Ā B H I N A Y A M K U R A M

Transcription

1 INTRODUCTION 1

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3 Ā B H I N A Y A M K U R A M āngikam bhuvanam yasya vāchikam sarva vāngmayam āhāryam chandra tārādi tam numah sātvikam shivam To the One whose movements create the universe; whose words encompass all sound; whose ornaments are the moon, the stars, the planets; we offer our praise to the Almighty, Benevolent One, Shiva. 3

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5 AUM Question: Why have you incorporated AUM in your kathak classes? Chitreshji: To me AUM is not just a religious symbol; it is an incredibly ancient symbol that is organic, dynamic, and divine. It is not only a Hindu thing, it is a Human thing; an energy symbol with a direct meaning on all our lives. It is comprised of four symbolic elements: A, U, M and the fourth is silence. But you have to say it. A rises from the back of the mouth, U fills the mouth cavity and M brings it to conclusion with closed lips. And the fourth element is the silence from which AUM rises and back into which it falls. When intoned correctly with focus and attention, AUM awakens and kindles the Great Soul inside all of us. It is this energy which is your dance. ~~~ In the ancient Manduka Upanishad, these four elements are related to four planes of consciousness. A represents waking consciousness, the plane at which the everyday is met bodies and objects are interpreted as separate entities. This waking state is illustrated as the second curving slope of the AUM symbol, made by the calligrapher s pen, the lower curve of it s 3 shape. U dream consciousness. The U fills the mouth and head the dreamer and the dream, though seemingly separate, are in actuality the same. This is the stroke of the calligrapher s pen emanating out and downward from the center of the 3 shape. M deep dreamless sleep. There is neither object seen nor dreaming subject, but unconsciousness undifferentiated and veiled in darkness. In mythology, this relates to the state of the universe between cycles, when all returns to the cosmic night, analogous to the first formless waste, with darkness over the seas in Genesis. It is represented by the top curve of the 3 shape of the AUM. Silence the silence surrounding this syllable is not simply a lack of sound, but the silence heard resonating through all things, which words can never describe. It is the Void from which all things rise and back into which all things dissolve. This is represented in the bindu, the dot resting in the upper right the divine source, the still center of the turning world; illumination hidden to ignorant humanity by the half-moon of maya, the illusions and desires of this world. 5

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7 G U R U S L O K A gururbrahmā gururvishnu(uh) gururdevo maheshvara(ha) gurussākshāt param brahmā tasmai shrī gurave nama(ha) The Guru is none other than the Creator, Brahma; The Guru is like the Preserver, Vishnu; Truly, He is Maheshvara, the Destroyer; He is the incarnation of the Supreme Brahma himself; To such a Guru, I offer my respect. ~~~ P A N C H A B H Ū T A (5 Elements) brahman - the eternal soul which penetrates the being of the whole universe ākāsha - sky, space vāyu - air, wind teja - fire, brilliancy apā - water prathivi - earth ~~~ tā - from tanu (body) theī - from sthala (ground) The body which dances upon the earth for the divine ī - from īshavara (Lord) ~~~ Y A T O H A S T A yato hasta stato drishti yato drishti stato mana(ha) yato mana stato bhāvo yato bhāv stato rasa Wherever go the hands, so follows the gaze of the eyes; Wherever go the eyes, so follows the attunement of the mind; Wherever goes the mind, so follows the expression of feeling; Wherever goes the feeling, so follows the essence of mood. 7

8 G U R U S O F T H E L U C K N O W G H A R A N A In the eighteenth century the great Moghul Empire, which from its thrones in Delhi and Agra had united medieval India and brought to the arts a fusion of Hindu and Muslim styles, began to splinter into regionally powerful states. Those of Lucknow, Jaipur, Rampur, Benares and Raigharh were centers where Kathak dance flourished. In Lucknow, Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was a great patron of the arts and himself was taught by Thakur Prasad, the uncle of Kathak dancers Binda Din Maharaj and Kalka Prasad. This central family was instrumental in raising the dance to new aesthetic standards of courtly refinement. In their dramatic presentation, they incorporated the stories of Krishna and acted out lyrical and narrative thumri song style. At the same time, they constructed their rhythmic compositions on the powerful and renowned Lucknow drumming styles. Hence this gharana of dance incorporated an innovative range of dramatic expression, elegance and rhythmic excitement. Lucknow fell in the Mutiny of 1857, and the court artists moved on to other courts and cities. Kathak flourished in Kolkata into the twentieth century with the frequent visits and teachings of the descendants of the Lucknow gharana s founders, especially Shambu and Acchan Maharaj. When Rajasthani Guru Pandit Ram Narayan Mishra arrived in Kolkata in the early 1930 s, he studied the Lucknow style with these two masters of the tradition. Pandit Mishra made his livelihood by teaching the Baijis in Bow Bazaar and other areas, as was the practice of many great Ustads of the time. Prohlad Das, principal of Nritya Bharati dance and music institution, who was his friend, student and Guru-brother, later established him at the Birla Academy, Sangeet Shymala and the Nritya Bharati School, run by Das and his wife, Nilima. Their son Chitresh Das had gandha bandan, formally becoming Pandit Mishra s disciple, at the age of nine and has since worked tirelessly to further the principles of his guru-ji s teachings. 8

9 Wajid Ali Shah Thakur Prasad Kalka Prasad Bindadin Maharaj Achchan Maharaj Lachchu Maharaj Shambhu Maharaj Ram Narayan Mishra Prohlad Das 9

