know what is true? Hinduism: Reason is of limited value if the physical is illusion. One seeks truth through meditation and experience. Contradiction, paradox, and mystical rejection of reason as illusion is a common theme. Buddhism: One cannot know but one can be enlightened though ultimately, since ceasing to exist is the ultimate reward, to not know is to know nothing can be, in the Western sense, known. Contradiction, paradox, and mystical rejection of reason as illusion is a common theme. 5. How do we explain the world being here at all? Though Hindus have some creation myths, both Hindus and Buddhists ultimately believe the cosmos has always been. 6. What s the purpose of life? Both Hindus and Buddhists strive to escape the wheel of reincarnation; to accumulate enough karma to avoid suffering in the next life. 22

23 7. What is good? Hinduism: Dharma doing the duty of ones caste. Ethics vary depending on the person and situation: Ethics is a relative science. What is good for one man may not be good for another man. What is good at one time and at one place may not be good at another time and at another place. 2 Buddhism: In Buddhism, there is much talk of a skilled mind. A mind that is skilful avoids actions that are likely to cause suffering or remorse. Buddhism places a great emphasis on 'mind' and it is mental anguish such as remorse, anxiety, or guilt Why is the world broken and is there hope to change that condition? Hinduism: Hinduism is a cultural faith, not a missionary faith, so universal a great concern. The wheel of life and rebirth will continue in a never ending cycle. salvation is not Buddhism: Buddhism is a missionary faith ultimately suffering ends when identity and individual desire end; individual desire ends when a soul ceases to exist having been enlightened and no longer being trapped in the wheel of reincarnation and returning to merge with the universal consciousness. Ironically, Buddhism did not gain many followers in India, but it spread most successfully to Southeast Asia, Japan, and China. It did not dominate China, but became a very influential religion in a vast land with its own ancient belief in ancestors, with many other faiths, and with a long tradition of blending diverse worldviews. 2 From hinduonline.co 3 From buddhanet.net 23

24 The Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path A Poem about Buddhism The greatest achievement is selflessness. The greatest worth is self-mastery. The greatest quality is seeking to serve others. The greatest precept is continual awareness. The greatest medicine is the emptiness of everything. The greatest action is not conforming with the world's ways. The greatest magic is transmuting the passions. The greatest generosity is non-attachment. The greatest goodness is a peaceful mind. The greatest patience is humility. The greatest effort is not concerned with results. The greatest meditation is a mind that lets go. The greatest wisdom is seeing through appearances. The Four Noble Truths 1. Life means suffering. 2. The origin of suffering is attachment. 3. The cessation of suffering is attainable. 4. The path to the cessation of suffering. 1. Life means suffering To live means to suffer, because the human nature is not perfect and neither is the world we live in. During our lifetime, we inevitably have to endure physical suffering such as pain, sickness, injury, tiredness, old age, and eventually death; and we have to endure psychological suffering like sadness, fear, frustration, disappointment, and depression. Although there are different degrees of suffering and there are also positive experiences in life that we perceive as the opposite of suffering, such as ease, comfort and happiness, life in its totality is imperfect and incomplete, because our world is subject to impermanence. This means we are never able to keep permanently what we strive for, and just as happy moments pass by, we ourselves and our loved ones will pass away one day, too. 2. The origin of suffering is attachment The origin of suffering is attachment to transient things and the ignorance thereof. Transient things do not only include the physical objects that surround us, but also ideas, and -in a greater sense- all objects of our perception. Ignorance is the lack of understanding of how our mind is attached to impermanent things. The reasons for suffering are desire, passion, ardour, pursuit of wealth and prestige, striving for fame and popularity, or in short: craving and clinging. Because the objects of our attachment are transient, their loss is inevitable, thus suffering will necessarily follow. Objects of attachment also include the idea of a self which is a delusion, because there 24

25 is no abiding self. What we call self is just an imagined entity, and we are merely a part of the ceaseless becoming of the universe. 3. The cessation of suffering is attainable The cessation of suffering can be attained through nirodha. Nirodha means the unmaking of sensual craving and conceptual attachment. The third noble truth expresses the idea that suffering can be ended by attaining dispassion. Nirodha extinguishes all forms of clinging and attachment. This means that suffering can be overcome through human activity, simply by removing the cause of suffering. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from all worries, troubles, complexes, fabrications and ideas. Nirvana is not comprehensible for those who have not attained it. 4. The path to the cessation of suffering There is a path to the end of suffering a gradual path of self-improvement, which is described more detailed in the Eightfold Path. It is the middle way between the two extremes of excessive self-indulgence (hedonism) and excessive self-mortification (asceticism); and it leads to the end of the cycle of rebirth. The latter quality discerns it from other paths which are merely wandering on the wheel of becoming, because these do not have a final object. The path to the rebirth is subject to karmic conditioning. Craving, ignorance, delusions, and its effects will disappear gradually, as progress is made on the path. Wisdom 1. Right View 2. Right Intention Ethical Conduct 3. Right Speech 4. Right Action 5. Right Livelihood Mental Development 6. Right Effort 7. Right Mindfulness 8. Right Concentration The Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path describes the way to the end of suffering, as it was laid out by Siddhartha Gautama. It is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing the individual from attachments and delusions; and it finally leads to understanding the truth about all things. Together with the Four Noble Truths it constitutes the gist of Buddhism. Great emphasis is put on the practical aspect, because it is only through practice that one can attain a higher level of existence and finally reach Nirvana. The eight aspects of the path are not to be understood as a sequence of single steps, instead they are highly interdependent principles that have to be seen in relationship with each other. 25

26 1. Right View Right view is the beginning and the end of the path, it simply means to see and to understand things as they really are and to realize the Four Noble Truth. As such, right view is the cognitive aspect of wisdom. It means to see things through, to grasp the impermanent and imperfect nature of worldly objects and ideas, and to understand the law of karma and karmic conditioning. Right view is not necessarily an intellectual capacity, just as wisdom is not just a matter of intelligence. Instead, right view is attained, sustained, and enhanced through all capacities of mind. It begins with the intuitive insight that all beings are subject to suffering and it ends with complete understanding of the true nature of all things. Since our view of the world forms our thoughts and our actions, right view yields right thoughts and right actions. 2. Right Intention While right view refers to the cognitive aspect of wisdom, right intention refers to the volitional aspect, i.e. the kind of mental energy that controls our actions. Right intention can be described best as commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement. Buddha distinguishes three types of right intentions: 1. the intention of renunciation, which means resistance to the pull of desire, 2. the intention of good will, meaning resistance to feelings of anger and aversion, and 3. the intention of harmlessness, meaning not to think or act cruelly, violently, or aggressively, and to develop compassion. 3. Right Speech Right speech is the first principle of ethical conduct in the eightfold path. Ethical conduct is viewed as a guideline to moral discipline, which supports the other principles of the path. This aspect is not self-sufficient, however, essential, because mental purification can only be achieved through the cultivation of ethical conduct. The importance of speech in the context of Buddhist ethics is obvious: words can break or save lives, make enemies or friends, start war or create peace. Buddha explained right speech as follows: 1. to abstain from false speech, especially not to tell deliberate lies and not to speak deceitfully, 2. to abstain from slanderous speech and not to use words maliciously against others, 3. to abstain from harsh words that offend or hurt others, and 4. to abstain from idle chatter that lacks purpose or depth. Positively phrased, this means to tell the truth, to speak friendly, warm, and gently and to talk only when necessary. 4. Right Action The second ethical principle, right action, involves the body as natural means of expression, as it refers to deeds that involve bodily actions. Unwholesome actions lead to unsound states of mind, while wholesome actions lead to sound states of mind. Again, the principle is explained in terms of abstinence: right action means 1. to abstain from harming sentient beings, especially to abstain from taking life (including suicide) and doing harm intentionally or delinquently, 2. to abstain from taking what is not given, which includes stealing, robbery, fraud, deceitfulness, and dishonesty, and 3. to abstain from sexual misconduct. Positively formulated, right action means to act kindly and compassionately, to be honest, to respect the belongings of others, and to keep sexual relationships harmless to others. Further details regarding the concrete meaning of right action can be found in the Precepts. 26

27 5. Right Livelihood Right livelihood means that one should earn one s living in a righteous way and that wealth should be gained legally and peacefully. The Buddha mentions four specific activities that harm other beings and that one should avoid for this reason: 1. dealing in weapons, 2. dealing in living beings (including raising animals for slaughter as well as slave trade and prostitution), 3. working in meat production and butchery, and 4. selling intoxicants and poisons, such as alcohol and drugs. Furthermore any other occupation that would violate the principles of right speech and right action should be avoided. 6. Right Effort Right effort can be seen as a prerequisite for the other principles of the path. Without effort, which is in itself an act of will, nothing can be achieved, whereas misguided effort distracts the mind from its task, and confusion will be the consequence. Mental energy is the force behind right effort; it can occur in either wholesome or unwholesome states. The same type of energy that fuels desire, envy, aggression, and violence can on the other side fuel self-discipline, honesty, benevolence, and kindness. Right effort is detailed in four types of endeavors that rank in ascending order of perfection: 1. to prevent the arising of unarisen unwholesome states, 2. to abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen, 3. to arouse wholesome states that have not yet arisen, and 4. to maintain and perfect wholesome states already arisen. 7. Right Mindfulness Right mindfulness is the controlled and perfected faculty of cognition. It is the mental ability to see things as they are, with clear consciousness. Usually, the cognitive process begins with an impression induced by perception, or by a thought, but then it does not stay with the mere impression. Instead, we almost always conceptualize sense impressions and thoughts immediately. We interpret them and set them in relation to other thoughts and experiences, which naturally go beyond the facility of the original impression. The mind then posits concepts, joins concepts into constructs, and weaves those constructs into complex interpretative schemes. All this happens only half consciously, and as a result we often see things obscured. Right mindfulness is anchored in clear perception and it penetrates impressions without getting carried away. Right mindfulness enables us to be aware of the process of conceptualization in a way that we actively observe and control the way our thoughts go. Buddha accounted for this as the four foundations of mindfulness: 1. contemplation of the body, 2. contemplation of feeling (repulsive, attractive, or neutral), 3. contemplation of the state of mind, and 4. contemplation of the phenomena. 8. Right Concentration The eighth principle of the path, right concentration, refers to the development of a mental force that occurs in natural consciousness, although at a relatively low level of intensity, namely concentration. Concentration in this context is described as one-pointedness of mind, meaning a state where all mental faculties are unified and directed onto one particular object. Right concentration for the purpose of the eightfold path means wholesome concentration, i.e. concentration on wholesome thoughts and actions. The Buddhist method of choice to develop right concentration is through the practice of meditation. The meditating mind focuses on a selected object. It first directs itself onto it, then sustains concentration, and finally intensifies 27

28 concentration step by step. Through this practice it becomes natural to apply elevated levels concentration also in everyday situations 28

29 Suffering and the Problem of Evil The first sermon that the Buddha preached after his enlightenment concerned the Four Noble Truths. This is the most well known of Buddhist doctrines in the west, and there are some fairly standard English translations ("Life is suffering. The cause of suffering is desire," and so forth), but the standard translations are somewhat misleading. First, these are not truths that are noble, but truths that have been realized by the (spiritually) noble. They might more accurately be called four realities of life known to those who are spiritually aware. These four realities are: the truth of suffering, the truth of arising, the truth of cessation, and the truth of the path. Suffering: The word often translated as suffering has no English equivalent. The meaning of the phrase is not that "life is miserable," as the English translation might seem to indicate, but that some pain is inevitable in life. Birth is painful, sickness is painful, aging is painful, death is painful. It is painful to experience unhappiness and displeasure; it is painful to want something and not be able to have it; it is painful to have something and lose it; it is painful when a pleasurable experience ends. What the Buddha had been seeking when he became enlightened was a way out of samsara, the endless cycle of death and rebirth. The Hindu texts, the Upanishads, which were written at around the same time, had argued that the way out of the endless cycle of death and rebirth was to realize that one's individual self or soul (atman) is a part of the world soul (Brahman) Some scholars argue that the Buddha's solution to end this cycle was to realize that there is no self, no atman. If there is no self, there is nothing to reincarnate, nothing to endure this endless cycle. Others scholars argue that Buddha refused to answer questions about the self, and that to deny the existence of the self is just as much of an obstacle as is the self. According to textual accounts of his first sermon, written long after his death, what the Buddha said was that the forms of suffering he listed (birth, sickness, aging, loss, etc.) are examples of "the five aggregates subject to clinging." These five aggregates, or skandhas, are what makes up the self: form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. Each of these constituents is constantly changing, constantly in flux; therefore the "self" is also constantly changing. While there may be an experience of selfhood, there is no permanent, unchanging self. Arising: Humans tend to long for what they do not have, or to wish for their lives to be different than they are; they often fail to fully appreciate what they do have. This longing (craving, desire) gives rise to, or causes, a new cycle of life and death. The Four Noble Truths are often understood as a series of propositions, or as a prescription for approaching disease: symptom/cause/elimination of cause/remedy. In this formulation, cause, or arising, is the pivotal moment. Buddhist scholar Donald Lopez says, "If it is possible to identify a particular contribution of the Buddha to the philosophies of his day, it would be the thoroughgoing emphasis on causation as an inexorable force whose devastating effects can be escaped by understanding its operation. That is, everything is an effect of a cause. If the cause can be identified and destroyed, the effect is also destroyed." Cessation: It is possible to stop this cycle. 29

30 Path: The path to the end of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path (that is, the eightfold path for the spiritually aware): right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration. This remedy of the Eightfold Path may seem like a moral answer to a philosophical problem, and to some extent, it is. Ashoka, when spreading his edicts about the teachings of Buddhism, focused on moral guidelines rather than complex philosophical ideas. On another level, this list is a response to the audience, to which it is addressed, the men with whom Buddha had practiced extreme asceticism before deciding that it was not the right path for him. According to the texts, the Buddha began his sermon by saying that one should follow a middle path between asceticism and hedonism, and then he listed the elements of the Eightfold Path, repeating them again shortly afterward when presenting the four truths. Thus, one meaning of the Eightfold Path is that extreme approaches to seeking enlightenment are not necessary. In Buddhism, while life may be full of suffering, it is not evil, nor are there evil entities in the world tempting people to sin and self-destruction. This is not to say that there are no demonic forces in the Buddhist world. There are demons that can cause disease or other misfortunes, and demons to punish wrongdoers in the Buddhist hells, but an angry deceased relative can be equally dangerous. Often Buddhists enlist demons into the service of the good. For example, before beginning to make a sand mandala, Tibetan monks will capture demons and install them at the four corners of the mandala to protect it. In Japan one can obtain a "traffic demon" amulet as protection from automobile accidents. Buddhists have long been regarded as specialists who can be counted on to defeat or convert demons, which they do through spells, rituals, or dialogue. They may also transfer merit or otherwise meet the spiritual need of the demon, and thus convert it. If there is "evil" in Buddhism, it is the greed, anger, and delusion that give rise to samsara. Human nature is not evil, per se, but it can give rise to suffering. The goal of the Buddha's dharma is not to eliminate all suffering or to create a perfect life or world, but to learn how best to deal with the suffering that is a normal part of human life. Study Questions: 1. How has western translation contributed to a misunderstanding of Buddhism's teachings? 2. How can one break the cycle of samsara? 3. How do the four noble truths contrast to western medicine's methodology of treating disease 30

