UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

Transcription

1 UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING HIS 111: Early Africa AD (2 Units) Course Facilitator: Abdullahi Garba 1

2 STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: HIS 110: Early Africa AD Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for 2

3 your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (S AQ) be sure of 3

4 what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your intext carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book 4

5 for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. 5

6 This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors through their addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e- tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate , because ing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and s which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your . The continuous 6

7 assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). 7

8 You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period. 8

9 COURSE TITLE: EARLY AFRICA, A. D COURSE CODE: HIS 110 CREDIT UNITS: TWO (2) TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE INTRODUCTION LEARNING OTCOMES IN-TEXT STATE FORMATION IN-TEXT QUESTIONS (ITQ) IN-TEXT ANSWERS (ITA) SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs) SUMMARY REFERENCES SUGGESTED READINGS INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE 9

10 This course titled Early Africa, A.D is an introductory one which examines the important processes that transformed Africa into statehood. State formation in African is similar with possible slight differences. This course will examine why some states emerged, rise or expand in particular periods while others did not. Many theories or postulations provided different explanations relating to state formation. This course also attempts an explanation on important indices that determine state formation, rise, expansion, ad fall or collapse. These indices trade, religions, migrations, innovations, inter and intra-regional contacts. Types of states in Africa have been anslysed, where three types of states were examined. Furthermore, external influence due to contact with the Arabs and the Europeans leading to Trans-Saharan and Coastal trades which ultimately resulted to Trans-Atlantic slave trade (Coastal trade) was discussed. Africa was transformed by the two major religions that emanated from the East, i.e. Christianity and Islam are critically examined. The Bantu migration being an important historical development was discussed. In fact, the early developments within this time frame were a pacesetter to all the developments that shaped the history of Africa in the subsequent centuries. 10

11 Study Session STATE FORMATION IN AFRICA 1.1 Introduction The history of state formation in Africa particularly from 1000 to 1600 A.D is very important for the reconstruction of African history. This is basically because it would to a greater extent help in bringing about the processes and factors responsible for the rise and fall of states in Africa. It would also clearly explain those indices that contributed to state formation such as the roles of different social groups, trade, religion, migration and contacts among different groups of people. In this regard, it would be important to give clear explanation that would highlight on what the emergence of different status formation such as macro or large, micro or small and stateless or accephalous societies. 1.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to: 1- Explain the different theories of early state formation in Africa. 2- Identify different types of states and their political organisation in Africa. 3- Discuss the factors that led to state formation in Africa. 11

12 1.3 In-text Theories of States Formation in Africa However, to give a detailed explanation, there is the need to understand the principles of state formation processes. An important aspect of that is the theory in African history. In trying to give a clear explanation, scholars from different field of academic endeavors such as Abdulrahman Ibn Khaldan, Karl Marx, Lewis H. Morgan and Robert Carencro among others gave different theories and hypothesis for the understanding of the concept of state formation in Africa. Therefore, there are many theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation in Africa that seeks to explain the processes and factors of state formation in Africa. These theories include: voluntary theory which suggested that people willingly come to settle in a particular place for the benefit of enjoying protection and carrying out their economic activities. This postulation suits on agrarian population which depended on arable land and source of water to carry out their farming activities. The second theory is referred to as conflict theory. Unlike the voluntary theory, this theory maintained that people do not voluntary come together and settle in a given area peacefully and willingly, but rather, through coercive means. It explains that states are formed as a result of the dominance of a particular group who oppressed and bring some people under their control. Similarly, circumscription theory postulated by Robert Carneiro maintained that mechanisms of state 12

13 formation depended largely o population pressure, agriculture, irrigation and warfare. In his own view, it could be assumed that voluntary and conflict theory served as important postulations to be considered regarding state formation in Africa. However, in the historical context, there are two Fundamental Theories to be considered in the evolution of states in Africa. These are diffusion (conflict theory) and evolution (integration) theories. Diffusion was a theory that developed out of historical particularism propounded by the American born German, Franz Boas, whose students developed the diffusion concept. Diffusionists are of the view those cultural traits and all historical developments spreads from one group of people to another. This can be through migration of its bearers or through borrowing. They further maintained that the agents of diffusion include traders, missionaries and government officials. The Diffusion School argued that the old state formation process in Africa was as a result of influence from outside Africa, which came to other parts of Africa through North Africa and in particular Egypt. This development could either be trough conquest or violence. The proponent of this theory believed that all development in Africa emerged as a result of trade, migration, religion and inter-regional contacts that led to spreading of ideas in Africa. This view tends to portray racial superiority of the whites over the blacks, a postulation that came to 13