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11 A B O U T K A T H A K D A N C E The most widely performed dance in North India is kathak, from the word kathā, a story or legend. This tradition dates back over 2,000 years to kathakas, wandering minstrels and bards, who traveled from village to village preaching and bringing to life the meanings and messages of the great mythologies and scriptures through song, dance and commentary. These tales were often taken from the great epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana, as well as stories from the Purānās especially those of Lord Krishna and his exploits in his sacred land of Vrindāvan. During the medieval period, the Moghuls brought this dance into the court setting where it became a popular courtly entertainment, and acquired an emphasis on refined grace along with rhythmical development. Elaborately costumed and exquisitely jeweled dancers entertained kings and noblemen with poetic descriptions as well as technical virtuosity and fluid beauty. This has given modern kathak its unique flavor a theatrical art which blends the vigor of footwork and turns, the subtlety of delicate movements of the face and hands, and the intricacy of mime in storytelling of all kinds. It is the only classical dance embodying elements of both Hindu and Muslim cultures. In the middle of the nineteenth century, at the court of Wajid Ali Shah in Lucknow, kathak experienced a renaissance. On one hand, the devotional qualities of the dance were brought to new heights with the intense incorporation of the Krishna-līlā (the amorous encounters of the young god) which could be danced with the new light-classical vocal form, the thumrī. On the other hand, exquisite refinement of that court, with its Persian manners and formal dress styles, gave the abstract aspect of the dance an aura of visual sumptuousness with attention paid to details of carriage, posture and etiquette. The great rhythmic drive and prowess of the pakāwaj and tabla in the Lucknow gharānā also had an important influence in this kathak revitalization. In the city of Jaipur, west of Delhi, kathak was further developed with emphasis on rhythm expressed through vigorous footwork, spins and turns. Modern kathak reflects the innovations of masters of both Lucknow and Jaipur gharānās. Throughout its history, kathak has been primarily a solo performance art. Dance dramas and group presentations have always existed in India, but the emphasis of kathak has been primarily on individual artistic interpretations. A unique feature of this dance is the relationship each artist develops with the audience through recitation and descriptive commentary. Never simply a silent presentation, kathak integrates explanations along with recitation of compositions based on bols from bolna, to speak. Bols are both the rhythmic syllables and the compositions comprised of these syllables. Most are abstract, without meaning, but some incorporate onomatopoeic sounds such as peacock calls and train engines, and others weave poetry into the rhythmic language. Bols can be both traditional and artfully recomposed by the dancer to highlight his/her artistry. From the dancer s large repertoire, a new selection of bols is created for each program and used as the basis for spontaneous interchange with the musicians, giving life to the performance. One highlighted feature of a kathak solo is savāl javāb, the spontaneous interplay between the tabla player and the dancer which requires profound depth of knowledge on both parts. Once the dancer sets the tempo and rhythmic cycle, the tabla player then invents and develops variations based on the tāl. As this section of the program progresses, the exchanges are intensified as each artist challenges the other through their individual mastery while simultaneously building towards an exhilarating climax of dance, percussion and music. 11

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13 I N T H E W O R D S O F P A N D I T C H I T R E S H D A S Kathak opens a gateway to knowledge. Access to this knowledge comes only through years of systematic study and practice in front of the teacher and alone with oneself. ~~~ My teaching begins with the tradition that was taught to me by my Guruji. These basic principles embody the body, mind, and spirit of the dance: * Tayārī (readiness) the virtuosity of technique acquired through systematic practice. * Layakārī deep understanding and versatility of rhythm and timing. * Khūbsurtī and Nazākat (beauty and delicacy) the aesthetics of the art and the refined subtlety of rendering expression. My main thrust is to kindle the energy within each student that will propel them beyond their normal levels of endurance. Over time this process develops stamina and strength the necessary ingredients to sustain between one to two hours of continuous dancing. I guide this process through the playing of tabla (drums), while reciting the bols (language of the dance and drums) and simultaneously singing lahara/nagma (a repetitive melodic phrase). This continuous dancing, drumming, reciting, and singing generate a combined energy force which radiates an exhilarating feeling and a high state of mind. As my guruji taught, ~~~ "Dance in such a way that your dance becomes one with everything." Pandit Ram Narayan Misra ~~~ Each student learns the following aspects of the dance. * Nritta (pure dance; technique): includes movement exercises, basic tatkār (footwork), chakkars (turns); rhythmic patterns and timing; recitation of the bols (language of the dance). * Nritya (dance with rhythm and expression): use of interpretive gestures, expression, and rendering of traditional songs and poems. * Nātya (drama): learning the art of storytelling, the nava rasa (nine sentiments), working with ardhanariswara-shiva/shakti (masculine/feminine energies). ~~~ The word kathā means story (lit. Sacred legend or tale ). The early history of the dance dates back to the kathakas (story tellers) who rendered the great mythologies and scriptures through song, dance, and oral commentary. Today, the kathaka continues this tradition of rendering stories through ensemble dance dramas and solo presentations known as gat bhāv. Through the study of the nava rasa (nine codified sentiments of Indian classical dance), ardhanārīswara (the embodiment of both masculine and feminine aspects), bhāv (expression), gestures, and timing, the dancer learns to portray the wide array of characters from traditional stories as well as contemporary themes. On a more ethereal level, the kathaka delves beyond character interpretation to explore the inner world of imagination and creativity. In this realm, it is possible to transcend the world of ordinary reality, to receive inspiration from the gods and goddesses and to draw upon the wellspring of the spirit. 13