31 Buddhism: Moral Thought and Action One of the fundamental Buddhist principles of moral thought and action is karma. Until such time as one becomes enlightened, one's actions in this life will determine the nature of future rebirths. A related concept fundamental to Buddhism is merit. Acts of generosity toward and support of Buddhist monks are channeled by the monks toward advancement for the giver in future rebirths or toward improving the lot of deceased relatives. The Buddha's Four Noble Truths are another guiding principle of moral thought and action, particularly as expressed in the fourth truth, the Eightfold Path. The motivation for following the Four Noble Truths is not to "be good" per se, but to facilitate the realization the Buddhists call enlightenment. The English translation of the terms within the path does nothing to dispel the impression that the Eightfold Path is a series of moral injunctions "right effort," "right livelihood," etc. as the term "right" in English implies "correct." A more accurate translation for "right" in this case might be "skillful." Practically speaking, since the earliest days of Buddhism, many have regarded the Eightfold Path as a set of guidelines for correct behavior, and it is not difficult to see why. Even in the early texts, the Buddha often mentioned "do nots" when discussing the Eightfold Path. The eight items in the Eightfold Path are often divided into three categories: right view, right conduct, and right practice. These classifications are aids to remembering and understanding the nature of each item in the list. It is important to note that the Eightfold Path is not a series of consecutive steps like the 12 steps of Alcoholics Anonymous. In a sense, each is a path in and of itself. For example, it is not necessary to establish "right understanding" before undertaking "right livelihood." Right view (Prajna) 1. Right understanding: Recalling that the first step in dependent arising is ignorance, it is not surprising that the first item the Buddha mentioned in listing the Eightfold Path was right understanding. To have right understanding is to comprehend that life is impermanent and that one's illusion of a separate and individual self contributes to one's dissatisfaction in life. 2. Right thought: To cultivate right thought is to avoid unhealthy states of mind that give rise to suffering, such as greed or anger or hatred. This path is not just about avoidance, however; often called right aspiration, it involves actively cultivating compassionate thoughts and positive wishes for others. Right conduct (Shila) 3. Right speech: The Buddha taught that wrong speech included lying, slander, harsh words, and gossip. As in the previous case, it is not enough simply to avoid these; one must also cultivate speech that is kind and compassionate. 4. Right action: Actions that are not "right" are those that are forbidden by the five precepts: lying, stealing, killing, taking intoxicants, and sexual misconduct. Instead, one must act with respect, generosity, self-control, honesty, and compassion. 31

32 5. Right livelihood: One should not pursue an occupation that harms or exploits others, nor should one be motivated by a big salary or hope to earn more than one needs. The right livelihood is one that provides for one's needs while at the same time serving others and improving the human condition. Right practice (Samadhi) 6. Right effort: To follow the Buddha's teachings is difficult and requires conscientious effort. This effort need not involve straining or struggling. Instead of trying to prevent wrong thoughts or speech, for example, one can, when they occur, simply let them go. One could try to understand them without allowing them to fester, or one could visualize the negative consequences if they are allowed to persist. Another method is to consciously cultivate more productive mental states. One can also change one's environment to one that is more conducive to following the proper path. 7. Right mindfulness: To be mindful is to be aware of one's thoughts, feelings, and actions so that one is not controlled by them. In addition, mindfulness is awareness of the nature of the world and its operations. 8. Right concentration: This involves a one-pointed focus on spiritual realization. It is a way of avoiding distractions and disruptive emotions and directing the mind toward productive action. The Buddha taught specific practices to cultivate right concentration, forms of meditation that encouraged either tranquility or insight. The Eightfold Path, along with the concepts of merit and karma, while originally directed toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment, serve also as behavioral guidelines. Within the Buddhist world, these concepts effectively inspire moral behavior and foster social harmony. Study Questions: 1. Describe the relationship of merit and karma. 2. Describe how the eight items of the Eightfold Path are categorized. How do they relate to one another? 3. What is meant by right, as it is used within the Eightfold Path? 32

33 The Buddha (born Siddhartha Gautama), BCE Siddhartha Gautama was born a prince in Northern India. According to legend, it was predicted at Siddhartha s birth that he would become either a great ruler or a great teacher. His father, the king, wanted Siddhartha to succeed him as ruler. For this reason, his father tried to prevent him from seeing or experiencing anything sad, which might cause him to become religious and teach others. Therefore, Siddhartha enjoyed his early years in the palace in luxury without knowing about things such as old age, sickness, or death. Eventually, the young prince decided to go outside of the palace. There, for the first time, he saw an old person with wrinkled skin who had difficulty walking. Siddhartha understood that he himself would also become old. He also saw a sick person and a dead person. All this made Siddhartha feel much suffering. During another trip, he saw a holy man who appeared to be happy and at peace. Siddhartha learned that this person had given up his home and everything he owned. The holy person was trying to find wisdom and peacefulness by living a pure and simple life. From then on, Siddhartha searched for a way to end suffering and become happy. He decided to follow the path of a holy person. He gave up everything he owned. He left his wife and young child and a life of luxury in the palace. He traveled around India for years, but he still did not find a way to end suffering. Finally, he decided to sit under a tree and meditate (become quiet and relaxed and clear his mind of thoughts) until he became enlightened (understood the truth about the world and such things as why there is suffering and how to end it). After meditating for several hours, he became enlightened and became known as the Buddha, or the one who knows the truth. Two Golden Statues of Buddha in a Temple Shanghai, China Photo by J. Rothblatt Buddhists burn incense and chant in a temple Shanghai, China Photo by J. Rothblatt 33

34 In order to share the truths he found with others, the Buddha became a teacher. (Remember: this is one of the career paths predicted for him at birth and the one that his father did not want him to take.) There are two main beliefs of Buddhism, that is, the teachings of the Buddha and his followers. One is the Four Noble Truths, which the Buddha discovered when he meditated beneath the tree. These truths are: Life is full of suffering from birth to death. People suffer because they desire (try to get) things that do not last, for example, money and possessions. The way to end suffering is to stop desiring things. The way to get rid of desire is to follow the Eightfold Path. According to Buddhism, the Eightfold Path means to lead a good life. People who follow this path are freed from suffering and gain happiness. These steps are: Right understanding. It is important to be certain that you understand the teachings of the Buddha correctly Right thought. Think thoughts that are pure and good. Right speech. Speak words that are truthful and not harmful. Right action. Treat people well, as you would like to be treated. Right work. Do not harm others as you earn a living. Right effort. Keep trying to become a better person; stop bad habits. Right mindfulness. Be mindful (or aware) of what you are doing and what is going on around you; always think about how you live Right meditation. Meditate correctly each day to clear your mind of desires and be able to find peace and truth When and why did Buddhism arrive in China? Buddhism probably first entered China along the silk roads, that is, the system of trade routes that connected China to lands farther west as far as the Mediterranean sea and Europe. Trade on the silk roads goes back thousands of years. By about 100 BCE, Buddhist missionaries began traveling on the routes along with traders. Trade routes opened contact and communication between people and places. In addition to goods, people and ideas spread along the trade routes. By 68 CE, a Chinese Han emperor asked some advisers to visit India to learn more about this western religion, that is, Indian religion. They returned to China with Buddhist monks. New religions and beliefs often become popular during difficult times when people are searching for answers to why there is suffering. When dynasties were ending in China there was much unrest, and the Chinese tended to embrace Buddhism more. For example, at the end of the Han dynasty, Buddhism became more popular. World History for Us All Big Era 5 Closeup

35 Judaism Christianity and Islam 35

36 Mono, Poly or Non Theistic Name of God(s) Sacred Text Founder Place or Origin Universal or Ethnic Symbol (draw) Key Beliefs Key Practices Regions/Countri es where it is practiced today Christianity Religions Comparison Chart Middle East Origins Judaism Islam 36

37 People of the Covenant: The Jews and Judaism 4 He has shown thee oh man what is good and what the Lord requires of thee. Do justice, show mercy, and walk humbly with thy God. Micah 6:8 Get Technical: Almost four thousand years ago, a nomadic tribe later called the Hebrews left the Euphrates valley (in modern Iraq) and migrated west to the Mediterranean coast, north of Egypt. Beginning with their father-founder Abraham (c.1800 BC) and continuing beyond the great law-giver Moses (b. c.1400 BC), they became a large tribe led by prophets and chieftains or patriarchs. Many of the people in the region where the Hebrews lived were pantheists, others were polytheists, though each had their pantheon of gods who were contradictory and fallible yet more potent than humans. Both tried to appease the forces of nature with sacrifices, some of which were human. Uniquely, the Hebrews developed a monotheistic [one god] worldview, as declared in the Shema during Jewish services: Hear oh Israel, the Lord thy God is One. While monotheism predates Abraham, the Hebrews are the earliest known group to embrace this idea forming a religion that is known as Judaism and whose followers are today known as Jews. We know of the Hebrews from the writings traditionally attributed to Moses (c.1450bc) that make up the Law or the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew scripture. Later writings, completed around 450 BC, eventually comprised the whole of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and include the writings of many other prophets, poets, and historians. Polytheists [Greek: poly=many / theos= god] believe in multiple gods, like the Greeks belief in Zeus, Apollo, Pan and other divine beings. Pantheists believe that nature is itself divine, animated by a force or spirit or spirits. Animism is the pantheistic and polytheistic worship of natural objects. Generally these divine gods are to be appeased to avoid disaster or achieve blessing; often the gods are in conflict with man or with each other. Theism The first book of Torah, Genesis, describes a single, creative, and all powerful creator, a god who was a personality rather than a force. God was I am, according to Moses a being beyond and outside the physical limits of time and space, pre-existent to the physical universe. Goodness and justice emanated from God as absolute qualities in the universe to which good men tried to conform. There might be lesser spiritual powers, but there was only one God. God was so holy (completely other than anything humans could imagine) that Jews rarely pronounced the name of God, Yahweh (in English often translated as Jehovah); instead they referred to Him by less direct titles such as Lord. Jews believe in an omniscient, omnipresent, and omnipotent God who commands ethical behavior, beginning with the Ten Commandments. 4 The Hebrews were an ancient ethnic group; their descendents were much later called Jews and many speak Hebrew (the language). Judaism is a religion and its followers are also called Jews (and almost all are also ethnically Jewish). The homeland of the Jewish people is today called Israel and its citizens whether Jewish or Arab are Israelis. I know, it s a bit confusing, but that s history for you. 37

38 God is a person with will and also a spirit, who transcends the limitations of the physical; He is perfect in His justice and character. Jews believe in acting with justice and mercy toward others, and in worshiping God through prayer, an ethical life, and obedience to Torah. Judaic beliefs and practices are further explicated in 613 rules as codified by the rabbinical councils in the first few centuries after the fall of Jerusalem in 70AD, and explained in the Talmud, a commentary on Scripture composed between 100 and 500 AD. Judaism teaches that humans are moral beings with both a spiritual and physical aspect. Indeed, humans are created in God s image, both male and female, though they are not themselves divine. Nevertheless, they are moral agents having the ability and responsibility to make moral choices, and bearing the consequences of those choices, ultimately judged by God. Judaism is an ethnic religion rather than a missionary religion; that is, Jews are not commanded to proselytize 5 others, though non-jews (Gentiles) are free to join. Ultimately, both Jews and Gentiles will face a final judgment where good will be rewarded and evil punished. Since perfect obedience is impossible, Jews rely on God s mercy in the next life. 1800?bce 1450? s 400s 320s 100sbce 70ce[ad] Hebrew history Abraham Moses Golden age 2 kingdoms last prophetic conquest conquest destruction barkochba 5 That is, to teach and persuade another to join a belief system. 38

39 Judaism The origins of the Hebrews, or Jews, and their religion, Judaism, remain a challenge to scholars. By far the most important evidence is found in the Torah, known in Christian tradition as the first five books of the Old Testament. This is a collection of books that narrates the beginnings and early history of the Jews. It is a more detailed, vivid account than we have for any other ancient people. This is the story of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Joshua, David, Solomon, and other larger-than-life personalities who struggled to fulfill a special covenant with God to witness his presence in the world. They were to obey all the commandments he laid down and to lead moral and ethical lives. Not all of these heroes managed to meet those standards of virtue all the time. In fact, it is the stories of backsliding and redemption that give the Hebrew Bible its special dramatic force and moral power. The Hebrews settled in the fertile hill country of Canaan, the southern part of the Levant. Sometime between the eleventh and ninth centuries BCE, the Hebrews organized the kingdom of Israel, establishing a capital in the little city of Jerusalem. They terraced the hillsides, planted fruit-bearing trees, and built up a modest agricultural economy. According to the Bible and a smattering of other evidence, the Israeli state arose under the leadership Saul, David, and Solomon, three successive kings who lived in the eleventh and tenth centuries BCE. After Solomon s reign, the unified kingdom split into two, Israel in the north, and Judah (from which we get the names Judaism and Jew) in the south. Like virtually all states of Southwest Asia, Israel had its patron god, called Yahweh, or Jehovah. In time, the doctrine emerged that Yahweh was the exclusive god of the Jews. They believed that he had chosen them as his instrument to establish his sacred law on earth and to fulfill his holy plan for humankind. Jewish women and men were to obey the commands, rituals, and dietary rules that God set forth. No longer were humans just pawns of fickle gods. The moral conduct of individuals determined their fate. One s relationship to God was in one s own hands. In the eighth century BCE, the Assyrians conquered both Israel and Judah and deported part of the Jewish leadership to the Tigris valley. The Hebrews never regained full independence in ancient times, although their religion survived. No one living at the time could have predicted that from this small band of Hebrew farmers would come the founding tradition of monotheism, the belief in one universal God. No one could have predicted that Judaism would be the root religion for two other major monotheistic religions, Christianity and Islam World History for Us All Big Era 4 Landscape 39