14 be known as Hermitic hypothesis. It is also interesting to note that another group within the diffusions school argued that evolved in response to conflict between unequal social classes and that the state physically represent government institutions. Secondly, the evolutionary school opines that state formation in Africa was independent. The emergence of states with or without external influence was a gradual development that naturally evolved in response to social, political and economic demands within a group of people. This may be in form of integrative or violence. Integration specifically refers to the evolution of state when social groups voluntarily decided to come together and submitted to a government in order to get military and economic benefits. According to Herbert Spencer, violent could mean an invention or military superiority. An agriculturally more productive group in an area could lead to establishment of the state or a state-like institution. It is important to note that state formation process is a complex social, political and economic aspect of human beings within any given environment. This seeks to establish an authoritative order and form in the organization of societies. Factors that Led to State Formation in Africa In our analysis of the significant theories of state formation in Africa, we have identified some of the factors that facilitated the conditions that led to state 14

15 formation in Africa. The most important factors include population growth, emergence of political leadership, sedentarisation and specialisation, unification and integration, viable geographical condition, contacts as well as the improvement in technology are among some of the factors that led to state formation in Africa. According to Abdullahi Smith, population was a very important determinant that led to emergence of form government in the central Sudan. In other words, it was a combination of environment and demographic factors that gave rise to the condition that led to the emergency of ruling dynasty among the Teda-Daza specking groups also known as Kanuri people in Kanem between 9 th -10 th centuries A.D In contrast to western neighbours of Borno known as Kasar Hausa (Hausa land) or the land of Hausa speaking people, in the first millennium, there was the emergence of state like political organizations among the people as a result of socio-political unification of previously separated groups who lived in segmented areas of helmets base on family liens. The unification and integration resulted into the formation of villages, which later metamorphosed to chiefdoms,-kingdoms and empires. Many groups of people who spoke similar languages or understand one another became unified. Inter-marriages were other means of unification in most African societies. A belief was also an important factor of unification as it brought the people in contact with one another for the purpose of worship. King-worship in 15

16 the Lake-Chad Basin, among the people of Kanem in particular rallied the people around the monarch, who was regarded as semi-god, the giver and provider of wealth and healthy during the pre-islamic period. When one studied the history of the Bantu people, despite their differences in linguistic forms, the comprehension of one another gave them a sense of oneness in Africa. In the central Sudan, the Hausa speaking people were bounded by socio-cultural ties which include language, religion, occupation, inter-marriages and origin. Population growth is important factor that led to state formation in Africa in many ramification and so also environmental condition. Viable environmental condition for agricultural production attracted people to concentrate in a given area for economic purpose. This is in line with Fredrick Engel s The origin of family, private property and the state. He argued that the state developed as a result of the need to protect private property. He also contended that surplus production as a result of development in agriculture created a division and specialization of labour. The surplus production in agriculture can not be possible without large number of population who settled in an area which is fertile and conducive for agricultural production. This is evident for the lake-chad basin to host large number of population to harness the resources of the area. The East African Coastal states emerged as a result of the availability of arable land and communication network, which attracted large number of population over the area for economic activities. 16

17 In South Africa, environmental factor was responsible for state formation. The fertility of the land around Cape Coast, Zuurveld stretching to Natal supported farmers and herdsmen to establish states in South Africa. In addition, sedentarisation was another factor that led to state formation in Africa. Sedentarisation started in Africa possible due to Neolithic revolution which was an important turning point in the history of Africa. It was a transformation period leading to domestication of animal and development in agricultural and improvement in fishing and hunting among other occupation. Neolithic revolution was I stages which started from Stone Age to Iron Age. With this improvement however, sedentarisation and specialization as well as division of labour set in. it is believed that nobles, artisans, military merchants emerged thereby stratifying the early African societies. In essence, here, we are talking of technology of making tools for household use and offensive means. This technology was mainly to do with the agricultural sector which witnessed the introduction of varieties of crops from south East Asia and America through the sea fearer. These crops that have been adopted and adapted in Africa include Banana, plantain, coconut, yam, cassava and maize between A.D. Trans-Saharan trade has influenced state formation within the Negro land and particularly around the Sahara desert. The known areas that benefited from this trade were mostly the agricultural, Gold and salt bearing areas of the upper Niger, 17