14 N O T E S 14

15 ON THE DANCE FLOOR 15

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17 K A T H A K C L A S S R O O M E T I Q U E T T E In India, the traditional greeting is Namaste (Namaskar in Bengali). One says namaskar by placing the palms together in front of the heart and bowing the head. The meaning, the Divine within me greets the Divine in you, holds a great deal of relevance in Indian customs and philosophy, and this tradition is incorporated into the study of the classical arts as well. Upon entering the dance space (classroom, studio, or dance floor), one pauses to say Namaskar to the room and to the teacher. In addition, when addressing the teacher it is considered respectful to refer to him/her using the suffix ji. (In India, this is also used for elders and others to whom one wants to show respect.) GHUNGRŪ Ghungrū (dance bells) are considered an extension of oneself and as such are treated with the utmost care and respect. Other attributes are: Help the dancer feel grounded connected to the dance floor and to the earth. Develop strength in the legs and body. Create sounds through which an awareness of oneself as a moving musical and percussive instrument is discovered. Care of dance bells: Ghungrū are kept in their own bell bag. They are kept off of the floor, except when taking them on and off (so they are not stepped on, kicked, stepped over, etc.) and are always kept away from shoes. In the home, a special place is designated for keeping dance bells. Wearing ghungrū: When putting ghungrū on to dance, find a clean part of the room and floor where you can sit without being bothered by other people walking by. Silently tie your bells as you begin to focus your thoughts into the dance. The bell-tying process includes: Leg wrappings which are needed to protect ankles and shins from getting cut or bruised. (These are commonly made of felt, wrapped around the ankles.) Blessing the bells each time they are put on and taken off, touch them to your forehead (mind), lips (breath/speech), and heart. Putting on the bells beginning with the right leg (right foot placed flat with knee up; left foot tucked under the right thigh). Wrap the bells in such a way that the rows line up together without any space between them. Tuck the loose ends of the bell rope so that they do not dangle. (Repeat with the left side.) Bell bags are then placed aside in an area designated for this purpose. 17

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19 I N V O C A T I O N T O T H E D A N C E Pranām is a meditation in motion in which the dancer attunes to the higher self, acknowledging the earth upon which he/she dances, the nature surrounding the dancer, and the oral tradition through which knowledge has been passed down from generation to generation. ~~~ Tuning to the higher self through my mind, speech and heart, I invoke the Lord of the Universe here upon the earth. With the elements of nature, I offer to the Divine and hold my ears in respect of the knowledge received through the Gurus. I take the blessings of every animate and inanimate object in nature. Through this meditation in motion I begin my dance. ~~~ (The pranām is completed with poetic expression and a bowing to the four directions of the earth.) ~~~ As the petals of a flower open and bloom, so shall my heart open through the dance. I offer respect to the four corners of the earth. -Pandit Chitresh Das- ~~~ Pranām is followed by Rang Manj; coloring of the stage. The dancer makes sacred the dance space with flower petals, water, fire, the sounding of a bell and the blowing of a conch. Rang Manj is completed with the invocation of the three deities: Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Maheshvara the destroyer who in dissolution makes way for creation to begin anew. 19

20 T H E B A S I C F O O T W O R K O F K A T H A K T A T K Ā R The bols of tatkār are: tā theī theī tat ā theī theī tat...with the corresponding footsteps being: right, left, right, left left, right, left, right Note: To position the feet, heels are placed together with the toes facing outward in a slight "V" shape. 20

21 T A T K Ā R The idea of worship through dance is an inheritance of the Vedic period a spiritual relationship is involved when the dancer, simultaneously making rhythmic contact with the earth, reaches upwards to the heavens. Tatkār is the basic footwork of kathak. The origin of this footwork is lost in antiquity, but the name is thought to have been derived from the natawari bols (syllables), tā theī tat. These bols come from the title Natawara, another name for Lord Krishna, which is usually interpreted in the dance world as best among dancers or Lord of the Dance. (nat literally means performer, actor not just dancer; and natawar is literally translated, a good actor, Lord Krishna.) It is said that when Natawara subdued the serpent-demon Kāliya and danced on the many hoods over its head, the sounds, tā theī tat, were produced. From these early stages, tatkār has developed into a very sophisticated system of footwork and rhythmic patterns. Modern kathakas emphasize the technical aspect of the dance, and tatkār is the fundamental pattern from which all other sounds and compositions are created. By nature it is a very grounding force and, when executed correctly, resonates with a melodious sound. The discipline of tatkār also brings with it an awareness of the power of energy. The flow of energy begins with the soles of the feet, moves through the muscles and bones of the body, up to the crown of the mind. As thought is dissolved through union with this energy, a harmony of body and mind is realized. It is at this level that the dance becomes a yogic practice. Tatkār is illustrated on the following page, in tintāl (rhythmic cycle of 16 beats). It is illustrated in single, double, triple and quadruple speeds. In single speed, tā, one set of tatkār (8 steps) fits within one avartan, (cycle), of tintāl. Each step lasts two matras (beats). In double speed, digun, two sets of tatkār (2 sets of 8 steps) fit within one avartan of tintāl. Each step lasts one matra. In triple speed, tigun, three sets of tatkār (3 sets of 8 steps) fit within one avartan of tintāl. Each step lasts 2/3 rd of a matra. In quadruple speed, chaugun, four sets of tatkār (4 sets of 8 steps) fit within one avartan of tintāl. Each step lasts 1/2 of a matra. As the speeds of tatkār increase, the rhythmic complexity also increases. In chhegun, sixth speed, each step lasts 1/3 rd of a beat. In āthgun, eighth speed, each step lasts 1/4 th of a beat. In bārahgun, twelfth speed, each step lasts 1/6 th of a beat. In solahgun, sixteenth speed, each step lasts 1/8 th of a beat. 21