40 The Book of Job and Jewish Literature As one of the most renown and eloquent portions of eh Hebrew Scriptures, and one that deals with one of the most profound questions to be posed to any religious system, that of God s justice in the face of human suffering. As any people of the past, present, or future, the Hebrews wondered whether a just and almighty deity could permit the suffering of the innocent. If one considered a hypothetical situation, for example a man who had exemplary character and who was now suffering as a result of God s test, should this person curse God and die, or find some way to resolve his suffering at God s hands. Job 1 Job's Character and Wealth 1 There was a man in the land of Uz whose name was Job, and that man was blameless and upright, one who feared God and turned away from evil. 2 There were born to him seven sons and three daughters. 3 He possessed 7,000 sheep, 3,000 camels, 500 yoke of oxen, and 500 female donkeys, and very many servants, so that this man was the greatest of all the people of the east. 4 His sons used to go and hold a feast in the house of each one on his day, and they would send and invite their three sisters to eat and drink with them. 5 And when the days of the feast had run their course, Job would send and consecrate them, and he would rise early in the morning and offer burnt offerings according to the number of them all. For Job said, It may be that my children have sinned, and cursed [a] God in their hearts. Thus Job did continually. Satan Allowed to Test Job 6 Now there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the LORD, and Satan [b] also came among them. 7 The LORD said to Satan, From where have you come? Satan answered the LORD and said, From going to and fro on the earth, and from walking up and down on it. 8 And the LORD said to Satan, Have you considered my servant Job, that there is none like him on the earth, a blameless and upright man, who fears God and turns away from evil? 9 Then Satan answered the LORD and said, Does Job fear God for no reason? 10 Have you not put a hedge around him and his house and all that he has, on every side? You have blessed the work of his hands, and his possessions have increased in the land. 11 But stretch out your hand and touch all that he has, and he will curse you to your face. 12 And the LORD said to Satan, Behold, all that he has is in your hand. Only against him do not stretch out your hand. So Satan went out from the presence of the LORD. Satan Takes Job's Property and Children 13 Now there was a day when his sons and daughters were eating and drinking wine in their oldest brother's house, 14 and there came a messenger to Job and said, The oxen were plowing and the donkeys feeding beside them, 15 and the Sabeans fell upon them and took them and struck down the servants [c] with the edge of the sword, and I alone have escaped to tell you. 16 While he was yet speaking, there came another and said, The fire of God fell from heaven and 40

41 burned up the sheep and the servants and consumed them, and I alone have escaped to tell you. 17 While he was yet speaking, there came another and said, The Chaldeans formed three groups and made a raid on the camels and took them and struck down the servants with the edge of the sword, and I alone have escaped to tell you. 18 While he was yet speaking, there came another and said, Your sons and daughters were eating and drinking wine in their oldest brother's house, 19 and behold, a great wind came across the wilderness and struck the four corners of the house, and it fell upon the young people, and they are dead, and I alone have escaped to tell you. 20 Then Job arose and tore his robe and shaved his head and fell on the ground and worshiped. 21 And he said, Naked I came from my mother's womb, and naked shall I return. The LORD gave, and the LORD has taken away; blessed be the name of the LORD. 22 In all this Job did not sin or charge God with wrong. Job 40 1 The LORD said to Job: 2 Will the one who contends with the Almighty correct him? Let him who accuses God answer him! 3 Then Job answered the LORD: 4 I am unworthy how can I reply to you? I put my hand over my mouth. 5 I spoke once, but I have no answer twice, but I will say no more. 6 Then the LORD spoke to Job out of the storm: 7 Brace yourself like a man; I will question you, and you shall answer me. 8 Would you discredit my justice? Would you condemn me to justify yourself? 9 Do you have an arm like God s, and can your voice thunder like his? 10 Then adorn yourself with glory and splendor, and clothe yourself in honor and majesty. 11 Unleash the fury of your wrath, look at all who are proud and bring them low, 12 look at all who are proud and humble them, crush the wicked where they stand. 13 Bury them all in the dust together; shroud their faces in the grave. 14 Then I myself will admit to you that your own right hand can save you Job 42 1Then Job answered the LORD and said: 2 I know that you can h do all things, and that no purpose of yours can be thwarted. 3 i Who is this that hides counsel without knowledge? Therefore I have uttered what I did not understand, things j too wonderful for me, which I did not know. 4 Hear, and I will speak; k I will question you, and you make it known to me. 5 I had heard of you by the hearing of the ear, but now my eye sees you; 6 therefore I despise myself, and repent 1 in l dust and ashes. The LORD Rebukes Job s Friends 7 After the LORD had spoken these words to Job, the LORD said to Eliphaz m the Temanite: My anger burns against you and against your two friends, for you have not spoken of me what is right, as my servant Job has. 8 Now therefore take n seven bulls and seven rams and go to my servant Job and o offer up a burnt offering for yourselves. And my servant Job shall p pray for you, for I will accept his prayer not to deal with you according to your folly. For you have not spoken of me what is right, as my servant Job has. 9 q So Eliphaz the Temanite and Bildad the Shuhite 41

42 and Zophar the Naamathite went and did what the LORD had told them, and the LORD accepted Job s prayer. The LORD Restores Job s Fortunes 10 And the LORD r restored the fortunes of Job, when he had prayed for his friends. And the LORD gave Job s twice as much as he had before. 11 Then came to him all his t brothers and sisters and all who had t known him before, and ate bread with him in his house. And they u showed him sympathy and comforted him for all the evil 2 that the LORD had brought upon him. And each of them gave him v a piece of money 3 and w a ring of gold. 12 And the LORD blessed x the latter days of Job more than his beginning. And he had y 14,000 sheep, 6,000 camels, 1,000 yoke of oxen, and 1,000 female donkeys. 13 He had also z seven sons and three daughters. 14 And he called the name of the first daughter Jemimah, and the name of the second Keziah, and the name of the third Keren-happuch. 15 And in all the land there were no women so beautiful as Job s daughters. And their father gave them an inheritance a among their brothers. 16 And after this Job lived 140 years, and b saw his sons, and his sons sons, four generations. 17 And Job died, an old man, and c full of days. 42

43 The 13 Foundations of Judaism Principle I. To know the existence of the Creator To believe in the existence of the Creator, and this Creator is perfect in all manner of existence. He is the cause of all existence. He causes them to exist and they exist only because of Him. And if you could contemplate a case, such that He was not to exist then all things would cease to exist and there would remain nothing. And if you were to contemplate a case, such that all things would cease to exist aside from the Creator, His existence would not cease. And He would lose nothing; and oneness and kingship is His alone. Hashem of strength is His name because He is sufficient with His own existence, and sufficient [is] just Him alone, and needs no other. And the existences of the angels, and the celestial bodies, and all that is in them and that which is below them all need Him for their existence. And this is the first pillar and is attested to by the verse, I am Hashem your God. Principle II. The unity of God Meaning to say to accept that this is the quintessential idea of Oneness. It is not like the oneness of a pair (i.e. pair of shoes - one group) and not one like a species. And not like man that has many individual (members) nor like a body that divides into many different parts until no end (every part being divisible). Rather, God is one and there is no other oneness like His. This is the second principle and is taught in what it says, Hear Israel, Hashem is Our God, Hashem is one. Principle III. The denial of physicality in connection with God This is to accept that this Oneness that we have mentioned above (Principle II) is not a body and has no strength in the body, and has no shape or image or relationship to a body or parts thereof. This is why the Sages of blessed memory said with regards to heaven there is no sitting, nor standing, no awakeness, nor tiredness. This is all to say that He does not partake of any physical actions or qualities. And if He were to be a body then He would be like any other body and would not be God. And all that is written in the holy books regarding descriptions of God, they are all anthropomorphic. Thus said our great Rabbis of blessed memory, The Torah speaketh in man s language (i.e. using human terms to offer some understanding). Principle IV. God s Antiquity This is that God existed prior to everything, and exists after everything. This is proved many times throughout scripture and is attested to by the verse, Principle V. That God, blessed be He is worthy that we serve Him, to glorify Him, to make known His greatness, and to do His commands But not to do this to those that are below Him in the creation. Not to the angels or to the stars or the planets or anything else, for they are all created things in nature and in their functioning, there is no choice or judgment except by God Himself. Also it is not fitting to serve them as intermediaries to God. Only to God should you incline your thoughts and your actions. This is the fifth principle and it warns against idolatry and most of the Torah speaks out against this. Principle VI. Prophecy And this is that it is known to man that this (prophet) is a type of man who are created beings of great stature and perfection of the character traits. Who have tremendous knowledge until a 43

44 different intelligence attaches to them when the intelligence of the person clings to the intelligence of God and it rests upon him. And these are the prophets; and this is prophecy; and the idea of it. The explanation of it is very long and the intention is not to bring a sign for every fundamental and to explain it all, encompassing of all knowledge (i.e. God s knowledge) but it is mentioned to us in a story form and all of the Torah attests to this. Principle VII. The prophetic capacity of Moses our Teacher, peace be upon him And this is that we accept that he was the father of all prophets that were before him and that will be after him. He was on a qualitatively different level than any other, and he is chosen from all other people before and after him of any that have any knowledge of God; for his was the greatest. And he, peace be upon him, rose to the levels of the angels. He was granted all areas of knowledge and prophecy and his physical attributes did not diminish. His knowledge was different and it is through this difference that it is ascribed to him that he spoke to God without any intermediary or angel. My intention was to explain this puzzling concept and to open up the sealed areas in the Torah regarding the verses of face to face and other similar references, but its length would be tremendous and it would require numerous proofs from the Torah and other sources and encompass many areas. Even to write it the briefest of briefest it would require 100 pages, so I will save it and write it in another book. I will now return to the intent of this seventh fundamental that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was different from all others in 4 ways: 1) Regarding all other prophets, God spoke to them through intermediaries. Regarding Moses, it was without one, as it says, face to face I spoke to him. 2) Regarding all other prophets, prophecy came to them at night while they were asleep in a dream as it says, in a dream of the night and other such references; or in the day but only after a deep sleep-like state came over them, and all their senses were shut off except their thoughts. Not so by Moses. Moses would receive a prophecy any time when he would stand between the two figures [fixed] on the ark, as God attests to it, and I will make it known to you there and not so my servant Moses. Face to face I speak to him. 3) When a prophet would receive prophecy he would not be able to stand the intense effect and he would shake and not be able to stand, as it relates regarding Daniel in his encounter with the angel Gabriel. Regarding Moses, he did not suffer from this. As it says, Face to face do I speak to him as a person speaks to his friend. And even though this is the greatest connection to God, still, he did not suffer. 4) All other prophets could not receive prophecy at their will, [but] only when God desired to tell them. Some would go days or months without prophecy. Even if they wanted or needed something, sometimes it would be days or months or years or even never that they would be told [a prophecy]. Some would have people play music to put them in a good mood such as Elisha. But Moses, peace be upon him, received prophecy whenever he wanted, as it says, Stand here and listen to what God will tell you what to do and God said to Moses tell Aaron your brother that he can t come to the holy of holies at any time [he wants]. Our rabbis said, Aaron was prohibited to come whenever he wanted, but not Moses. Principle VIII. That the Torah is from heaven [God] And this is that you believe that all of this Torah that was given by Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, that it is all from the mouth of God. Meaning that it was received by him entirely from 44

45 God. And it is not known how Moses received it except by Moses himself, peace be upon him, that it came to him. That he was like a stenographer that you read to him and he writes all that is told to him: all the events and dates, the stories, and all the commandments. There is no difference between And the sons of Cham were Kush, and Mitzraim, and his wife was Mehatbe el and Timnah was his concubine and I am Hashem your God and Hear Israel [Hashem your God, Hashem is one] for it was all given by God my heart. Principle IX. The completeness of the Torah And this is that the Torah is from God and is not lacking. That to it you can t add or take away from. Not from the written Torah or from the oral Torah, as it says, Do not add to it and do not take away from it. (Deut 13:1). And we already explained what needs to be explained about this fundamental at the beginning of this essay. Principle X. That God knows man s actions and does not remove His eye from them His knowledge is not like someone who says God abandoned the land but rather like it says (Jer. 32) Great in council and mighty in deed, Your eyes are cognizant to all the ways of mankind. And God saw for the evil of man on the land had grown greatly. (Gen. 6) And it says, The disgust of Sodom and Amorrah is great and this demonstrates the 10th principle. Principle XI. That God gives reward to he who does the commandments of the Torah and punishes those that transgress its admonishments and warnings And the great reward is the life of the world to come and the punishment is the cutting off of the soul [in the world to come]. And we already said regarding this topic what these are. And the verse that attests to this principle is (Exodus 32) And now if You would but forgive their sins - and if not erase me from this book that You have written. And God answered him, He who sinned against Me I will erase from My book. This is a proof that God knows the sinner and the fulfiller in order to mete out reward to one and punishment to the other. Principle XII. The era of the Messiah And this is to believe that in truth that he will come and that you should be waiting for him even though he delays in coming. And you should not calculate times for him to come, or to look in the verses of Tanach to see when he should come. The sages say: The wisdom of those who calculate times [of his coming] is small and that you should believe that he will be greater and more honored than all of the kings of Israel since the beginning of time as it is prophesied by all the prophets from Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, until Malachi, peace be upon him. And he who doubts or diminishes the greatness of the Messiah is a denier in all the Torah for it testifies to the Messiah explicitly in the portion of Bilam and the portion of You are gathered (towards the end of Deut). And part of this principle that there is no king of Israel except from the house of David and from the seed of Solomon alone. And anyone who disputes this regarding this family is a denier of the name of God and in all the words of the prophets. Principle XIII. Resurrection of the dead I believe that with perfect faith, that the dead will be brought back to life when God wills it to happen God will bring the dead to life with His great love, May His glorious name be blessed for all time. 45

46 The Carpenter and the Cross: Christianity Roman Palestine was a dry, backwater province, far from the marble pillars of Athens, the crowded markets of Rome, and anything else civilized that mattered. Its inhabitants were peasant farmers, roving traders, and sheep herders from a motley collection of tribes. The Jews were considered by the Romans to be the most troublesome of peoples, with their stubborn monotheism in a polyglot empire of myriad gods. That an obscure sect of the Jews, founded by a homeless, wandering carpenter turned rabbi should trouble the peace of Rome and someday enter the imperial household itself was laughable and absurd. That it would adopt as its symbol the image of the Roman form of execution reserved for the most despised was unimaginable. That we would date our calendar from the approximate birth of this wandering rabbi is improbable. And yet In his youth, Jesus (c.4bc?-c.30ad) was a rural carpenter, but in the last three years of his life, he collected dozens of followers (disciples) and preached to the people of Israel, who were at that time part of the Roman Empire. The Gospels (four accounts of Jesus life attributed to those who knew him) teach that Christ was born of a virgin (Mary), performed miracles, and taught a moral and humble lifestyle of devotion to God and kindness to others. He claimed to uphold the Jewish Law, but shocked his contemporaries. He associated with sinners, counseled love for ones enemies (including the hated Roman occupiers of Judea), and treated women with unusual respect while calling out the sins of the religious leaders. He preached repentance but also claimed to forgive sins, a power reserved for God alone. According to the Gospels, Jesus proclaimed himself to be the Way, the Truth, and the Life, and to have existed before Abraham, using the divine name I am, a statement that enraged the Jewish religious leaders. His Jewish followers believed he was the Hebrew Messiah, the anointed or promised one (in Greek, Christos or Christ). Jesus popularity and his stinging rebuke of the status quo threatened the leaders of his day, and his claims were considered heresy by the Jewish religious leaders. The Roman governor Pontius Pilate was persuaded to have him executed by crucifixion. But Jesus followers wrote that they witnessed Christ risen from the dead three days after his death on the cross, and that he continued to minister for 40 days until he ascended to heaven. As fantastic as it sounds, his disciples were willing to be tortured and executed and most were in defense of their story of a resurrected Christ. Get Technical: Status quo means the way things were/are and usually refers to a social arrangement in this case, the Roman occupiers had a deal with the Jewish leaders to keep the peace in exchange for the right to minimal Roman interference. Crucifixion is to execute by nailing the accused to a wooden cross; death is slow and painful, generally by suffocation over a matter of many hours 46