18 Senegal Rivers and some states around the Lake-Chad Basin. This trade across the Sahara desert can best be explain due to economic interest of pastoralist non- African traders who wanted the gold from Audoghast, salt from Taghaza and Ahir axis and agricultural products which the negroes could offer and in return they could provide such merchandise as metals and other goods that the Africans lacked. Those states that traded with the Arabs accrued enormous wealth that made them far ahead of some states that had no or less important. The sources of wealth to the African states depended on profits from transactions between them and the Arab traders as well as taxes levied on the traders. The income from the trade made the state or state like institutions very strong. The larger the state, the more effective system of government and the greater the security become. In fact, Ghana, Mali, Kanem-Borno and Kano bear their greatness to the trans-saharantrade. Type of States in Early Africa Before the emergence of States and states-like societies in Africa, it is clear that most African people lived in lineages. Latter, people began to come together and settle in groups of more than a family or lineages. This was possibly to provide security for the state. As the community increases in size, both in population and land mass, people started to think of an organised leadership to coordinate their affairs. This led to the emergence of Chiefdom which grows to Kingdom and latter 18

19 metamorphosed to Empire. African communities can therefore be classified into macro or large, micro or small and stateless or acephalous societies. Macro or large states are often referred to as Centralised societies. These societies have evolved a centralized system of government with organised arms, organs and institutions that coordinates the activities of the state. The states embodied a conglomeration of different groups of people just in the form of federation. It is important to note that in the case of centralize state powers are accorded to the provincial rulers as the state is fragmented into tiers. Oyo as an important macro state is divided into metropolitan and provincial Oyo. In the metropolitan, the Alafin was in charge of the central administration assisted by some important palace officials. In the provincial area, the administrative functions were done by the Ilari who represent the Alafin. Similarly, in the remote villages, the Baale was representing the Alafin. In Africa, there were numerous centralize states such as Buganda, Congo, Chewezi, Mali, Songhai, Lunda, Ethiopia, Somali, Kanem-Borno, Benin and Oyo to mention just a few that evolved formidable empires that had a landmark in the history of Africa. The second type of state is known as micro or small states. These are mostly organised states that are formed within the same ethnic backgrounds. Unlike the macro states, the area of administrative jurisdiction was not too compounded in terms of land mass. The Hausa city states could be seen as an example of small or 19

20 micro states. Mostly, these types of states are fortified so as to provide barriers which served as protective means against intrusion from outsiders or invaders. Almost all the Hausa city states were barricaded. Typical examples of these states include Chiefdoms and kingdoms such as Kano, Katsina, Yauri, Zaria, Kwararrafa and the Deltaic states. Next is Acephalous state which is a Greek word meaning Headless. It is a society which lacks political leaders or hierarchies. Such groups are also known as egalitarian or non-stratified societies. These societies are small scale organised into families, bands or tribes that makes decisions on behalf of their members through consensus rather than appointing a permanent chief or king. These types of societies are egalitarian in nature where every member contributed to the administration of the society. Every age grade was assigned a function to fulfill in the society. The elders took the decisions while the youths perform duties such as providing security, clearing the sources of water and organising the village squire where the elders converge and took decisions and sanitising their community etc. Typical of these types of societies in Africa are the Igbo in south eastern Nigeria, the Nuer in South Sudan and the south eastern Ethiopia, the Logali (Logaali) who lived in Kenya and Tanzania and the Tallensi, a people who lived in northern Ghana as acephalus or egalitarian societies. 20