22 N O T A T I N G I N T Ā L Example: tatkār at different speeds; in vilambit tintāl TĀ (SINGLE) + 2 ta thei thei tat (+) a thei thei tat DIGUN (DOUBLE) + 2 ta--- thei--- thei--- tat--- a--- thei--- thei--- tat (+) ta--- thei--- thei--- tat--- a--- thei--- thei--- tat--- TIGUN (TRIPLE) + 2 ta-thei -thei- tat-a -thei- thei-tat - ta - thei-thei -tat- 0 3 (+) a-thei -thei- tat-ta -thei- thei-tat - a - thei-thei -tat- CHAUGUN (FOUR TIMES) + 2 ta-thei- thei-tat- a-thei- thei-tat- ta-thei- thei-tat- a-thei- thei-tat- 0 3 (+) ta-thei- thei-tat- a-thei- thei-tat- ta-thei- thei-tat- a-thei- thei-tat- Chhegun (6x), Āthgun (8x), Bārahgun (12x), Solahgun (16x), Chaubīsgun (24x), Battīsgun (32x) 22

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24 N O T E S 24

25 COMPOSITIONS 25

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27 T A T K Ā R K Ī B A N D I S H * + ta - theī - tat tat theī- a - theī - tat tat theī- 2 theī-ta-theī - ta theī - theī-theī- tat - tat - 0 theī-ta theī - ta theī - theī-theī- tat - tat - 3 tat - tat - theī -tat - tat-theī - tat - tat - + (Dha) *This composition is comprised solely of dance syllables (as distinguished from parans which use drum bols). The tihāī here begins on the 13 th mātrā (beat). 27

28 P A R A N D H A T A K E T U N G A * TĀ (Single Speed) + dha ta ke tun ga dha ge dhin ge dha dha dhin ta dhet ta ki - ta - dha ta ka tun ga ta - ki - te - ta - ka te - - te ka - - ta ga - - di ge - na - *A paran comprised of pakāwaj and tabla bols (as distinguished from tatkār ki bandish which uses dance bols. Single speed is completed in two avartan (two cycles) of vilambit tintā 28

29 DUN (Double Speed) + dha - ta - ke - tun - ga dha - ge - 2 dhin - ge - dha dha - dhin - ta dhet - ta - kite dha - ta - ka - tun - ga - 3 ta ki te ta ka te te ka ta ga di ge na TATKĀR KĪ BANDISH (Follows Tha/Dun; Single/Double of the above Paran) + ta - thei - tat tat thei - tat tat thei - a - thei - tat tat thei - tat tat thei - 2 thei - a thei tat tat thei - thei - a thei tat tat thei - 0 ta- thei- tat tat thei- a-thei-tat tat thei- thei - tat thei - tat thei - thei - thei - tat - tat - 3 ta thei thei thei- tat-tat- ta a thei-tat thei-tat thei- thei-thei-tat-tat- *TDDDT - TD DDT - TDDD 2 T t t thei- t t thei- t t thei- -- a- -- TDDDT - TD 0 DDT - TDDD T tt thei- tt thei- tt thei- -- a TDDDT TD DDT TDDD T tt thei- tt thei- tt + (Dha) *TDDDT = tigga dha digga digga thei tt = tat tat 29

30 G I N T I S * # (5) # chana nana na chana nana na chana nana + (na) *Compositions using numbers instead of dance/drum bols. These compostions are danced in 2 styles: Lucknow and Jaipur; in madhya laya (medium speed) tintāl 30

31 G I N T I S * #1 + 2 tarikita dhin--- tarikita dhin--- tarikita tarikita tarikita dhin tarikita dhin--- tarikita dhin--- tarikita tarikita tarikita dhin tetekata gadigena dha--- tetekata gadigena dha--- tetekata gadigena 0 3 dha--- tetekata gadigena dha-tete katagadi genadha- tetekata gadigena + (dha) #2 + 2 tarikita dhin--- tarikita dhin--- tarikita tarikita tarikita dhin tarikita dhin--- tarikita dhin--- tarikita tarikita tarikita dhin tetekata gadigena dha-tete katagadi genadha- tetekata gadigena dha cha-na- na-na- na--- tetekata gadigena dha-tete katagadi genadha- + 2 tetekata gadigena dha--- cha-na- na-na- na--- tetekata gadigena 0 3 dha-tete katagadi genadha- tetekata gadigena dha--- cha-na- na-na- + (na) *bols used for the Jaipur style 31

32 T A R I K I T A S E Q U E N C E ( i n d r u t l a y a ) ta ri - ki ta - ta ri - ki ta ta ri - ki ta - - ta ta - ka dhina ta ri - ki ta - ta ri - ki ta ta ri - ki ta - - ta ta - ka dhina Repeat the above four cycles ta theī tat - a theī tat - - ta ta - ka dhina a theī tat - ta theī tat - - ta ta - ka dhina ta theī tat - a theī tat - - ta ta - ka dhina a theī tat - ta theī tat - - ta ta - ka dhina Repeat the above four cycles 32