47 After Christ s ascension, his disciples were joined by a zealous Pharisaic Jew named Paul (c.5? AD- c.65 AD), who had originally attacked Christians before converting to the new sect. Paul and a dozen of Jesus key disciples, called apostles, became the main leaders of the new movement. Paul traveled throughout the Empire, and his preaching and letters expanded the community of faith from a mere Jewish sect to a universal religion. By the second century, most Christian churches held the Gospels and apostles letters from the first century (AD) to be sacred, comprising a New Testament to accompany the Jewish scriptures, and together making up the Bible. The new sect spread rapidly, aided Jesus Speaks: Love your enemies and pray for those that persecute you. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also - no man can serve two masters - you cannot serve both God and money. I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life; no one comes to the Father but through me. Whoever humbles himself like a little child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven. With God all things are possible. by Roman roads and the fact that the writings of the disciples could be read across the vast domain in Greek, the common tongue. The teachings of Christ became known as the Way and its followers often St. Paul, by El Greco, used a fish as their symbol. Later they became known as little Christs or Christians and 16 th century adopted the symbol of the cross a choice for a life-affirming belief as odd as that of an electric chair would be today, given that it symbolized the most gruesome Roman execution. Romans found the Christian insistence on one God puzzling and offensive, because one God implied a universal moral code, and the rectitude demanded by Christ within this monotheistic creed stood in stark contrast to the worldly obsessions of the empire. Christians were persecuted by Rome because they would not admit to assertions of the divinity of the emperor, instead saying that Jesus is Lord. Their denial of the Roman gods very existence actually caused the Romans to at first label them atheists. But persecution only dispersed the church and caused its message to spread even faster. The Christian message also traveled beyond the empire to Ethiopia, India, and Persia. 47

48 The Way: The Christian WorldviewChristians made an astounding proclamation: God loved humankind. People were accustomed to angry, capricious, or disinterested gods, but the Christian message of God s love for and grace to all was extraordinary. For Christians, the primary ethical virtue was agape love, one of the Greek forms of love that implies a love toward all people, one that expects nothing in return, one that acts with kindness, generosity, patience, humility, and compassion even for one s enemies. Such ideas were quite shocking in the Roman world, and certainly made Christians a unique and distinctive group. Even more shocking, Christians were willing to die rather than betray their beliefs (martyrdom), placing obedience to God above the divine cult of Rome; it was said that the blood of martyrs was the seed of the church. When a great plague hit Rome in 251, the government fled the city while the Christians stayed to care for the dying and died themselves. From Paul s Pen: If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal - if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child. When I became a man, I put childish ways behind me. Now we see but a poor reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face. Now I know in part; then I shall know fully, even as I am fully known. And now these three remain: faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love. (from I Corinthians 13) Just as extraordinary was the message of There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free man, equality of all people before God Male and female, free and slave, Jew and Greek, as Paul wrote. The ethos of a loving community of believers appealed to the downtrodden and the poor, to women and slaves, and to the outcasts of the empire. In the sensuous and cruel world that was Rome, the Christians communal care for one another, their steadfast bravery in the face of martyrdom, and their moral behavior won praise even from their enemies. By 300AD, despite persecution, millions of people rich and poor, noble and common had converted to belief in the divinity of Christ. In 313, the Roman emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. Seeking clarity on various debates about exactly what it meant to be Christian, he convened the Nicene Council, a meeting of church leaders or bishops, in 325 AD. The council was a response to divergent and oppositional movements or heresies claiming to be Christian, which had appeared in the mid-2nd century. To publicly clarify the basic ideas of Christianity, to assert its position on areas of dispute, and to give new Christians in an illiterate world an easily remembered statement of faith, the leaders issued a creed, a definitive, short statement of beliefs commonly agreed upon by Christian communities. The earliest creeds outside of the New Testament date back to the 2d century; the Nicene Creed of 325 was based on the earlier declarations: 48

49 The Nicene Creed I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things were made. Primary Source Who, for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures; and ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge the quick and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. And I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of Life; who proceeds from the Father and the Son; who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets. And I believe one holy catholic 6 and apostolic Church. I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; and I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen. Uniquely, Christian doctrine holds that Jesus was the Son of God, and at the same time part of the one God, along with the Father and the Holy Spirit. This doctrine of one god, with three dimensions, is the Trinity. Christians publicly confess these beliefs, often symbolized through a public immersion or sprinkling in water called baptism. For the Christian, all truth flows from God s very nature. God is not capricious, but reasonable, thus nature is ordered and humans can understand nature, and understand God through nature. Man is capable of discerning truth through reason and through senses, though fallible. Truth must be accountable or checked against the Bible and the community of believers to avoid error, since humans are fallible and prone to pride. God also has created a moral order, hinted at in imperfect human conscience. Without a moral order, words like good, evil, fair and justice have no meaning. 6 The word catholic here means universal, accepted and truthful doctrine ; the Roman Catholic Church as a separate, western church does not appear until after the 8 th century split from the Eastern churches. 49

50 Christians believe that humans were created in the image of God (Latin imago dei) in order to have relationship with God, but that they have the ability to make free moral choices. The relationship was broken by man s rebellion against God beginning with the first sin, a choice to willfully disobey God ( the Fall ) in the ancient garden of Eden. This rebellion is the source of evil on Earth; human nature and the brokenness of the world can only be understood through admitting the reality of good and evil and the reality of sin within humans. God is love, but he is also just, and must enforce the law against humans who are in rebellion. The penalty for rebels is death and all humankind is in rebellion; no amount of nice behavior could make one good enough for a perfectly just God. If God overlooks rebellion He is no longer just, but if no human can do enough good, how can He love? The Christian God seems trapped between His own just law and His love. But Christians preached that the good news (or gospel) was that God had stepped into history to redeem or rescue humans from their fallen state. Jesus was God in the flesh. God, having passed sentence on humans in His justice, now in His love stepped off the judge s bench and took the place of condemned humanity, which is why Christ willingly submitted to execution on the cross. God himself simultaneously satisfies the cosmic law of justice and still provides mercy. In so doing, Christians taught that evil had been utterly defeated when Christ, according to the Christian narrative, died and was resurrected death itself had died. So Christian belief rests on one single, significant historical event: the Resurrection. Christians therefore have hope for eternal life and that history will conclude when God will come to judge the quick (living) and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end. Rather than prescribed rituals or accumulating enough good works (orthopraxy), Christians taught that true belief (orthodoxy) was the path to God. Christians believe in eternal existence of the soul, either in heaven for those who accept Jesus divinity and sacrifice or in eternal separation from God for those who reject Him. Christians generally worship on Sunday, in a church service led by a priest or pastor. Christians also eat a meal of remembrance (communion or Eucharist) in which wine recalls the blood of Christ and bread the body. While Christians worship corporately, Christianity argues that humans are individually responsible for their relationship with God. This idea of individual equality before God, individual responsibility to God, and the love of God for each individual became the basis of the idea of the dignity of each individual, an idea reinforced by the writings of Augustine of Hippo ( ). 50

51 The Sermon on the Mount Mathew 5-7 5Now when Jesus saw the crowds, he went up on a mountainside and sat down. His disciples came to him, 2 and he began to teach them. The Beatitudes He said: 3 Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 4 Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted. 5 Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth. 6 Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled. 7 Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy. 8 Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God. 9 Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God. 10 Blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 11 Blessed are you when people insult you, persecute you and falsely say all kinds of evil against you because of me. 12 Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. Salt and Light 13 You are the salt of the earth. But if the salt loses its saltiness, how can it be made salty again? It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled underfoot. 14 You are the light of the world. A town built on a hill cannot be hidden. 15 Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a bowl. Instead they put it on its stand, and it gives light to everyone in the house. 16 In the same way, let your light shine before others, that they may see your good deeds and glorify your Father in heaven. The Fulfillment of the Law 17 Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them. 18 For truly I tell you, until heaven and earth disappear, not the smallest 51

52 letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the Law until everything is accomplished. 19 Therefore anyone who sets aside one of the least of these commands and teaches others accordingly will be called least in the kingdom of heaven, but whoever practices and teaches these commands will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. 20 For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven. Murder 21 You have heard that it was said to the people long ago, You shall not murder, [a] and anyone who murders will be subject to judgment. 22 But I tell you that anyone who is angry with a brother or sister [b][c] will be subject to judgment. Again, anyone who says to a brother or sister, Raca, [d] is answerable to the court. And anyone who says, You fool! will be in danger of the fire of hell. 23 Therefore, if you are offering your gift at the altar and there remember that your brother or sister has something against you, 24 leave your gift there in front of the altar. First go and be reconciled to them; then come and offer your gift. 25 Settle matters quickly with your adversary who is taking you to court. Do it while you are still together on the way, or your adversary may hand you over to the judge, and the judge may hand you over to the officer, and you may be thrown into prison. 26 Truly I tell you, you will not get out until you have paid the last penny. Adultery 27 You have heard that it was said, You shall not commit adultery. [e] 28 But I tell you that anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart. 29 If your right eye causes you to stumble, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. 30 And if your right hand causes you to stumble, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to go into hell. Divorce 31 It has been said, Anyone who divorces his wife must give her a certificate of divorce. [f] 32 But I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife, except for sexual immorality, makes her the victim of adultery, and anyone who marries a divorced woman commits adultery. Oaths 33 Again, you have heard that it was said to the people long ago, Do not break your oath, but fulfill to the Lord the vows you have made. 34 But I tell you, do not swear an oath at all: either by heaven, for it is God s throne; 35 or by the earth, for it is his footstool; or by Jerusalem, for it is the city of the Great King. 36 And do not swear by your head, for you cannot make even one hair 52

53 white or black. 37 All you need to say is simply Yes or No ; anything beyond this comes from the evil one. [g] Eye for Eye 38 You have heard that it was said, Eye for eye, and tooth for tooth. [h] 39 But I tell you, do not resist an evil person. If anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also. 40 And if anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, hand over your coat as well. 41 If anyone forces you to go one mile, go with them two miles. 42 Give to the one who asks you, and do not turn away from the one who wants to borrow from you. Love for Enemies 43 You have heard that it was said, Love your neighbor [i] and hate your enemy. 44 But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, 45 that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. 46 If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? 47 And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? 48 Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect. Giving to the Needy 6 Be careful not to practice your righteousness in front of others to be seen by them. If you do, you will have no reward from your Father in heaven. 2 So when you give to the needy, do not announce it with trumpets, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and on the streets, to be honored by others. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward in full. 3 But when you give to the needy, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, 4 so that your giving may be in secret. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you. Prayer 5 And when you pray, do not be like the hypocrites, for they love to pray standing in the synagogues and on the street corners to be seen by others. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward in full. 6 But when you pray, go into your room, close the door and pray to your Father, who is unseen. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you. 7 And when you pray, do not keep on babbling like pagans, for they think they will be heard because of their many words. 8 Do not be like them, for your Father knows what you need before you ask him. 9 This, then, is how you should pray: Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name, 53

54 10 your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven. 11 Give us today our daily bread. 12 And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. 13 And lead us not into temptation, [j] but deliver us from the evil one. [k] 14 For if you forgive other people when they sin against you, your heavenly Father will also forgive you. 15 But if you do not forgive others their sins, your Father will not forgive your sins. Fasting 16 When you fast, do not look somber as the hypocrites do, for they disfigure their faces to show others they are fasting. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward in full. 17 But when you fast, put oil on your head and wash your face, 18 so that it will not be obvious to others that you are fasting, but only to your Father, who is unseen; and your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you. Treasures in Heaven 19 Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moths and vermin destroy, and where thieves break in and steal. 20 But store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where moths and vermin do not destroy, and where thieves do not break in and steal. 21 For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also. 22 The eye is the lamp of the body. If your eyes are healthy, [l] your whole body will be full of light. 23 But if your eyes are unhealthy, [m] your whole body will be full of darkness. If then the light within you is darkness, how great is that darkness! 24 No one can serve two masters. Either you will hate the one and love the other, or you will be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve both God and money. Do Not Worry 25 Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; or about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more than food, and the body more than clothes? 26 Look at the birds of the air; they do not sow or reap or store away in barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not much more valuable than they? 27 Can any one of you by worrying add a single hour to your life [n]? 28 And why do you worry about clothes? See how the flowers of the field grow. They do not labor or spin. 29 Yet I tell you that not even Solomon in all his splendor was dressed like one of these. 30 If that is how God clothes the grass of the field, which is here today and tomorrow is thrown into the fire, will he not much more clothe you you of little faith? 31 So do not worry, 54

55 saying, What shall we eat? or What shall we drink? or What shall we wear? 32 For the pagans run after all these things, and your heavenly Father knows that you need them. 33 But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well. 34 Therefore do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will worry about itself. Each day has enough trouble of its own. Judging Others 7 Do not judge, or you too will be judged. 2 For in the same way you judge others, you will be judged, and with the measure you use, it will be measured to you. 3 Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in your brother s eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye? 4 How can you say to your brother, Let me take the speck out of your eye, when all the time there is a plank in your own eye? 5 You hypocrite, first take the plank out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to remove the speck from your brother s eye. 6 Do not give dogs what is sacred; do not throw your pearls to pigs. If you do, they may trample them under their feet, and turn and tear you to pieces. Ask, Seek, Knock 7 Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be opened to you. 8 For everyone who asks receives; the one who seeks finds; and to the one who knocks, the door will be opened. 9 Which of you, if your son asks for bread, will give him a stone? 10 Or if he asks for a fish, will give him a snake? 11 If you, then, though you are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father in heaven give good gifts to those who ask him! 12 So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets. The Narrow and Wide Gates 13 Enter through the narrow gate. For wide is the gate and broad is the road that leads to destruction, and many enter through it. 14 But small is the gate and narrow the road that leads to life, and only a few find it. True and False Prophets 15 Watch out for false prophets. They come to you in sheep s clothing, but inwardly they are ferocious wolves. 16 By their fruit you will recognize them. Do people pick grapes from thornbushes, or figs from thistles? 17 Likewise, every good tree bears good fruit, but a bad tree bears bad fruit. 18 A good tree cannot bear bad fruit, and a bad tree cannot bear good fruit. 19 Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire. 20 Thus, by their fruit you will recognize them. 55