21 1.4 In-text questions (ITQ) 1- Critically explain the theories relevant to state formation in Africa 2- Differentiate between the various types of states in Africa 4- Explain the factors that led to states formation in Africa 1.5 In-text answers (ITA) 1-There are many theories that explain the processes and factors responsible for state formation in Africa. These theories are voluntary, conflict and circumscription theories. In the historical point of view, these theories are compressed into two major postulations known as Diffusion and Evolution theories. 2- Scholars have presented different types of states in the context of studying early African states. These are Micro or Large, Micro or Small and Acephalous or Stateless states. However, some historians catergorise them into two broad areas as Centralise and Non-centralise state. 3- Many factors contributed to state formation in Africa. Important among these factors was the iron technology which transforms ways of doing things. Production of surplus products brought people to settle in a particular place and demanded for a stable political system to provide security and regulate human activities. A commercial activity was also an important factor in state formation. 21

22 1.6 Summary In this study session, important issues relating to state formation in Africa were discussed. These include theories of state formation, types of states in Africa and the factors that led to state formation in Africa. Important indices in discussing state formation such as trade, contacts, agriculture, political organization, warfare as ingredients in state formation were highlighted in this study session. 1.7 Self Assessment Questions (SAQs) 1- Explain the role of trade, religion, communication network and the role of ideas in state formation in Africa 2- Why did different African states evolved in different times? 3- The discovery of iron was the most important factor in state formation. Discuss 1.8 References Clerk, John D. The Prehistory of Africa, London, Frank Cass, 1970 Fagan, Brian and Oliver Roland, Africa in the Iron Age; c. 500 B.C A.D., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1975 Fage John D., An Atlas of African History, London, St. Martin, Suggested Readings Mc Call, Daniel, Africa in Time Perspective, London, OUP, 1964 Curtin Philip et.al, African History, London, Longman Group Limited,

23 Study session II 2.0 THE RISE AND FALL OF STATES IN AFRICA 2.1 Introduction The African Empires and Kingdoms looked alike in their historical development particularly the Sudanic kingdoms and empires. Archaeological work in Mauritania suggests that between 800 and 600 B.C. an incipient state existed in Tichitt area. It was inhabited the ancestors and perhaps Mande. Latter it was decayed under the onslaught of nomadic Berbers. Latter after about 300 B.C., there was another move towards state formation again, which gave rise to the emergence of the kingdom of Ghana in about 400B.C. On the Senegal River, the state of Takrur emerged in the beginning of the 100 A.D. By 800 A. D., other states had independently aroused in Gao and Kanem East of Lake Chad. 2.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of this session, the students should be able to: 1- Explain the factors that gave rise to states in Africa. 2- Discuss the factors that led to the fall of African states 23

24 2.3 In-text State formation was much older in the Nile Valley and Ethiopia. The middle Nile was already a state since 1500 B. C., and the state of Ethiopia may be reflected back to 600 B.C. In the Bantu-speaking are, the evidence of the existence of a state predated their migration. Chiefdoms existed in the East African Coasts in about 8 th to 9 th centuries A. D., the Masudi s in the central Mozambique dates back to about 10 th century. Different states arouse independently in different parts of Africa. During the first millennium A.D., states aroused all over the tropical Africa. Regarding to rise of states in Africa, there were two theories that gave explanations. The first theory was depended by Basil Davidson and Christopher C. Wrigley which suggested that the Bantu-speaking people evolved a state system based on their superiority of iron weaponry. This assertion has implication on the non-bantu African people who perhaps were stimulated by the developments in the Bantu region. The development of iron tools possibly facilitated the growth of military and agricultural implements. In addition, the iron technology facilitated the construction of canoes that were used in transporting goods and services. Though, it was not all states in Africa that developed due to iron technology, but it was a very significant factor to reckon with. Another theory on the rise of states in Africa suggests that economic reason was behind it. Those who were for that view believed that trade was an 24

25 influential factor in the rise of African states. To buttress this point, taking a good look at the East African Coastal towns such as Mombassa, Kilwa, Lamu, Pate, Kilifi Malindi etc roused due to commercial activities. These states were in contact with sea fearers from India, China and the Arabian Gulf states. Mali, Ghana, Songhai, Kanem-Borno and Kano owed their rise as important states in connection with the trans-saharan trade. Control of trade routes and important centres of mining such as gold and salt mines in Akan, Mossi Dagomba, Fong, Bunduhu and Bilma have great economic importance in trans-saharan trade. Control of these areas provided wealth and prestige to states in charge. Political organisation has influence in the rise of states in Africa. Critically looking at this factor, the existence of a strong political system coordinates all other factors. Good administrators coordinate effective taxation system to generate wealth for the state. The administration organises the military to defend not only the territorial integrity of the state but including the trade routes to ensure safety of goods coming in and going outside the state. The cavalry in most African societies such as that of Oyo, Borno, Ghana, Mali, Songhai etc were developed with the aid of horses that were imported from North Africa. Although, it is not apt to say that conquest was a factor in state formation, it is an important ingredient in the expansion of state. In retrospect to the first theory supported by Basil Davidson and Wrigley which was emphatic on iron technology, the kingship 25