33 T I H Ā I Dha- *kttkdm kttk dha- kt tkdmkttk tete kata gadi gena dha - nana na Dha- kttkdm kttk dha- kt tkdmkttk tete kata gadi gena dha- nana na Dha- kttkdm kttk dha- kt tkdmkttk tete kata gadi gena dha- nana + (na) *kt tk dm kt tk = kita taka dhuma kita taka 33

34 DRUT* # T-d-d-d- T-d-d-d- Tdddt-Td ddt-tddd (dha) # T-d-d-d- T-d-d-d- T-d-d-d- t-tdddt Tdddt- --Tdddt- Tdddt--t --t-- t-- (dha) # T-d-d-d- T-d-d-d- T-d-d-d t---t-d d-d-t--- Tdddt-t- t-tdddt- t-t-tddd (dha) *These compositions are in drut, fast speed in tintāl. Tddd(t) = tigga dha digga digga (theī) 34

35 C H A K R A D H Ā R I N D R U T L A Y A T I N T Ā L tat - tat - theī--- Tddd t theī--theī --theī- --Td ddt ta - theī - tat-tat- a-theī- tat-tat theī-tat theī -tat theī- theī-theī- tat-tat ta tat tat ek-tat tat do-tat tat tin-tat tat char-tat tat panch-tat tat che-tat tat * sat-tat tat at-tat tat no --- (tat - tat -) A chakradhār is a revolving tihāi a tihāi within a tihāi. The first palla of this particular composition begins on sam and the first tihāi begins on the 7 th mātrā. *The second palla begins on the 13 th mātrā and the second tihāi begins on 3 rd mātrā. The third palla begins on khali the third tihāi begins on 15 th mātrā. In recitation, a chakradhār is often (due to the length of the entire composition) recited only from the beginning of the last palla. In this case, starting on khālī. 35

36 N O T E S 36

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39 TĀL & RHYTHM 39

40 + T H E K A O F T I N T Ā L DHA DHIN DHIN DHA 2 DHA DHIN DHIN DHA 0 NA TIN TIN TA 3 TETE DHIN DHIN DHA + (DHA) 40

41 T H E K A S F O R C O M M O N L Y U S E D T Ā L S * TINTĀL 16 beats ( ) dha dhin dhin dha dha dhin dhin dha dha tin tin ta ta dhin dhin dha variation: dha dhin dhin dha dha dhin dhin dha na tin tin ta tete dhin dhin dha DHAMĀR 14 beats ( ) kat dhet te dhet te dha - ga dhi ne dhi te dha - EKTĀL 12 beats ( ) dhin dhin dhage terekita tun na kat ta dhage terekita dhin na JHAPTĀL 10 beats ( ) dhi na dhi dhi na ti na dhi dhi na KEHARVĀ 8 beats (4+4) + 0 dha ge te te na ka dhin na RUPAK 7 beats (3+2+2) tin tin na dhin na dhin na DĀDRĀ 6 beats (3+3) + 0 dhi dhi na ti ti na *These thekas are written as spoken by tabla players, therefore there may be some variation with those spoken by dancers. 41

42 E X E R C I S E S BOLS : #1 tete kata gadi gena theī theī theī theī #2 tigga dha digga digga #3 ta theī tat tat theī a theī tat tat theī Variation #1: tat tat theī, tigga dha digga digga theī, theī-yā theī-yā theī-yā, tigga dha digga digga theī Variation #2: theī-ī tat theī-ī tat theī-, theī theī tat tat Variation #3: ek do tīn chār #4 ta ki te ta ka, di ki te ta ka, taka dimi ta ki ta, di ki ta, taka dimi *These are only the bols used in the exercises. *These are not written out in tāl. 42

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46 N O T E S 46

47 KAVITA, SONGS & LEHARAS (NAGMAS) 47

48 D A N C E K A V I T Ā J A M U N Ā K E T A T A P A R A jamunā ke tata para nāchata kanhaiyā tat, tat, theīyā bājata pāyala chum chana nana nananana. tā theī tat, ā theī tat, tā theī tat tat tā tat tat tat tat tat theī, tat tat tat tat tat theī, tat tat tat tat tat theī. On the banks of the river Yamuna dances Lord Krishna. tat tat theī yā. His ankle bells make the sounds, chum, cha na na na na Jamunā ke tata para (written in tāl) + 2 ja-mu- nā-ke- ta-ta- pa-ra- nā-cha- tā-ka- nai--- yā tat --- tat --- theī--- yā --- bā-ja- ta-pā- ya-la- chum--- + cha-na- na-na- na-na- na-na- tā--- theī-tat- ā--- theī-tat- 0 tā--- theī-tat- tat--tā tattattattat theī--tat tattattattat theī--tat tattattattat + (theī) 48

49 S H A R P A S H Ī R S H A sharpa shīrsha ārdhā chandra bājave damarū nātarāja agnipati dhangshapati deva deva pashupati girijāpati mahādeva karata dayā sada shiva With serpents and the crescent moon as his head ornaments, Playing the damarū: the Lord of the Dance; Lord of Fire, Lord of Destruction, Lord of Lords, Lord of Animals. Parvati s Lord, Great Lord, Showing mercy, the benign yogi is Shiva. Lehara for Sharpa Shīrsha in rupak tāl (7 beats) Rāg Dārbari Kanra np Pm m r r g S tin tin na dhin na dhin na P P P m m P gm tin tin na dhin na dhin na P P P P P m P S Tin tin na dhin na dhin na nd d n P m g m m tin tin na dhin na dhin na 49