56 True and False Disciples 21 Not everyone who says to me, Lord, Lord, will enter the kingdom of heaven, but only the one who does the will of my Father who is in heaven. 22 Many will say to me on that day, Lord, Lord, did we not prophesy in your name and in your name drive out demons and in your name perform many miracles? 23 Then I will tell them plainly, I never knew you. Away from me, you evildoers! The Wise and Foolish Builders 24 Therefore everyone who hears these words of mine and puts them into practice is like a wise man who built his house on the rock. 25 The rain came down, the streams rose, and the winds blew and beat against that house; yet it did not fall, because it had its foundation on the rock. 26 But everyone who hears these words of mine and does not put them into practice is like a foolish man who built his house on sand. 27 The rain came down, the streams rose, and the winds blew and beat against that house, and it fell with a great crash. 28 When Jesus had finished saying these things, the crowds were amazed at his teaching, 29 because he taught as one who had authority, and not as their teachers of the law. 56

57 Excerpt from The Gospel According to Luke About the Document At the same time that Augustus and his heirs were establishing an imperial government in Rome, controversies in the eastern Mediterranean province of Judea were beginning to focus on the tea itinerant teacher named Jesus. For several centuries many Jews had come to believe that the com Messiah (anointed one) promised in the Hebrew Scriptures was immanent. The Messiah would be descendant of David and a savior of the Jewish people. Exactly what kind of savior was open to d expected the Messiah to overthrow the Romans. Although Jesus discouraged resistance to the Ro followers believed him to be the Messiah. And while Jesus was executed by the Romans at the req certain Jewish leaders, his followers claimed to have seen Jesus three days after he had been kill followers, called Christians, began making converts among both Jews and non-jews. Today, mor billion people claim to be Christian. The Gospel According to Luke is one of many accounts of the teaching and active ministry of Jesu three years before he was executed and one of four to be included in the Christian Scriptures (Ne Testament). The Gospel is actually the first part of a history of the early Christian movement. The known as the Acts of the Apostles, is also included in the Christian Scriptures. According to Chri tradition, Luke was a physician who traveled with the Apostle Paul. While not a modern historian concerned with using reliable eyewitnesses and sources in composing his history. The following s contains the Sermon on the Mount, the classic statement of Jesus' ethical teachings. It also contai that highlight the presence of Rome in Judea. Jesus' Birth in Bethlehem 2 NOW it came about in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus, that a census be taken of all the inhabited earth. This was the first census taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria. And all were proceeding to register for the census, everyone to his own city. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and family of David, in order to register, along with Mary, who was engaged to him, and was with child. And it came about that while they were there, the days were completed for her to give birth. And she gave birth to her first-born son; and she wrapped Him in cloths, and laid Him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn. Call of Levi (Matthew) 27 And after that He went out, and noticed a tax-gatherer named Levi, sitting in the tax office, and He said to him, "Follow Me." And he left everything behind, and rose and began to follow Him. 29 And Levi gave a big reception for Him in his house; and there was a great crowd of taxgatherers and other people who were reclining at the table with them. And the Pharisees and their scribes ran grumbling at His disciples, saying, "Why do you eat and drink with the taxgatherers and sinners?" And Jesus answered and said to them, "It is not those who are well who need a physician, but those who are sick. I have not come to call the righteous but sinners to repentance." 57

58 The Beatitudes 20 And turning His gaze on His disciples, He began to say, "Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God. Blessed are you who hunger now, for you shall be satisfied. Blessed are you who weep now, for you shall laugh. Blessed are you when men hate you, and ostracize you, and cast insults at you, and spurn your name as evil, for the sake of the Son of Man. Be glad in that day, and leap for joy, for behold, your reward is great in heaven; for in the same way their fathers used to treat the prophets. But woe to you who are rich, for you are receiving your comfort in full. Woe to you who are well-fed now, for you shall be hungry. Woe to you who laugh now, for you shall mourn and weep. Woe to you when all men speak well of you, for in the same way their fathers used to treat the false prophets. 27 "But I say to you who hear, love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you. Whoever hits you on the cheek, offer him the other also; and whoever takes away your coat, do not withhold your shirt from him either. Give to everyone who asks of you, and whoever takes away what is yours, do not demand it back. And just as you want people to treat you, treat them in the same way. And if you love those who love you, what credit is that to you? For even sinners love those who love them. And if you do good to those who do good to you, what credit is that to you? For even sinners do the same. And if you lend to those from whom you expect to receive, what credit is that to you? Even sinners lend to sinners, in order to receive back the same amount. But love your enemies, and do good, and lend, expecting nothing in return; and your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High; for He Himself is kind to ungrateful and evil men. Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful. And do not judge and you will not be judged; and do not condemn, and you will not be condemned; pardon, and you will be pardoned. Give, and it will be given to you; good measure, pressed down, shaken together, running over, they will pour into your lap. For by your standard of measure it will be measured to you in return." 39 And He also spoke a parable to them: "A blind man cannot guide a blind man, can he? Will they not both fall into a pit? A pupil is not above his teacher; but everyone, after he has been fully trained, will be like his teacher. And why do you look at the speck that is in your brother's eye, but do not notice the log that is in your own eye? Or how can you say to your brother, 'Brother, let me take out the speck that is in your eye,' when you yourself do not see the log that is in your own eye? You hypocrite, first take the log out of your own eye, and then you will see clearly to take out the speck that is in your brother's eye. For there is no good tree which produces bad fruit; nor, on the other hand, a bad tree which produces good fruit. For each tree is known by its own fruit. For men do not gather figs from thorns, nor do they pick grapes from a briar bush. The good man out of the good treasure of his heart brings forth what is good; and the evil man out of the evil treasure brings forth what is evil; for his mouth speaks from that which fills his heart. 58

59 Builders and Foundations 46 "And why do you call Me, 'Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I say? Everyone who comes to Me, and hears My words, and acts upon them, I will show you whom he is like: he is like a man building a house, who dug deep and laid a foundation upon the rock; and when a flood rose, the torrent burst against that house and could not shake it, because it had been well built. But the one who has heard, and has not acted accordingly, is like a man who built a house upon the ground without any foundation; and the torrent burst against it and immediately it collapsed, and the ruin of that house was great." Jesus Heals a Centurion's Servant 7 WHEN He had completed all His discourse in the hearing of the people, He went to Capernaum. 2 And a certain centurion's slave, who was highly regarded by him, was sick and about to die. And when he heard about Jesus, he sent some Jewish elders asking Him to come and save the life of his slave. And when they had come to Jesus, they earnestly entreated Him, saying, "He is worthy for You to grant this to him; for he loves our nation, and it was he who built us our synagogue." Now Jesus started on His way with them; and when He was already not far from the house, the centurion sent friends, saying to Him, "Lord, do not trouble Yourself further, for I am not worthy for You to come under my roof; for this reason I did not even consider myself worthy to come to You, but just say the word, and my servant will be healed. For I, too, am a man under authority, with soldiers under me; and I say to this one, 'Go!' and he goes; and to another, 'Come!' and he comes; and to my slave, 'Do this!' and he does it." Now when Jesus heard this, He marveled at him, and turned and said to the multitude that was following Him, "I say to you, not even in Israel have I found such great faith." And when those who had been sent returned to the house, they found the slave in good health. Source: Luke 2:1-7; 5:27-32; 6:20-7:10, in The Bible, New American Standard Version. Glossary Pharisee The Pharisees were one of several important factions among Jews during the time of Jesus. Pharisees (which means separated ones) emphasized strict adherence to the Mosaic Law as a defining characteristic of Jews. They considered other Jews who did not separate themselves from the pagan world or strictly adhere to the Law as ritually unclean or sinners. Tax-gatherer The Roman Empire used private contractors to collect taxes. Under the contract the taxgatherers were obliged to send a certain amount on to the provincial governor, who then sent on a fixed portion to Rome. At each phase a significant amount was kept as a way to build wealth. This system encouraged the tax-gatherers to extract as much as they could from the subject peoples. 59

60 Analysis Questions 1. In your own words, summarize the ethical teachings of Jesus as described in this document. 2. The admonitions that Jesus gives in chapter 5:27-29 refer to how the Jews should react to mistreatment by the Romans. What does Jesus teach about responding to oppression? 3. Two agents of Rome are mentioned in this text: Levi, a Jew who had a private contract to collect taxes on behalf of Rome, and a centurion. What do the Jewish leader (scribes and Pharisees) think of each of these men? What does this tell us about how the Jews felt about the Romans? 4. What does this document tell us about Roman rule in Judea? 5. What is the goal of life according to Jesus? How does one achieve that goal? 60

61 Excerpt from The Gospel According to Matthew (1st c. CE) Matthew 5:1-12; 5:21-26; 5:38-48; 6:8-13; 7:7-12.The Bible. New American Standard Version. The Gospel According to Matthew 5-7 features the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus of Nazareth. It is said that he provided this sermon on a mountainside to his disciples and a large crowd around AD 30 at Galilee. As there are no actual mountains in the region where Jesus of Nazareth supposedly provided his sermon, many scholars assume the reference to "mountain" in the text refers to a description of the hilly area of Galilee. The Sermon on the Mount holds particular significance in the Christian religion as it holds teachings central to its practice, including the Lord's Prayer, the Golden Rule, and teachings related to the Ten Commandments. The Sermon on the Mount; The Beatitudes 1When Jesus saw the crowds, He went up on the mountain; and after He sat down, His disciples came to Him. He opened His mouth and began to teach them, saying, Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted. Blessed are the gentle, for they shall inherit the earth. Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be satisfied. Blessed are the merciful, for they shall receive mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God. Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God. Blessed are those who have been persecuted for the sake of righteousness, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are you when people insult you and persecute you, and falsely say all kinds of evil against you because of Me. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward in heaven is great; for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. Personal Relationships 21 "You have heard that the ancients were told, 'YOU SHALL NOT COMMIT MURDER' and 'Whoever commits murder shall be liable to the court.' But I say to you that everyone who is angry with his brother shall be guilty before the court; and whoever says to his brother, 'You good-for-nothing,' shall be guilty before the supreme court; and whoever says, 'You fool,' shall be guilty enough to go into the fiery hell. Therefore if you are presenting your offering at the altar, and there remember that your brother has something against you, leave your offering there before the altar and go; first be reconciled to your brother, and then come and present your offering. Make friends quickly with your opponent at law while you are with him on the way, so that your opponent may not hand you over to the judge, and the judge to the officer, and you be thrown into prison. Truly I say to you, you will not come out of there until you have paid up the last cent." 38"You have heard that it was said, AN EYE FOR AN EYE, AND A TOOTH FOR A TOOTH.' But I say to you, do not resist an evil person; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other to him also. If anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, let him have your coat also. Whoever forces you to go one mile, go with him two. Give to him who asks of you, and do not turn away from him who wants to borrow from you." 61

62 43 "You have heard that it was said, 'YOU SHALL LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOR and hate your enemy.' "But I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be sons of your Father who is in heaven; for He causes His sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? If you greet only your brothers, what more are you doing than others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? Therefore you are to be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect." Giving to the Poor and Prayer 8 "So do not be like them; for your Father knows what you need before you ask Him. Pray, then, in this way: 'Our Father who is in heaven, Hallowed be Your name. Your kingdom come Your will be done, On earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not lead us into temptation, but deliver us from evil. [For Yours is the kingdom and the power and the glory forever. Amen.]' Prayer and the Golden Rule 7 "Ask, and it will be given to you; seek, and you will find; knock, and it will be opened to you. For everyone who asks receives, and he who seeks finds, and to him who knocks it will be opened. Or what man is there among you who, when his son asks for a loaf, will give him a stone? Or if he asks for a fish, he will not give him a snake, will he? If you then, being evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father who is in heaven give what is good to those who ask Him! In everything, therefore, treat people the same way you want them to treat you, for this is the Law and the Prophets." Analysis Questions: What old teachings is Jesus presented as overturning? According to the passage what is Jesus central message? What differences, if any, do you see between the Gospels of Luke and Mathew? 62

63 Overview of the History and Teachings of Islam Islam is the third of the major monotheistic faiths, meaning those whose followers believe in One God. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all trace their origins to the teachings of prophets, or messengers, who received revelations passed down as holy scriptures. Followers believe that these scriptures are the word of God, or inspired by God. Based on the teachings of the Qur an, the holy scripture of Islam, Muslims trace the origins of their faith to the first prophet, Adam, to whom God revealed Himself. The Qur an teaches that God repeatedly sent prophets to humankind with the same basic message of belief in One God and of the necessity to worship and act according to strong moral standards. The prophets and their scriptures are recognized by Muslims as having the same divine source, so the major biblical prophets Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, as well as lesser known prophets, are honored in Islam. This religion teaches that earlier scriptures were sometimes lost or altered, or were superseded by later revelation. Therefore, Muhammad, the final prophet, completed God s message to humankind. The word Islam means peace through submission to God. A Muslim is one who seeks peace through submission to God, that is, a follower of Islam. The Qur an teaches that all prophets were Muslim in the sense that they were models of submission to God and seekers of truth. Muslim practice is defined by the Qur an and also by the Sunna, which is the example of thinking and living set by the Prophet Muhammad and transmitted through the Hadith, his recorded words and deeds. The Islamic requirements of worship are set down in the Five Pillars. These are: Shahada. To testify to belief in One God and the prophethood of Muhammad. Salat. To pray five obligatory prayers each day. Siyam. To fast from dawn to sunset annually during the month of Ramadan, Zakat. To pay annual obligatory charity, Hajj. To make the pilgrimage to the city of Mecca (Makkah) at least once in a lifetime. Islamic teachings also lay out a way of life based on moral values and commandments for just relations among human beings in the community and the world. Islamic law, or shari a, is a system of interpretation of the Qur an and Sunna based on scholars study of the Islamic sources and related disciplines, including logic and Arabic grammar. Historically, the origin of Islam is the revelation received by Prophet Muhammad, a man born about 570 CE in the city of Mecca, a caravan stop on a trade route that ran along the western side of the Arabian Peninsula between Yemen and the Mediterranean region. Mecca was also the site of an important house of worship called the Ka bah, which the Arabs associated with the Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim) and his son Ishmael (Ismail). Muhammad was born into the Quraysh, which was the ruling tribe of Mecca. The Quraysh were caretakers of the Ka bah and leaders in the regional caravan trade. Orphaned at an early age, Muhammad spent his youth in the care of his socially prominent grandfather and uncle. He worked. as a caravan trader, which led to his marriage to the wealthy widow Khadijah. He was known for wisdom and honesty. At about the age of forty, after years of spiritual searching and 63