26 and the black smith are closely connected. Other factors such as population, exchange of ideas i.e. spread of religion and new methods of farming and warfare could lead to the rise of a state. It is natural that most states in the world rise and fall. The reasons that led to the rise of states, lacking or failure to achieve or control them might lead to collapse. Songhai was unable to withstand the Moroccan army in the 16 th century. The onslaught of Moroccan resulted to the fall of Songhai. Kanem rulers were forced to move to Borno to the fact that there was strife over control of resources in the Lake Chad area and secondly the internecine wars with the Bulala who equally claimed to have a stake in ruling the state. The failure to control the vast territory either due to the weakness of the army or financial constraint caused the fall of a state. 2.4 In-text question (ITQ) 1-What are the factors that led to the rise of states in Africa? 2-What are the reasons that led to the fall of African states? 2.5 In-text Answers (ITA) 1- Different hypothesis regarding the factors that led to rise of states in Africa were identified. Basil Davidson and Christopher C. Wrigley were of the view that states rise in Africa due to the development of Iron technology. 26

27 On the other side, it was argued that states economic and political factors contributed to the rise of African states. 2- The absence of control of economic forces such as markets, trade routes, and formidable army to defend the socio-political and economic sectors weakens the state. Songhai was decisively defeated by the Moroccan army due to superiority of military weapons. 2.6 Summary The rise of most African states are similar especially the Sudanese states. Their rise was as a result of multifaceted factors which combined economic, political as well as flow of new ideologies. These include the control of trade routes, conquest of the weaker communities through military might, stable political bureaucratic system and revenue. However, the fall of most African states is decay of the reasons highlighted above. 2.7 Self Assessment Questions (SAQs) 1- What are the roles of commerce, religion, military, stable political system and ideological dissemination toward the rise of states in Africa? 2- Explain any five factors that led to the collapse of African States. 2.8 References Clerk, John D. The Prehistory of Africa, London, Frank Cass,

28 Fagan, Brian and Oliver Roland, Africa in the Iron Age; c. 500 B.C A.D., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1975 Fage John D., An Atlas of African History, London, St. Martin, Suggested Readings McCall, Daniel, Africa in Time Perspective, London, OUP, 1964 Curtin Philip et.al, African History, London, Longman Group Limited, 1981 Study Session III 3.0 TRADE: TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE AND COASTAL CONTACT WITH THE EUROPEANS AND ITS IMPACT 3.1 Introduction Trade has influenced the history of Africa significantly as an important reformatory factor. Through trade, many African states roused to positions of prominence and had developed certain aspects of socio-political and economic culture. Basically, Africa had witnessed two different types of trade. Those are; trans- Saharan trade, a trade across the Sahara between the Arabs of North Africa and the peoples of Sudan, i.e. Western and Central Sudanic states such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Kanem-Borno and Hausaland. Secondly, African countries witnessed the emergence of coastal trade. It was a trade that was conducted across the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. This trade connected the African polities 28

29 with the European nations and in particular Portugal, the pioneer country to had contact with Africa. 3.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of this study session, the students should be able to: 1- Discuss the origin of Trans-Saharan Trade, its organisation, significance and implications in Africa. 2- Discuss the origin of Coastal Trade, its organisation, significance and implications in Africa. 3.3 In-text Trans-Saharan Trade Trans-Saharan and Trans-Atlantic trades is one of the most important and early contact between Africa and the Arabs. It was a long distance trade across the Sahara on a fairly large scale under the control of professional traders or merchants who were involved in supplying and buying goods in the sub-regional and regional trade. Trans-Saharan trade in addition to transaction in food and clothing endowed the rich to devote their income to conspicuous attires, jewels, books, works of art, slave, means of transport, tools for production, objects of defensive and offensive purposes etc as commonly found in the articles of Trans- 29