50 M A Ĩ T O S H Y Ā M A B I N Ā maĩ to shyāma binā nahĩ jāūngī sakhī re vrindāvana kī kunja galīna mai nāchata shyāma nanda dulāre tā theī sakhī re Without my Krishna I cannot go, O my friend, In the lanes through the groves of Vrindāvan, Shyām, the beloved son of Nanda, dances, Tā theī..., O my friend. Maĩ to shyāma binā in Rāg Bāgeshrī 3 + g m --D- -n-d S SSR maĩ to shyā ma bi nā - - nahĩ 2 0 D-SRS n-d- PmP- -n-d g R S - jā ūn gī sakhī re /3 0/+ g m D-D- n-d- S--S -S-S n-r- S vrin dā vana kī kun ja ga lī na mē n -n-n --n- --S- D--D -D-D P-n- D nā chata shyā ma nan da du lā re 3 + g m D-D- n-d- S S -S-S n-r- S vrin da vana kī kun ja ga lī na mē 50

51 n -n-n --R- -gm- D--D -D-D P-n- D nā chata shyā ma nan da du lā re 3 + S-mg g--- R-R- S-n- --D- --m- m-m- g--- tā theī tat tat theī ā theī tat tat theī theī 2 0 g-r- --R- S--- ggg- mmm- DDD- -nnd S--S tat theī tat theī dhet te dha dtdha dtdha tatete dha cha 3 + SSS- ggg- mmm- DDD- -nnd S--S SSS- ggg- nanana dtdha dtdha dtdha tatete dha cha nanana dtdha 2 0 mmm- DDD- -nnd S g R S - dtdha dtdha tatete dha sa khi re - 3 (+) g m --D- -n-d S maĩ to shyā ma bi na 51

52 S H Y Ā M A S U N D A R A shyāma sundara madana mohana jāgo mere giridharī kapāla shobhe chandana tilaka shireme shobhe mukuta rāja shankha chakra gadā padma dhāri krishna bihārīre nisa dina torī dhyāna dharata charana māngata brija bihārī mīrā ke prabhu giridhara nāgara mīrā torī charana dāsī O beautiful Shyāma (one whose body is dark-blue in color) Madana mohana (Krishna), Awaken, O my Giridhārī, The mark of sandalwood paste adorns his forehead, The top of his head has been adorned with glittering, splendid crown. Conch, discus, mace, lotus Are held in his hands. All day, I think of you, O Brija bihārī, I only wish to touch your feet, O Giridhara nāgara, Lord of Mīrā, I, Mīrā, am your servant Shyama Sundara in Rāg Bhairavī + 0 P - P P d P Shyā - ma sun da ra P n n d P g ma da na mo ha na 52

53 + 0 m - m Sg mp m jā - go me - re R g r S - - gi ri dha rī - - g m m n d n ka pā la sho - bhe S S S S r S chan da na ti la ka S g g r S S shi re me sho - bhe n S n d P P mu ku ta rā - ja S - S S r S shan - kha cha - kra D n - d P P ga dā - pad - ma m - m Sg mp m dhā - ri krish - na R g r S - - bi hā rī re

54 B Ā N S U R Ī B Ā J A R A H Ī bānsurī bāja rahī dhūna madhura kanhaiyā khelata gāvata horī On his flute, Krishna plays his charming melodies; Singing and playing the games of Holi. Bānsurī Bāja Rahī in Rāg Bhairavī 0 3 r n S g-m- P-dbān - su rī P - P d P - D n Ba - ja ra hī - dhū na 0 3 P d P d m P g m ma dhu ra kan hai i yā P-d- n-s- g S d-pm g SgmP m khe - la ta gā - va ta 0 r - S ho - rī 54

55 SHRĪ KRISHNA CHAITANNO **First verse written with Bengali transliteration: shrī krishno chaitanno, prabhu nityanando horī krishno horī rāmo, shrī rādhe gobindo yashodā ke lālana, nahĩ vo mānata shyāma sundara, muralī manohara kaustabha mānidhara, muralī adharadhara mukuta kundaladhara, shanka chakradhara gopāla giridhara, pitambaradhara brajadhara brajadhara, nātavara nāgara Shrī Krishna, omniscient, eternal child-god, Lord Krishna, Lord Rāma, Rādha s cowherd Lord; Never-obeying child of Yashoda, Beautiful Shyām, captivating flute player; Wearing Vishnu s gem, Kaustubha, flute on his lower lip, Bedecked with crown and earrings, carrying the conch and chakra; Shepherd who lifts the mountain, clad in yellow, O Lord, Lord of Braj, foremost of dancers, quintessential lover. Shrī Krishna Chaitanya In Rāg Mānj Khamāj G -G-R G G-G- --mm -m-g R-G- R--- Shrī Krishna chai ta no prabhu nitya nan do --NR -N-D R-R- GmmG --RG -S-N S S horī krishno horī rā ma shrī rā dhe go vin do --SS -G-m P P-P- --MM -M-R m-pm G-G- yasho dā ke lā la na nahĩ vo mā na ta ---R --ND -R-- GmmG --RG -S-N S S-S- shyā ma sun da ra mura lī ma no ha ra 55