64 meditation, he reported receiving a revelation through the Angel Gabriel (Jibril) in a mountain cave outside the city. These revelations continued for the following twenty-three years, between about 610 and 622 CE. The revelations were transmitted by Muhammad to his followers in Arabic, and they were memorized and committed to writing during his lifetime. These words were known as the Qur an. Muslims believe this text to be the direct word of God, whose name in Arabic is Allah. The names of the religion, Islam, and its followers, Muslims, were given in the Qur an. Soon after Muhammad s special experiences started, he began to carry out the duties of prophethood, preaching first to members of his family, then to members of his tribe, and finally beyond Mecca. While a few members of his immediate family and others in Mecca accepted his prophethood and its teachings, the leaders of his tribe rejected it. They tried to turn him away from preaching by persuasion and coercion. Finally, with the number of Muslims growing, and the message reaching beyond Mecca, Muhammad and his followers fled to the city of Yathrib which is north of Mecca, where the residents offered them protection. The people of Yathrib agreed to Muhammad s leadership of the city, and renamed it Madinat al-nabi, or City of the Prophet (shortened to Madina). The migration to Madina is called the Hijrah, and marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. The Hijrah of year one occurred in 622 CE (Common Era). The leaders of Quraysh, fearing loss of control and influence if Islam continued to gain strength, continued to oppose Muhammad and his followers. The Muslims, on the other hand, had lost all their property and family ties in order to escape persecution. The years following the Hijrah were marked by conflict between Quraysh and the Muslims, including several major battles and a treaty. The conflict ended with the surrender of Mecca to Muhammad. This was a bloodless victory. Islam had experienced overwhelming growth in strength during the ten years at Madina, attracting followers throughout Arabia and coming to the attention of the Byzantine and Persian Empires, the two major regional powers. Following Muhammad s death in 632 CE, the Muslim community became well established in the Arabian Peninsula. Muslims represented a growing political, military, and religious force in the region. Four successors to Muhammad s political power, called the Rightly Guided Caliphs, carried on the legacy of his leadership, but not his prophethood or revelation. Caliph, or in Arabic khalifa, means successor of the messenger of God. During the following century, the Muslim state expanded to incorporate a vast territory extending from North Africa to Inner Eurasia. The early state of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs gave way to a civil war over the succession in 660 CE, resulting in the founding of the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital at Damascus, Syria. In 750 CE, a revolution against the Umayyads resulted in the founding of the Abbasid dynasty, with its capital at Baghdad, which lasted until 1258 CE. During the centuries following the rise of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim state, the religion spread among the populations of Muslim-ruled territories in Afroeurasia. The growth of cities was both a cause and an effect of the spread of Islam and of economic growth in Muslimruled areas. Cultural developments in literature, arts, sciences, manufacturing, and trade accompanied the spread of Islam and its influence on religious, intellectual, economic, and political life in a large part of Afroeurasia. Although unitary Muslim rule lasted only about a 64

65 century, both the spread of Islam and the development of Muslim culture and society continued to flourish. By 1500, Islam had spread to West and East Africa, to western and coastal China, and to India and parts of Southeast Asia. It was also advancing in southeastern Europe and experiencing permanent loss of territory only in the Iberian Peninsula owing to the conquests of Christian Spanish and Portuguese. World History for US All Big Era 5 Panorama Unit 65

66 The Five Pillars Many Dimensions The Five Pillars of Islam are formal acts of worship essentials of practicing Islam. Islamic teachings also require a person to live according to moral values and to work toward just relations among people in the family, community, and the world. Simply put, Muslims are supposed to live in knowledge that every act happens in the sight of God. Even though there is much more to living as a Muslim than the Five Pillars, these universal acts have influenced Muslim societies in many ways. The Five Pillars are individual acts, but they have social effects. Each has a spiritual meaning, but it also has worldly significance. During more than 1400 years of Muslim history, practice of the Five Pillars has shaped the places where Muslims live, the form of their homes and cities, their buildings and cultural institutions, and even the links between regions of the world where Muslims live and travel. Belief in one God, the first pillar of Islam, helped spread a simple message that attracted many people over time. The idea of spreading the message and living out its ideas opened up whole new branches of learning, like law and the sciences. Curiosity to know and understand led to thebuilding of libraries and the spread of science and technology across much of the world. Daily prayer, the second pillar, resulted in the constructions of masjids (mosques) everywhere that Muslims live. From the simplest mud-brick structures to huge, decorated edifices of stone, brick and tile, a wide variety of masjid styles developed in different Muslim regions. To have a clean place to pray, Muslims often use a mat or carpet at home or elsewhere. Local design traditions and techniques produced wonderful designs for these rugs. The need Muslims had to know the exact time for prayer and the direction of Makkah from any place in the world encouraged the sciences of mathematics, astronomy, and geography. The rhythm of the prayer times regulated daily life in Muslim societies everywhere. Zakah, the third pillar, provided a steady source of charity because it is required, though additional giving is voluntary. One way of giving is to donate the money from a business on a regular and permanent basis, for example, from the sale of fruit from an orchard each year. These goods and money may be put into a foundation, as a kind of contract with God, or a trust fund that would last as long as the source lasted. By comparison, today in the U.S. wealthy people and organizations of many faiths give money to charitable foundations for hospitals, education, the arts, and other purposes. Ramadan fasting, the fourth pillar, has been a special month of the year for Muslims for more than 1400 years. The rhythm of daily life changes, and Ramadan is a time of charity, community, and celebration that affects everyone in the society. Like the winter holiday season in the U.S. and Europe, the month-long celebration brings an economic boost to merchants and producers. Families host guests, and those who are able provide prepared food for anyone who attends the masjid in time for the iftar, the meal that breaks the daily fast. At the end of the month, giftgiving and obligatory charity in the form of foodstuffs and other necessities have a ripple effect on society s prosperity and well-being. This burst of energy is balanced by an overall slowing of the pace of life and work, with the idea of putting more time and energy into the spiritual side of life. 66

67 Finally, the hajj, or pilgrimage to Makkah each year, has had an enormous effect on Muslim societies and on the world. Muslims from Arabia, Africa, many parts of Asia, and now the Americas and Europe have made their way to the city of Makkah for the annual pilgrimage. The idea of the pilgrimage obliged people in the smallest villages to look outward on the world. The journey renewed contact among the world community of Muslims, helping to unify beliefs, practices, and knowledge. Muslim rulers were proud to build roads, watering places, ports, and way stations, doing their part to help pilgrims achieve the goal of the hajj. It did not matter that the Muslim world did not remain politically unified after the eighth century because Muslim society took on a dynamic of its own. Islam continued to spread, and new ideas, technologies, and even new foods and clothing spread with it. When Muslims today carry out the Five Pillars, these basic acts of worship continue the traditions of unity-in-diversity among Muslims. These simple, regular practices have had farreaching effects in many areas of Muslim life and civilization. World History for US All Big Era 5 Panorama Unit 67

68 Islam 7 Mohammed ( ) was a merchant who lived in the Arabian trading city of Mecca, home to the Kaaba, an important religious shrine dedicated to the many pre-muslim Arab idols built around a meteoric rock believed to have been given to Abraham by the angel Gabriel. In those days some Arabs were followers of Judaism or Christianity, but most worshipped tribal gods. In 610 AD, Mohammed had a vision, the first of many. In his vision, an angel commanded him to recite for people all the words he heard. Fearful at first, his wife and relatives encouraged him to share his visions. Soon, he had attracted a following and his message was revolutionary enough to arouse both admiration and opposition. The Great Mosque of Mecca with the Kabaa at its center. In an atmosphere of multiple gods, blood feuds, and constant tribal war, Mohammed taught there was only one God Allah. According to Mohammed, Allah demanded justice, just actions, and peace, yet these could be achieved only if the Faithful unified into a single community (ummah) that reflected the oneness (tawhid) of Allah. The new faith was called Islam (literally submission to Allah ) and its followers are called Muslims or Moslems. The Meccan leadership opposed Mohammed and eventually chased him out of Mecca, in essence exiling him as a man without a clan. The Muslims that stuck with him became a new clan bound by beliefs not by blood. Their flight north to Medina (or Yathrib) in 622AD marks year one of the Muslim calendar and is called the Hegira or Hijrah. In Medina the refugees were welcomed and attracted more followers, and Mohammed rose in prominence in the community. However, after local Christians and Jews rejected his message, an angry Mohammed, who had previously admired Jewish and Christian ideas and told his followers to pray toward Jerusalem, retaliated by ordering his followers to pray toward Mecca instead. 8 Mohammed never separated religion and rule, acting as judge, general, and eventually as a king. When a Jewish clan opposed him, he defeated them and executed the men, enslaving the women and children. To raise funds he allowed caravans to be raided. When the Meccans pursued him, Mohammed led his followers in a struggle to defend the faith a jihad. In 630, the Muslims recaptured Mecca, and Mohammed smashed the idols of the tribes proclaiming a new faith and a new rule. The Islamic Worldview After Mohammed s death, his followers rushed to collect and organize his recitations, which the illiterate Mohammed had spoken; some of his followers had 7 Much of this section is drawn from Karen Armstrong Islam: A Short History, New York, Random House, 2000, a book sent to history departments of high schools across the USA by the Saudi Embassy in the fall of 2001; Bernard Lewis The Middle East: A Short History, New York, Scribner, 1995; and Reza Aslan No god but God, New York, Random House, Though Muslims respect Moses, Abraham, and Jesus as prophets, they argue that the Bible has been altered and corrupted. 68

69 memorized them and some had written them down. They were collected and compiled to produce the Quran 9, which is composed of 114 suras or chapters. Muslims who were illiterate were expected to memorize key parts of the Quran, which is validly studied only in Arabic. By the late 800 s, Mohammed s close companions and family members had recorded the Hadith, a second, multi-volume collection of additional sayings and stories considered near-sacred. There are five basic beliefs (or pillars ) of Islam: 1. A Muslim must declare, There is no god but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet. Allah is unknowable and unfathomable, a hidden and mysterious god who cannot be known but merely submitted to and obeyed through the only miracle in Mohammed s time: the revelation of the Quran. 2. Muslims pray, facing Mecca, five times a day. In Muslim cities, a crier (muezzin) shouts a call to prayer from a tower, or minaret. Muslims worship on Fridays at a mosque, led by a prayer leader, or imam. 3. Muslims give alms (or zakat) to the poor, at least 2 percent. 4. Muslims fast during daylight hours during the month called Ramadan. 5. If feasible, a Muslim should at least once make a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. To this day, no non-muslim is allowed in the region of Mecca. A Muslim, then, is one who submits to Allah and accepts Mohammed as the last and only perfect Prophet. Muslims must embrace the primacy of the Quran and the duties of faith. Muslims believe in a final judgment and the resurrection of those Allah deems worthy of paradise; no one, not even a devout Muslim, knows his fate after death. 10 In fact, most Muslims spend time in the grave awaiting final resurrection and judgment; some Muslim scholars believe that righteous non-muslims will eventually reach heaven. Both good and misfortune in this life and the next is destined by the unfathomable and irresistible will of God. (The phrase inshallah explains the vicissitudes of life all that happens is the will of God or kismet.) 11 Mohammed established a new political and religious order that required the warring tribes who were now Muslim of the area to live in peace. In traditional Muslim thought politics are intertwined with faith since tahwid is to be reflected in the unity of the Muslim community. Since all laws are a community s statement of truth, Muslims find it odd that any society could separate faith, morality, and law. As Princeton s Bernard Lewis writes, Muslims were commanded as their first duty to build a community...this was far more important than any 9 Or Qu ran or Koran; it means to recite. 10 Only martyrs are guaranteed paradise. 11 Many Muslims believe in beings of light or fire or jinn (sometimes called genies in the West) who can be evil or beneficent. 69

70 Get Technical: doctrinal teaching about God. Thus the Quran, the highest statement of truth, functions as a constitution; there is a long tradition of Islamic jurisprudence or fiqh. Highly respected and educated religious scholars, the ulema, act as legal and religious interpreters of the Quran, advising the government and applying the scripture to governing law (Shari ah or the true path ) and daily life. Shari ah proclaims the equality of all Muslims before Allah and demands justice from earthly lords, and it emphasized the unity of the faithful and submission to the path Jurisprudence is the rational study and application of legal principles. of God as paramount over the desires of the individual. Alcohol and gambling are forbidden. The word jihad (literally: struggle or striving ) can mean just war in defense of Islam or in defense of the community of Muslims, but it is not to be used to convert or to kill innocent people, both specifically forbidden by the Quran. The term is used in the Quran to specifically refer to war, rules of just war, and to the wars fought by Mohammed. It can also refer to the struggle for Muslims as individuals and as a community to submit to Allah. Islam requires communal submission to Allah and continual defense of the Dar al-islam (House of Islam) from the Dar al-harb (House of Death) as Muslims call the non-muslim world. Once land is under Muslim rule, it must be defended from the control of non-believers, in reflection of the superiority and unity of Allah and the Islamic community. The Quran: Men shall have the pre-eminence above women, because of those advantages wherein God has caused the one of them to excel the other... If you disclose your alms, even then it is well done, but if you keep some of them secret and give to the poor...this wipes off from you some of your evil deeds. Pagans indeed are those who say that God is the Messiah, the In Arab culture and for Muslims in general, family and marriage are very important. If one is born into a Muslim family, it is considered shameful to the family for one to leave the faith. Muslim men are urged to marry, because in Islam there is no celibate tradition. Men were allowed to marry up to four women (although Mohammed had 9 wives according to Hadith) and they are required to responsibly and completely care for each equally. While women are described in the Quran as subject to men, Mohammed s commands regarding women actually improved their status when compared to pre-muslim society in which women were little more than property; under Islam, Arab women could own property and divorce husbands. So, let s use the worldview questions to summarize the general Islamic worldview: 1. What is prime reality? Islam is monotheistic Allah, the one God, is prime reality. (This is similar to Judaism and, to a lesser extent, to Christianity with its Triune One God). 2. Who am I? A clot of mud and blood (Surah 15:26, 96:1-2) with a soul; a moral agent (a being capable of making significant moral choices, unlike animals) who is given one life to obey Allah. We are essentially good, though capable of error and of being deceived. 3. What about god? God (Allah) is One a supreme, eternal, all-powerful, just person/being who created and controls the cosmos. 70