30 Saharan trade. These Trade it was the main line or channel of supplying the outside world with African products mainly slaves and gold, satisfying the demand of Africans for outside goods particularly guns, gun-powder, rum, mirror from the outside world and in particular North Africa. This trade was carried out across three most important routes i.e. the eastern route which crossed the Sahara from Fezzan to Kawar reaching Borno and the central route Ghademes to Ahir reaching Hausaland. The western route moved across Audoghost touching the important gold mines of Walata and Banduku. Coastal Trade Portuguese maritime revolution of the 15 th century affected all the parts of Africa between A.D, the Portuguese mariner opened direct contact to the west coast of the continent from Tangier to the Cape of Good Hope. Later, the Portuguese assess from the Cape to the eastern shores as well. In 1444, the first European reached as far south as the Senegal River and sailed back to Europe. Christopher Columbus sailed across the Atlantic and into the Pacific and Indian oceans between A.D. In 1470s and 1480s, the Portuguese explored their first corner of the Atlantic Ocean. Before 1470s, no European ship had sailed beyond Sierra-Leone. By 1490, the Portuguese had regular relations with the Gold Coast (Ghana) leading to the building of El-mina castle in 1481.Gold Coast increased export 30

31 which was estimated to about 700 kg in a peak year in the end of the 15 th century. Between , an average of 410 kg was exported. The Portuguese having discovered the abundance of African gold, they ventured into direct trade in the coast. The Portuguese reached beyond the forest to the southern savannah. They started selling European products like gun, mirrors, gun and gun-powder, spirit etc in exchange for gold and other African export. They also learnt that they could also sell their shipping services being paid in gold for taking goods from one place to another. The Portuguese in search for gold went beyond the coastal area to the sub- Saharan gold deposits. They were encouraged to visit the gold mines in Mali and paid visit to the kingdom in Mali. Customary tributes to traditional rulers to gain access to trade in the forms of tribute, rent and annual fees were paid by the Portuguese merchants. West Africans were ready to buy woolen clothes and cavalry remounts from Morocco as well as copper and brass from Europe. The Portuguese were able to supply all by sea in competition with the trans-saharan trade. Once on the Guinea coast, they could sell in places like Benin in exchange with beads, pepper and slaves. The pepper went to Europe but the beads and the slaves were exchange for gold within Africa. In 1514, Oba Ewuare the Great sent a mission to Portugal hoping to order for firearms. The emerging trade resulted to the emanation of new social class in the coastal area. Due to pressure from the Portuguese direct involvement in the coastal 31

32 trade, the position of middlemen came into being. The middle men liaised between the locals and the Portuguese. Later on, trust system came into being where European merchants gave capital to trustworthy individuals who traded and purchased goods for them. Coastal trade, specifically Portuguese trade had implication on the history of the Atlantic slave trade being the first to ship Africans to Europe and possibly moved them to Americas. The need for African slaves steadily increased over time. This in turn increased the tempo of slave raiding in Africa which became the most lucrative article of trade. It heightened the inter-tribal wars among different communities of Africa causing anxiety, insecurity and distress. The firearms that were brought by the Portuguese increased the tempo wars resulting to great casualties in African wars. Trans-Saharan trade suffered a setback with the emergence of coastal trade which resulted to shift or changing direction from the caravan trade. The coastal trade became very attractive devoid of the Arab middlemen who hitherto were the go-between Africa and Europe. Coastal trade created the direct link between Europe and Africa. This development had affected the economies of the Sudanic states in that the volume of trade reduced significantly. On the contrary to the coastal states, many areas roused to the status of city states in connection with the changing pattern of trade. 32