56 R A G H U P A T I R Ā G H A V A raghupati rāghava rāja rām patī tapāvana sīta rām īshwara allāh tero nām saba ko sānmati de bhagavān King Rāma is the foremost Lord of the Rāghavas. Cast out, holy Sīta and Rām. Īshwara and Allāh are your names, Bestow your grace on all, O Lord. Ragupati Rāghava in vilambit tintāl in Rāg Jaijaivantī + 2 S-N- S-R- S-RS n-d- n R R-m- G-mraghu pati rā ghava rā ja rām g-g- --R- S n-d- n-g- R-SN S - patī ta pā vana sī ta rām G G-G- G R-S- R-m- m-g- m - Ī shwara a llāh te ro nām R-R- m P d-p- m g-r- R - sa ba ko san ma ti de bhaga vān R-P- P-P- P d-p- m g-r- R-m- G-mraghu pati rā ghava rā ja rām g-g- --R- S n-d- n-g- R-SN S - patī ta pa vana sī ta rām - 56

57 L E H A R A S ( N A G M A S ) Pranām lehara in Rāg Bhairavī + 2 P--- P--P P--- P-Pn P-m- r--r m-m- P-Pn dha dhin ta dhin dha dha dhin ta dhin dha 0 3 P-m- r--m S--- S--- n-n- S--S r-m- -mmm na tin ta tin ta te te dhin dhin dhatete Tatkār lehara in Rāg Kalāvati + 2 S--- S--S S-S- P-S- n--- D--P G-P- D-ndha dhin dhin dha dha dhin dhin dha 0 3 D-P- G--R S-S- R-n- S-S- G--G P-P- D-nD na tin ta tin ta te te dhin dhin dha Lehara in for class thāt in Rāg Chandrakauns + 2 S S S S N d m d-ms dha dhin dhin dha dha dhin dhin dha 0 3 N d m g-s- g-g- m--m d N-dN na tin tin ta te te dhin ta dhin dha 57

58 Lehara in Tintāl based on the song Sharpa Shīrsha in Rāg Bhairavī + 2 m--- m--- m--- mpgm P--- P--- P-Pm P-Sdha dhin dhin dha dha dhin dhin dha 0 3 nddn P-- m g m--- m--- nppm m--m r-g- -gss na na tin ta tin ta te te dhin dhin dhatete Lehara for Paran: Dha ta ke tunga in Rāg Malkauns + 2 S S S S-gS n d-m- g m-ndha ta ke tun ga - dha ge 0 3 d m g S g m d n dhi ge dha - dha dhin ta S S g-gn S-gS nd-- d-dn d m dhet dha ki ta dha ta ka tun ga 0 3 g-g- g-gm g S g--g m--m d--d n-nta ki te ta ka - te te ka ta ga dhi ge na + 2 S-S- S-n- S S-gS ndd- m g-g- m-ndha ta ke tun ga dha ge dhi ge dha dha dhin ta 0 3 (+) d-d- mmm- g-gm g-s- gggg m ggmm ddnn dhet dha kitadha ta ka tun gatakiteta ka tetekata gadhi gena 58

59 N O T E S 59

60 N O T E S 60

61 HISTORICAL INFORMATION & REFERENCES 61

62 S I G N I F I C A N T H I S T O R Y & R E L I G I O U S I N F L U E N C E S O N T H E D A N C E Ancient India (-2500 B C E) Archaeological excavations in within the Indus Valley sites of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro uncovered evidence of an advanced indigenous Indian civilization that reached its peak at approximately 2500 BCE. These sites are proof of one of the largest urban centers of the ancient world, comparable to those of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Much of the Indus Valley remains unexcavated, but work on these sites has already revealed beads, statues, great walls constructed with bricks, and stone and pottery decorated with animal imagery and still undecipherable script. These discoveries have radically altered our conception of the pre-aryan Indian population, which was once thought to have been civilized with the arrival of the Aryan peoples. Vedic Period ( BCE) When the Aryans came from Central Asia to India, they brought with them the collections of texts called the Vedas, which formed the basis of the Aryan religion, and are the earliest sources of modern Hinduism. Importance of the Vedas The Vedas, meaning knowledge, are considered the primary source from which Hinduism developed. Hindus consider the Vedas to be the eternal truth, created by neither human nor god, which has been disclosed or heard by gifted rishis (seers) who recorded it in Sanskrit. Most present-day Hindu doctrine and practice does not trace its origins to the Vedic texts, which mainly deal with rituals of fire. However, the absolute authority and sacredness of the Vedas continues to be a key principle in almost all Hindu sects and traditions. The Rig Veda is considered the oldest surviving music of India, which is sung using three tones. Even today it is recited by Vedic Brahmins who study from boyhood and whose correct chanting is of utmost importance. The Vedas include four texts: the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sāma Veda, and Atharva Veda. Upanishads The Upanishads are the final sections of each of the Vedas. They include 108 texts that document the views of a series of Hindu teachers and sages, interpreters of the Vedas, who taught from 1000 BC. They were most active in approximately 600 BC. Suitably, the word Upanishad indicates sitting at the feet of a teacher (from Sanskrit: upa, near ; ni, down and sad to sit ), the very means by which this learning was most readily conducted. The Upanishads are part of the final phase of the tradition of the Vedas. For centuries thereafter texts were written either based on or interpreting the teachings of the Vedas. These are known as the Vedānta (Sanskrit: Conclusion of the Vedas ). The Upanishads, Brahma Sūtra, and Bhagavad Gītā are the three most important texts of Vedānta. 62