71 4. How do I know what is true? The Quran is the ultimate standard of truth and one must either know it well or submit to the leaders (ulema) who have mastered it; since Allah controls all things, whatever is, is his will (qismet). Underneath the Quran, reason and experience can help discern the will of Allah and the general truth of things. 5. How do we explain the world being here at all? Allah made it. 6. What s the purpose of life? To obey Allah (primarily as revealed in the Quran). 7. What is good? Whatever Allah commands; the unity of the community of the faithful. 8. Why is the world broken? Ignorance and disobedience of Allah. and is there hope? Ultimately all will submit to Allah after a final struggle and there will be peace. (jihad) The Ummah Divided: Sunni and Shi a By the time of Mohammed s death in 632AD, many Arabs had converted to the new faith and Muslims had begun to spread the Prophet s teachings beyond Arabia. Though the Prophet could have no successor, the community of the faithful needed leadership, and Mohammed s companion Abu Bakr became the first caliph, the Commander of the faithful and the political protector of Mecca and all Muslims. He was succeeded by three more rightly guided caliphs until the death of the fourth caliph in 650 (and the last who had personally known Mohammed). At that point the ummah became divided on the question of a successor to the caliphate. Then and now most of the world s Muslims chose consensus by leaders (or sunnah) as the way to make decisions. They are the Sunni, and comprise over 80% of the worlds Muslims. The family of Umar (the Umayyads) was selected by the consensus of the community leaders to produce the next caliph from within their clan, but a minority backed the claim of Mohammed s grand-nephew Ali. After maneuvers and attempted assassinations, Ali was killed in a lopsided battle at Karbala (680 AD in Iraq). However, his followers persevered and became known as the Party (Shi a) of Ali. The Shi a (sometimes called Shi ites) were a despised and heretical minority after their defeat, but they persevered, following key teachers or mullahs. Today they comprise about 10% of the world s Muslims and most live in Iran (Persia) and in Arab communities around the Persian Gulf. Shi a believe that a great teacher of the Quran surfaces in every generation, the so called Hidden Imam or Mahdi. Shi a rulers gave refuge to Shi a exiles and waged jihad against Sunnis in Afghanistan, Syria, Egypt, and Persia. In fact, early Muslim rulers were far more warlike toward opposing Islamic sects; massive wars and persecution of Shi a by the Sunni or vice versa have occurred throughout Islamic history. Sufis are Muslims who follow a more mystical path to Allah. Whereas Shi a emphasize Allah s justice, and Sunnis Allah s unity and community, Sufis find Allah s mystery most attractive. Making up a tiny fraction of Sunni Muslims, Sufis are further divided into two points 71

72 of view. One sect argues that faith is so individualized that it even accepts the validity of other monotheisms; it is extremely mystical, seeking transcendent experiences of Allah through trances, dancing, and other more intuitive methods. However, the other branch of Sufism, many of whom are called Salafi, is extremely hostile toward those who do not strictly follow the Quran, even seeing other Muslim groups as heretical. 72

73 English Translation of the Quran The Quran is actually not valid as scripture in any language other than Arabic. selections from Suras 2, 3, and 4 Belief 2:1. A.L.M. (Almighty. Loving. Merciful.) 2:2. This is the Book; in it is guidance sure, without doubt, to those who fear God [Allah] 2:3. Who believe in the Unseen, are steadfast in prayer, and spend out of what We have provided for them; 2:4. And who believe in the revelation sent to thee, and sent before thy time, and (in their hearts) have the assurance of the Hereafter. 2:5. They are on (true) Guidance, from their Lord, and it is these who will prosper (survive). 2:6. As to those who reject Faith, it is the same to them whether thou warn them or do not warn them; they will not believe. 2:7. Allah hath set a seal on their hearts and on their hearing, and on their eyes is a veil; great is the penalty they (incur). On jihad and war 2:190. Fight in the Cause of God those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for God loveth not transgressors. 2:191. And slay them wherever ye catch them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out; for tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter; but fight them not at the Holy Temple, unless they (first) fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward of those who suppress faith. 2:192. But if they cease, God is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful. 2:193. And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression.... The difficulties of defending or struggling to live in the Faith 2:214. Or do ye think that ye shall enter the Garden (of bliss) without such (trials) as came to those who passed away before you? They encountered suffering and adversity, and were so shaken in spirit that even the Messenger and those of faith who were with him cried: "When (will come) the help of God." Ah! Verily, the help of God is (always) near! 2:215. They ask thee what they should spend (in charity). Say: "Whatever ye spend that is good, is for parents and kindred and orphans and those in want and for wayfarers. And whatever ye do that is good, - (God) knows it well. 2:216. Fighting is prescribed [ordered] for you, and ye dislike it. But it is possible that ye dislike a thing which is good for you, and that ye love a thing which is bad for you. But God knows, and ye know not (which is which)." 2:217. They ask thee concerning fighting in the Prohibited Month 12. Say: "Fighting therein is a grave (offence) but graver is it in the sight of God to prevent access to The Way of God, to deny Him, to prevent access to the Holy Temple, and drive out its members." Tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter. Nor will they cease fighting you until they turn you back from your faith if they can. And if any of you turn back from their faith and die in unbelief, their works will bear no fruit in this life, and in the Hereafter they will be Companions of the Fire, and will abide therein. Women and marital relations 2:221. Do not marry unbelieving women (idolaters), until they believe: a slave woman who believes is better than an unbelieving woman, even though she allures you. Nor marry (your girls) to unbelievers until they 12 Ramadan, the month of fasting. 73

74 believe: a man slave who believes is better than an unbeliever, even though he allures you. Unbelievers do (only) beckon you to the Fire. But God beckons by His Grace to the Garden (of Bliss) and Forgiveness, and makes His Signs clear to mankind: that they may celebrate His praise. 2:222. They ask thee concerning women's courses [monthly periods]. Say: "They are a hurt and a pollution: so keep away from women in their courses, and do not approach them until they are clean. But when they have purified themselves, ye may approach them in any manner, time, or place ordained for you by God. For God loves those who turn to Him constantly and He loves those who keep themselves pure and clean. 2:223. Your wives are as a tilth [garden, field]unto you; so approach your tilth when or how ye will; but do some good act for your souls beforehand; and fear God, and know that ye are to meet Him (in the Hereafter), and give (these) good tidings to those who believe. Belief 2:254. O ye who believe! Spend out of (the bounties) We have provided for you, before the Day comes when no bargaining (will avail), nor friendship nor intercession. Those who reject Faith - they are the evil-doers. 2:255. Allah - there is no god but He,- the Living, the Self-Existing - Eternal. No slumber can seize Him nor sleep. His are all things in the heavens and on Earth. Who is there can intercede in His presence except as He permits? He knows what (appears to His creatures as) before or after or behind them. Nor shall they compass aught of His Knowledge except as He wills. His Throne doth extend over the heavens and the Earth, and He feels no fatigue in guarding and preserving them for He is The Most High, The Supreme (in Glory). 2:256. Let there be NO compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error: whoever rejects Evil and believes God hath grasped the most trustworthy hand-hold, that never breaks. And God hears and knows all things. 2:257. God is the Protector of those who have faith: from the depths of darkness He will lead them forth into Light. Of those who reject faith the patrons are the evil ones (Enoch 15:8): from Light they will lead them forth into the depths of darkness. They will be Companions of the Fire, to dwell therein (for ever). Charity 2:272. It is not required of thee (O Messenger), to set them on the right path, but God sets on The Straight Way whom He pleases. Whatever of good ye give benefits your own souls, and ye shall only do so seeking the "Face" of God. Whatever good ye give, shall be rendered back to you and ye shall not be dealt with unjustly. 2:273. (Charity is) for those in need, who, in God's Cause are restricted (from travel), and cannot move about in the land, seeking (for trade or work); the ignorant man thinks, because of their modesty, that they are free from want. Thou shalt know them by their "mark": They beg not importunately from all and sundry. And whatever of good ye give, be assured God knows it well. 2:274. Those who (in charity) spend of their goods by night and by day, in secret and in public, have their reward with their Lord: on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. 2:275. Those who devour usury (interest) will not stand except as stands one whom the Evil One by his touch hath driven to madness. That is because they say: "Trade is like usury [to charge interest]," but God hath permitted trade and forbidden usury. Those who after receiving direction from their Lord, desist, shall be pardoned for the past; their case is for God (to judge); but those who repeat (the offence) are Companions of the Fire: they will abide therein (for ever). Sura 3 Unbelievers 3:83. Do they seek for other than the Religion of God?- while all creatures in the heavens and on Earth have, willing or unwilling, bowed to His Will (accepted the Will of God), and to Him shall they all be brought back. 3:84. Say: "We believe in God, and in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the (twelve) Tribes, and in (the Books) given to Moses, Jesus, and the Prophets, from their Lord: we make no distinction between one and another among them, and to God do we bow our 74

75 will." 3:85. If anyone desires a religion other than Islam, never will it be accepted of him and in the Hereafter he will be in the ranks of those who have lost (all spiritual good). 3:86. How shall God guide those who reject Faith after they accepted it and bore witness that the Messenger was true and that Clear Signs had come unto them? But God guides not an unjust people (satan does). 3:87. Of such the reward is that on them (rests) the curse of God, of His angels, and of all mankind;- 3:88. In that will they dwell nor will their penalty be lightened, nor respite be (their lot);- 3:89. Except for those that repent (even) after that, and make amends; for verily God is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. 3:90. But those who reject Faith after they accepted it, and then go on adding to their defiance of Faith,- never will their repentance be accepted; for they are those who have (of set purpose) gone astray. 3:91. As to those who reject Faith, and die rejecting,- never would be accepted from any such as much gold as the earth contains, though they should offer it for ransom (Matt. 16:26). For such is (in store) a Penalty grievous, and they will find no helpers... 3:110. Ye (Muslims) are the best of Peoples, [created] for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing God. If only the People of the Book (Jews and Christians) had faith, it were best for them: among them are some who have faith, but most of them are perverted transgressors. 3:111. They will do you no harm, barring a trifling annoyance; if they come out to fight you, they will show you their backs [flee], and no help shall they get. 3:112. Shame is pitched over them (like a tent) wherever they are found, except when under a covenant (of protection) from God and from men; they draw on themselves wrath from God, and pitched over them is (the tent of) destitution. This because they (Jews and Christians) rejected the Signs of God, and slew the Prophets in defiance of right; this because they rebelled and transgressed beyond bounds. 3:113. Not all of them are alike: of the People of the Book are a portion that stand (for the right); they rehearse the Signs of God all night long, and they prostrate themselves in adoration. 3:114. They believe God and in the Last Day; they enjoin what is right, and forbid what is wrong; and they hasten (in emulation) in (all) good works: they are in the ranks of the righteous. 3:115. Of the good that they do, nothing will be rejected of them; for God knows well those that do right. 3:116. Those who reject Faith,- neither their possessions nor their (numerous) progeny will avail them aught against God. They will be Companions of the Fire,- dwelling therein (for ever). Sura 4 On Christians 4:48. God forgives not that partners should be set up with Him 13 ; but He forgives anything else, to whom He pleases; to set up partners with God is to devise a sin most heinous indeed. 4:49. Hast thou not turned thy vision to those who claim sanctity for themselves? Nay- but God doth sanctify whom He pleases. But never will they fail to receive justice in the least little thing. War (Jihad) 4:74. Let those fight in the Cause of God who sell the life of this world for the Hereafter. To him who fights in the Cause of God,- whser he is slain or gets victory - soon shall We give him a reward of great (value). 4:75. And why should YE not fight in the Cause of God and of those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)?- men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Thee One who will protect; and raise for us from Thee One who will help!" 4:76. Those who believe champion the Cause of God, and those who reject Faith fight in the cause of Evil: so fight YE against the friends of Satan: feeble indeed is the cunning of Satan. 13 A direct reference against the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. 75

76 4:77. Hast thou not turned thy vision to those who were told to hold back their hands (from fight) but establish constant prayer and spend in regular charity? When (at length) the order for fighting was issued to them, behold! a section of them feared men as - or even more than - they should have feared God: they said: "Our Lord! Why hast Thou ordered us to fight? Wouldst Thou not grant us respite to our (natural) term, near (enough)?" Say: "Short is the enjoyment of this world: the Hereafter is the best for those who do right: never will ye be dealt with unjustly in the very least! 4:92. Never should a Believer kill a Believer; but (if it so happens) by mistake, (compensation is due): if one (so) kills a Believer, it is ordained that he should free a believing slave, and pay compensation to the deceased's family, unless they remit it freely. If the deceased belonged to a people at war with you, and he was a Believer, the freeing of a believing slave (is enough). If he belonged to a people with whom ye have treaty of mutual alliance, compensation should be paid to his family, and a believing slave be freed. For those who find this beyond their means, (is prescribed) a fast for two months running: by way of repentance to God: for God hath all Knowledge and all Wisdom. 4:93. If a man kills a Believer intentionally, his recompense is Hell-Fire, to abide therein (for ever): and the wrath and the curse of God are upon him, and a dreadful Penalty is prepared for him 4:97. When angels take the souls of those who die in sin against their souls, they say: "In what (plight) were ye?" They reply: "Weak and oppressed were we in the Earth." They say: "Was not the Earth of God spacious enough for you to move yourselves away (from evil)?" Such men will find their abode in Hell-Fire,- what an evil refuge! - 4:98. Except those who are (really) weak and oppressed - men, women, and children - who have no means in their power, nor (a guide-post) to direct their way. 4:99. For these, there is hope that God will forgive: for God doth blot out (sins) and forgive again and again. 76

77 I am both a Muslim and a Christian Shortly after noon on Fridays, the Rev. Ann Holmes Redding ties on a black headscarf, preparing to pray with her Muslim group on First Hill. On Sunday mornings, Redding puts on the white collar of an Episcopal priest. She does both, she says, because she s Christian and Muslim. Redding, who until recently was director of faith formation at St. Mark s Episcopal Cathedral, has been a priest for more than 20 years. Now she s ready to tell people that, for the last 15 months, she s also been a Muslim drawn to the faith after an introduction to Islamic prayers left her profoundly moved. Her announcement has provoked surprise and bewilderment in many, raising an obvious question: How can someone be both a Christian and a Muslim? But it has drawn other reactions too. Friends generally say they support her, while religious scholars are mixed: Some say that, depending on how one interprets the tenets of the two faiths, it is, indeed, possible to be both. Others consider the two faiths mutually exclusive. There are tenets of the faiths that are very, very different, said Kurt Fredrickson, director of the doctor of ministry program at Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena, Calif. The most basic would be: What do you do with Jesus? Christianity has historically regarded Jesus as the son of God and God incarnate, both fully human and fully divine. Muslims, though they regard Jesus as a great prophet, do not see him as divine and do not consider him the son of God. I don t think it s possible to be both, Fredrickson said, just like you can t be a Republican and a Democrat. Redding, who will begin teaching the New Testament as a visiting assistant professor at Seattle University this fall, has a different analogy: I am both Muslim and Christian, just like I m both an American of African descent and a woman. I m 100 percent both. Redding doesn t feel she has to resolve all the contradictions. People within one religion can t even agree on all the details, she said. So why would I spend time to try to reconcile all of Christian belief with all of Islam? At the most basic level, I understand the two religions to be compatible. That s all I need. She says she felt an inexplicable call to become Muslim, and to surrender to God the meaning of the word Islam. It wasn t about intellect, she said. All I know is the calling of my heart to Islam was very much something about my identity and who I am supposed to be. I could not not be a Muslim. Redding s situation is highly unusual. Officials at the national Episcopal Church headquarters said they are not aware of any other instance in which a priest has also been a believer in another faith. They said it s up to the local bishop to decide whether such a priest could continue in that role. Redding s bishop, the Rt. Rev. Vincent Warner, says he accepts Redding as an Episcopal priest and a Muslim, and that he finds the interfaith possibilities exciting. Her announcement, first made through a story in her diocese s newspaper, hasn t caused much controversy yet, he said. As much as she loves her church, she has always challenged it. She calls Christianity the world 77