33 3.4 In-text questions (ITQ) 1- What are the impacts of the Trans-Sahran Trade on the Sudanic states? 2- What are the impacts of the Coastal Trade on African states? 3- What are the impacts of the Trans-Sahran and Coastal Trades on African states? 3.5 In-text answers (ITA) 1- Trans-Saharan trade was a trade across the Sahara between the Sudanic states and North Africa. The trade has benefitted many states which led to their expansion. Many states immersed wealth through this trade in collecting tariffs for the passage of goods. Not only that, ideas were and military hardware were distributed. States that were located on the trade routes and those with great markets significantly developed. 2- The Coastal trade was a trade between the Europeans and the Africans which started in tail end of 15 th century. The pioneers of the Coastal trade were Portuguese, the pioneers of the European maritime revolution. The Portuguese did not relented their economic adventure in the Coastal areas but rather, they extended their commercial adventure to the Sudanic areas most especially the gold mines in as much as gold was the most demanding article of trade. 33

34 3- Both Trans-Saharan and Coastal trade connected African states with the outer world i.e. North Africa and Europe. Important ideas were introduced. These trades introduced Africans to the use of maxim guns which were important in state expansion. The trades notwithstanding exacerbated slave trade and caused more disaffection among Africans as they intensified continuous communal wars. Trans-Saharan trade was the earlier trade in comparism with Coastal trade. The emergence of the Coastal trade changed direction of commercial activities from the Sahara to the Coastal areas, reducing the income of the Sudanic states. Coastal trade marked the beginning of the Trans-Atlantic trade. 3.6 Summary Trans-Saharan and Coastal trades opened up the potentialities of Africa, blessed with human and natural resources. These trades introduced the world two major religions i.e. Islam and Christianity. Notwithstanding, through these trades Africans states able to expand their territories by building formidable forces equips with horses and Maxim guns. Important commercial and learning centres emerged in Africa. 3.7 Self Assessment Questions (SAQs) 1- What were the major articles of trade in the Trans-Saharan and Coastal trades? 34

35 2- Why did the Trans-Saharan trade predated the Coastal trade? 3- Differentiate the Trans-Saharan trade with the Coastal trade 3.8 References Bovill, E. W. ed. (1966), Mission to the vols, iii and iv, The Hakluyt Society Cambridge University Press, London. Hopkins, A. G. (1982), Economic History of West Africa Longman, London. Inikori, J. E. ed. (1982), Forced Labour Migration; The Impact of the Export Slave Trade on African Society (London). Wickens, P. L. (1981); An Economic History of Africa Since the Earliest Times to Partition, (Cape Town). Zeleza, T (1993), Modern Economic History of Africa Vol. l, COOESRIA, Dakar. 3.9 Suggested Readings Hunwick, J. O. (1971) Songhay, Borno and Hausa land in the Sixteenth Century', in J.F.A and M Crowder Eds. History of West Africa. Vol. II Hallet, R. 1970, Africa to 1887, London, Heinmann, Study Session IV 4.0 THE INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD UNIVERSAL RELIGIONS 4.1 Introduction 35

36 Man is a social being who believes in the existence of a supernatural being. This believe makes man to develop the idea of worshiping and exalting that supernatural being whom he believes to be the giver of live, health wealth etc in life. People believe in different religion through which they worship and exalt the supernatural being they believe in. there are hundreds of religions which are as old as man himself. The most known universal religions that are widely practice are Christianity and Islam. Our main focus is to discuss the introduction and spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa. 4.2 Learning Outcomes At the end of this study session, students should be able to : 1- Explain Origin and spread of Christianity in Africa 2- Explain the origin and spread of Islam in Africa 4.3 In-text Spread of Christianity in Africa The history of Christianity in Africa goes behind the continent. Africa people got in touch with Christianity and were believed to be in the ministry of the founder of the religion. The gospel of Luke recorded that Egyptians and Cyrene received the new religion from Jesus. They were in attendance on the day of Pentecost. The gospel of Luke also recorded that a Cyrenian was compelled to bear the cross for Jesus. Cyrene was located in North Africa. This practically revealed 36

37 that the people of North Africa were the first people in Africa to get into contact with Christianity. In Africa, Christianity reached North Africa in the first century A.D from Jerusalem to Alexandria, which is situated in Egyptian Coast. It was brought by Mark, one of the four Evangelists in about 60 A.D. This was around the same time or possibly before Christianity spread to Northern Europe. Once in North Africa, Christianity spread dually west from Alexandria and East to Ethiopia. Egypt and Ethiopia were the first two African countries to embrace Christianity. The spread of Christianity throughout Egypt and Northern Africa during the first five centuries was rapid and intense. The city of Alexandria had a large Jewish community. Alexandria and Jerusalem were closer to each other. It is believed that African Jews in Alexandria were converted from Judaism to Christianity. Following a Jewish revolt in 115 A.D. Judaism gave way for Christianity. North Africans were the first to receive and embrace the Gospel of Jesus Christ. The early Church in North Africa went through severe persecutions between A.D. The church established (Coptic) the catechetical schools of Alexandria among other similar schools of Christian instruction which produced many significant leaders of the faith. 37

38 Persecutions in Egypt resulted in dispersion of Christians in the innermost regions of Egypt. Egyptian churches spread the Gospel in the Coptic (Egyptians) language and planted churches throughout the interior of Egypt. However, Christianity in the region was weakened by theological and doctrinal controversies. At the start as the national church and had penetrated every region of the country, the church in North Africa did not grow quickly because they used Latin language in their services and literatures rather than the language of the people. In the fourth century, (A.D, the Ethiopian king, Ezana was converted and made Christianity the official religion of the state. Ezana s decision to adopt Christianity was most likely influenced by his desire to solidity his trading relations with the Roman Empire. Christianity afforded the possibility of unifying the diverse ethnic and linguistic peoples of the Aksumite Kingdom, a desire of Ezana s over lordship. He builds Churches in the Basilican design. The first coin with an emblem of the cross was introduced for commercial transaction. In central Africa, King Nzinga of Congo was converted to Christianity willingly urging the Congo nobility and peasant classes to follow suit. The Congo kingdom remained Christian for the next 200 years. Scholars continue to dispute the authenticity of Congolese Christian faith and the degree to which the adoption of the new faith was motivated by political and economic gains. The Congolese swiftly adopted Christianity for several reasons. The first is that the nature of the 38

39 centralized government and the hierarchically structured society facilitated the dissemination of information, also, the translation of the Christian doctrines into Kikongo, the local language. King Afonso I of Congo who reigned from A.D. was a literate man who spoke and wrote in Portuguese not only that, his son Henrique was sent to Europe to complete his religious training. Afonso s letters to the Vatican and Portuguese bishops are some of the most important records of pre-colonial African and the Congo Christian faith. Christianity came into the sub-saharan Africa in the 15 th century A.D. The first contact with Europe was between Africans and the Portuguese. In Nigeria, Ughoton or Gwatto was the first community in Benin to record the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15 th century. A number of Africans were taken to Portugal with the aim of converting them, training them to come back to Africa and spread the religion as missionaries. Christianity did not recorded significant success between the periods under discussion in the sub-saharan Africa. The religion was well propagated and accepted in the 19 th and 20 th centuries. The history of Christianity in Africa is synonymous with the history of the Europeans in Africa. Early Christianity in Africa is a credited to the Portuguese who sailed through the coastal areas and gave insight of the religion in coastal areas of Africa such as Cape Coast, Cape of Good Hope, East African Coast, Elmina, Bugado etc. Spread of Islam in Africa 39

40 Islam is a monotheism religion i.e. a religion that believes in the worship of one God (Allah). The religion originated in Mecca at the end of the 6 th century A.D by Prophet Muhammad. The spread of Islam from Mecca to other places within Arabia particularly Madina was as a result of migration popularly known as Hijrah in fear of persecution by the people of Mecca. Islam spread gradually from Arabia to Africa not long after the death of its founder. The spread of Islam into Africa was through North Africa in the first half of the 7 th century. This was followed by East Africa in the 8 th century and the sub-saharan (West) Africa in the 11 th century. Southern Africa did not form part of our discussion considering the scope of this course. Islam in North Africa Islam first came to Egypt in c640a.d when Egypt was conquered by the Muslim Arab General, Amr Ibn al-asi through Fustat. From Egypt, Islam spread across North Africa to Western Tunisia and Northern Algeria through conquest by Ibn abi-sarh between A.D Uqba Ibn Nafi followed up with spreading Islam to Morocco. He also moved south sand the propagation of the religion continued into the Sahara, the area surrounding Lake-Chad. In the beginning, the spread of Islam was through military conquest. But at the latter phase, peaceful means were used in spreading Islam in North Africa. These peaceful means include the following: trade, intermarriage, preaching and Islamic education. 40