78 religion of privilege. She has never believed in original sin. And for years she struggled with the nature of Jesus divinity. Ihsan Bagby, associate professor of Islamic studies at the University of Kentucky, agrees with Webb, and adds that Islam tends to be a little more flexible. Muslims can have faith in Jesus, he said, as long as they believe in Mohammed s message. Frank Spina, an Episcopal priest and also a professor of Old Testament and biblical theology at Seattle Pacific University, puts it bluntly. I just do not think this sort of thing works, he said. I think you have to give up what is essential to Christianity to make the moves that she has done. The essence of Christianity was not that Jesus was a great rabbi or even a great prophet, but that he is the very incarnation of the God that created the world. Christianity stands or falls on who Jesus is. Spina also says that as priests, he and Redding have taken vows of commitment to the doctrines of the church. That means none of us get to work out what we think all by ourselves. Redding knows there are many Christians and Muslims who will not accept her as both. I don t care, she says. They can t take away my baptism. And as she understands it, once she s made her profession of faith to become a Muslim, no one can say she isn t that, either. While she doesn t rule out that one day she may choose one or the other, it s more likely that I m going to be 100 percent Christian and 100 percent Muslim when I die. These days, Redding usually carries a headscarf with her wherever she goes so she can pray five times a day. On Fridays, she prays with about 20 others at the Al-Islam Center. On Sundays, she prays in church, usually at St. Clement s of Rome in the Mount Baker neighborhood. Being Muslim has given her insights into Christianity, she said. For instance, because Islam regards Jesus as human, not divine, it reinforces for her that we can be like Jesus. There are no excuses. Doug Thorpe, who served on St. Mark s faith-formation committee with Redding, said he s trying to understand all the dimensions of her faith choices. But he saw how it deepened her spirituality. And it spurred him to read the Quran and think more deeply about his own faith. He believes Redding is being called. She is, by her very presence, a bridge person, Thorpe said. And we desperately need those bridge persons. In Redding s car, she has hung up a cross she made of clear crystal beads. Next to it, she has dangled a heart-shaped leather object etched with the Arabic symbol for Allah. For me, that symbolizes who I am, Redding said. I look through Jesus and I see Allah. Written by: Janet I. Tu Seattle Times staff reporter 78

79 Notes and Activities 79

80 Global Religions Notes Philosophy v. Religion How many gods? Theism = Mono Poly A Universal v. Ethnic Proselytizing Questions all religions seek to answer. 80

81 Hinduism and Buddhism Foundational Concepts in Hinduism Samsara: Reincarnation: Moksha: Brahman: Polytheistic: Karma: Determines Only merit Bad things happen to good people because Dharma: Complete rule of life Determined by Supports caste system- 81

82 Buddhism Size About World s Most live in Founding Founded by Grew up Little exposure to Founding Legend Siddhartha leave palace and Realizes his status has not made him happy, No one or god could answer question of how to be happy. During meditation, receives flash of enlightenment that becomes 4 Noble Truths o Believe in o Nirvana: Application Live 82

83 Some o o Very Judaism, Christianity, and Islam So much alike, yet so different Commonalities All All believe in All believe in the prophet Father Abraham had many sons. Judaism Size Followers called Also an Founding Date In Founder: Some say Some say Early History 83

84 Found in Basic Beliefs People are Salvation through Strict Name for God = Judaism Basics Holy Book: House of Worship: Clergy: Holy Day: View of Jesus: View of Church and State: Christianity Size Called Founding c. 33 AD Share early history with Early Christians Basic Beliefs People have Salvation through 84

85 Christianity Basics Holy Book: House of Worship: Clergy: View of Jesus: View of Church and State: Islam Size Followers Founding In Founder: Basic Beliefs People have Salvation through: Name of God: Islam Basics Holy Book: House of Worship: Clergy: View of Jesus: View of Church and State: 85

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96 Inside Islam Video Worksheet 1. What does Islam mean? 2. What does Muslim mean? 3. How many Muslims live in the United States? 4. Which sect of Islam is the largest, Sunni, Shi a, or Sufi? 5. The Koran refers to Jews and Christians as fellow people of the. 6. How does the Koran story of the end of Jesus death differ from the Bible s? 7. Who is the common patriarch of the 3 major Middle Eastern religions? 8. What is the Ka bah? Who built it? 9. What did Mohammed do for a living? 10. How did the Quarish make their money? 11. What are the Five Pillars of Wisdom? a. Shahadah b. Salatc. Zakatd. Seyame. Hajj- 12. How does one convert to Islam? 13. Why do Muslims use a prayer rug? 14. In what language do Muslims pray? Why? 15. Why did the Quarish begin persecuting Muslims? 16. What marks the year 1 on the Muslim calendar? 17. Why is Jerusalem a holy city to Muslims? 18. Why do Muslims on the Hajj wear a burial shroud? 19. Why do worshipers circle the Ka bah? 20. Why do they throw stones at a pillar? Discussion: Compare and contrast the spread of Islam and the spread of Buddhism and Christianity. 96

97 Flood Stories Comparison Chart Text where story is found. Reason for the Flood Description of the Boat Babylonian Hindu Hebrew Name and description of Hero Did the Hero Complain? Means of the Flood God/gods involved Passengers on the Boat Test to Find Land Length of the Flood Ark Landing Spot What did they do after the flood? Other comparisons? 97

98 Hindu Flood Story There once was a powerful sage named Manu. He was far stronger than his father or grand-father as well as more powerful and richer. Standing on one leg with uplifted hand, he did penance in the jujube forest of Visālā. There, with his head down and his eye steady, he practiced this severe penance for 10,000 years. One day, while he was practicing this penance in wet clothes with matted hair, a fish approached the banks of the Chirini River and said to him: Worshipful sir, I am a defenseless little fish and afraid of being eaten by larger fish. Do you think, O great devotee, that it would be worth your while to protect me? Do you think I am fit to save? On hearing these words from the fish, Manu was overwhelmed with pity. He took the fish from the water with his hands. He put the fish, whose body glistened like the rays of the moon, into a clay water-jar. He kept the fish and cared for it tenderly as though it were a child. Eventually, the fish outgrew the water jar. One day, the fish addressed Manu again. Sir, could you find a larger home for me? So, Manu, the conqueror of hostile cities, moved the fish to a large tank. There the fish grew for many another year; but, once more, the fish and outgrew its container. Once more, the fish spoke to Manu, O pious father, take me to the Ganges River, the favorite spouse of the Ocean, so that I can live there. Manu did as he was asked and put the fish into the river. However, the time came when the fish had grown too large for even the Ganges and he asked Manu to take him to the sea. In spite of the enormous size of the fish, Manu was able to carry it easily. When the fish was in the water, it said to Manu, The time for purging the world is near. All of creation is doomed. I will tell you, who has protected me so well, how I will save you from the fearful flood that is coming. Build a large, strong boat and furnish it with a long rope. Get into the boat and take with you the seven Sages and certain seeds of yore and preserve them separately and carefully. Wait for me and I shall appear to you like a horned fish. The fish swam away and Manu did as he was instructed. When the flood came, he set sail with the rope, the seven Sages, and the seeds. Water covered everything. Only the ship, Manu and the seven Sages could be seen. The horned fish emerged from the waters like a rock and Manu made a noose in his rope and lowered it over the fish s head. The fish then towed the boat, across the roaring sea, toward the highest peak of the Himavat and told Manu to tie it to the mountain. Then the fish said, I am Brahman, Lord of all creatures. I have saved you from the flood, Manu. You will now recreate all beings of the earth. By practicing severe penances you will acquire this power. So saying, the fish disappeared instantly and Manu set about the work of creating all beings. World History for Us All Big Era 4 Landscape 1 98

99 Genesis 6 Hebrew Flood Story 9 This is the account of Noah. Noah was a righteous man, blameless among the people of his time, and he walked with God. 10 Noah had three sons: Shem, Ham and Japheth. 11 Now the earth was corrupt in God s sight and was full of violence. 12 God saw how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways. 13 So God said to Noah, I am going to put an end to all people, for the earth is filled with violence because of them. I am surely going to destroy both them and the earth. 14 So make yourself an ark of cypress wood; make rooms in it and coat it with pitch inside and out. 17 I am going to bring floodwaters on the earth to destroy all life under the heavens, every creature that has the breath of life in it. Everything on earth will perish. 18 But I will establish my covenant with you, and you will enter the ark you and your sons and your wife and your sons' wives with you. 19 You are to bring into the ark two of all living creatures, male and female, to keep them alive with you. 21 You are to take every kind of food that is to be eaten and store it away as food for you and for them. 22 Noah did everything just as God commanded him. Genesis 7 1 The LORD then said to Noah, Go into the ark, you and your whole family, because I have found you righteous in this generation. 4 Seven days from now I will send rain on the earth for forty days and forty nights, and I will wipe from the face of the earth every living creature I have made. 7 And Noah and his sons and his wife and his sons wives entered the ark to escape the waters of the flood. 10 And after the seven days the floodwaters came on the earth. 11 In the six hundredth year of Noah s life, on the seventeenth day of the second month-on that day all the springs of the great deep burst forth, and the floodgates of the heavens were opened. 12 And rain fell on the earth forty days and forty nights. 18 The waters rose and increased greatly on the earth, and the ark floated on the surface of the water. 23 Every living thing on the face of the earth was wiped out; men and animals and the creatures that move along the ground and the birds of the air were wiped from the earth. Only Noah was left, and those with him in the ark. Genesis 8 1 But God remembered Noah and all the wild animals and the livestock that were with him in the ark, and he sent a wind over the earth, and the waters receded. 2 Now the springs of the deep and the floodgates of the heavens had been closed, and the rain had stopped falling from the sky. 4 and on the seventeenth day of the seventh month the ark came to rest on the mountains o Ararat. 6 After forty days Noah opened the window he had made in the ark 7 and sent out a raven, and it kept flying back and forth until the water had dried up from the earth. 8 Then he sent out a dove to see if the water had receded from the surface of the ground. 9 But the dove could find no place to set its feet because there was water over all the surface of the earth; so it returned to Noah in the ark. He reached out his hand and took the dove and brought it back to himself in the ark. 10 He waited seven more days and again sent out the dove from the ark. 11 When the dove returned to him in the evening, there in its beak was a freshly plucked olive leaf! Then Noah knew that the water had receded from the earth. 12 He waited seven more days and sent the dove out again, but this time it did not return to him. 14 By the twenty-seventh day of the second month the earth was completely dry. 15 Then God said to Noah, 16 Come out of the ark, you and your wife and your sons and their wives. 17 Bring out every kind of living creature that is with you 99

100 the birds, the animals, and all the creatures that move along the ground so they can multiply on the earth and be fruitful and increase in number upon it. 18 So Noah came out, together with his sons and his wife and his sons wives. 19 All the animals and all the creatures that move along the ground and all the birds everything that moves on the earth came out of the ark, one kind after another. 20 Then Noah built an altar to the LORD and, taking some of all the clean animals and clean birds, he sacrificed burnt offerings on it. Genesis 9 1 Then God blessed Noah and his sons, saying to them, "Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the earth. World History for Us All Big Era 4 Landscape 1 100

101 Babylonian Flood Story The gods of Babylon were concerned about population growth because there were too many people and they made too much noise. Enil, the chief god living on earth, could not sleep. Therefore, the gods decided to solve the problem by eliminating humans. They tried both plague and drought, but, in each case, Ea, the god of wisdom and fresh water, advised humans to bribe the appropriate god (Namtar, the god of plague and Adad the got of rain) to call off the attack. Although the plague and the drought reduced the population temporarily, it wasn t long before there were, once again, way too many noisy people. This time, the gods decided to send a flood. Once again, their plans were undermined by Ea who warned Atrahasis, the wisest man who had ever lived. Ea told Atrahasis to abandon his house and possessions and build a boat whose length should equal its width. He also instructed him to take aboard the boat the seed of all living things. Atrahasis agreed to build the boat but asked what he should tell his neighbors when they saw what he was doing. Ea suggested that he tell them that Enil disliked him, so he is no longer permitted to live on Enil s dry land, but must, from now on, live with Ea on the sea. The entire community pitched in to help build the boat, an enormous cube ten dozen cubits [a cubit is about eighteen inches] square. Later, in retelling the story to Gilgamesh, Atrahasis gives the exact quantities of tar, pitch, and oil that the construction required. He also mentions that during construction the workman stole 7200 measures of oil. Once the boat was finished, Atrahasis took aboard his family and possessions along with every kind of animal. He also took skilled artisans who would be able to keep alive knowledge of the arts and crafts. After making offerings to the gods, Atrahasis ordered the gangplanks to be pulled up and the doors caulked. Then came the storm, which raged for six days and seven nights. The earth was inundated and even the gods were terrified. On the seventh day, the rain ceased and the sea was calm. Atrahasis looked out and saw that the boat was stranded on Mount Nimush. After six days, Atrahasis released a dove, which, finding no dry place to land, returned to the boat. The next day, a swallow was sent out and returned. On the third day, a raven left and did not return. Enil was furious when he realized that Atrahasis has survived the flood. He was ready to kill him then and there, but Ea pointed out that it really was not Atrahasis fault that he survived. In the end, Enil agreed. He granted Atrahasis and his wife eternal life but sent them to live far away, at the source of the rivers. World History for Us All Big Era 4 Landscape 101

102 Maps & Charts 102

103 Birthplace of 12 Religions 103

104 Middle East Religions 104

105 Asian Religions 105

106 India Religions 106

107 Sunni - Shi a Percentages 107

108 Sunni - Shi a Middle East 108

109 Sunni - Shi a World 109

110 Religions in Asia 110