63 The Epic Period (600 BCE 200 CE) The Epics present philosophical doctrines through poetry and prosaic literature. The two most important, the Rāmāyana and the Mahābhārata, are often staged in theater and dance. Bhagavad-Gītā: (lit. Song of the Lord ) is the best known section of the Mahābhārata. It is a philosophical poem, composed as dialogue between the warrior Arjuna and Lord Krishna, acting as his charioteer. Arjuna s moral crisis is the focal point of the Bhagavad-Gita. He suffers internal conflict knowing it is his duty as a warrior to destroy his enemies even though his adversaries are his own kinsmen and teachers. In the midst of the Kurukshetra battlefield, Krishna teaches Arjuna to understand morality, and the relationship between death, sacrifice, and devotion. Through the centuries, countless Indian philosophers, including more recent thinkers such as Mahatma Gandhi, Thoreau, and Eliot have drawn from the wisdom of the Gīta. Bhārata: a king and sage of the ancient Bharata clan whose descendents, the Pāndavas and Kauravas, fought the war that was at the center of the epic tale, the Mahābhārata. India was once called Bharata-varsha, the land of Bhārata, after this king. Also credited to a sage named Bhārata is the Nātya Shāstra (lit. the art/science of dramaturgy ). Written between the 2 nd century BCE and the 4 th century CE, this is the oldest existing treatise on the dramatic arts. It concerns the proper staging of drama, describing in detail dancers hand gestures (hastaks), four different types of abhinaya, and categorizing musical instruments into four types. This is also the first text to use the term rasa, and it discusses 8 of the 9 present-day rasas. Most of the Dharmashāstras, treatises on ethical and social philosophy, were compiled during the epic period. This period also saw the earliest development of Buddhism, Jainism, Saivism and Vaishnavism. Buddhism The Buddha, literally the awakened one or enlightened one, founded Buddhism in approximately the 6 th century BCE. After his death, the religion spread from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea and Japan. During the 20 th century, Buddhism also found a significant number of followers in the West. Buddhism has developed two main branches. Theravada Buddhist practice adheres what its believers feel to be the true tradition of the Buddha s teachings. Those who follow Mahayana Buddhism, or the means of salvation available to a larger number of people, call Theravada the Hinayana tradition, the means of salvation restricted to a smaller number of people. The Buddha: Born Siddhartha Gautama, he was a prince of a kingdom, located in what is now the border area of Nepal and India. As legend has it, the sheltered prince was confronted with the suffering of humanity for the first time while traveling through his kingdom. With these experiences fresh in his mind, he came upon a man wearing the saffron robes of an ascetic. He was immediately struck by the man s serene bearing and vowed to discover the means for this display of tranquility in the midst of worldly misery. At the age of 29, he left his wife and infant son to wander in search of this knowledge. At the age of 35, while sitting cross-legged under a pipal tree, the Buddha reached enlightment. This tree, located in Bodh Gaya, in the Indian state of Bihar is now called the bodhi tree. On that night, Siddhartha fought and defeated Mara, the lord of the world of passion. Then, while still in deep meditation, he learned of his former 63

64 existences, gained the power to see the death and rebirth of all creatures, and finally realized the Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble Truths 1. Human existence is dukha, full of conflict, dissatisfaction, sorrow, and suffering. 2. All suffering is brought about by one s own desires, or tanha, thirst. 3. Freedom from this cycle of suffering is possible, which is nirvana. 4. The Noble Eightfold Path, is the way to this liberation. Also known as the middle way, this path involves right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right mode of living, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Jainism (6TH CENTURY BCE) Jainism is one of the oldest Indian religions still in existence, along with Hinduism and Buddhism. The term Jainism comes from the Sanskrit ji, to conquer. The ascetic monk who succeeds in conquering the inner enemies of anger, passion, ego, etc. is called a Jina ( Conqueror, or Victor ). The five great vows (mahavratas) at the heart of Jainism include Ahimsa, Nonviolence to all living beings; Satya or truthfulness, which enjoins one to speak only harmless truth; Asteya, or non-stealing; Brahmacharya, chastity and Aparigraha, or non-possession/non-attachment. In addition, lay people are enjoined follow eight observances, including abstaining from eating meat, wine, honey, fruits, roots, and only eating during the day. Monks, following great austerities, commonly keep minimal possessions and use a peacock-feather duster or whisk broom to avoid stepping on any insects where they tread, and wear a mukhavastrika, a piece of cloth held over the mouth to protect against the ingestion of small insects. Today there are only some 4 million Jains in India and abroad. Most Jains now reside in Gujarat and Rajasthan. However, several Jain cave temples have been discovered in Southern and Eastern Indian states dating from the 2 nd century BCE, attesting to its earlier widespread influence. Mahavira: was born as Vakhamana in 559 BCE in Bihar. Like his contemporary the Buddha, he left his royal family and worldly possessions to become an ascetic. He spent twelve years in meditation before traveling India barefoot preaching his message of freedom from the cycle of karma through non-violence and abstinence. Renamed Mahavira ( Great Hero ) Jains consider him to be the 24th and last Tirthankara ( prophet or founder of the path ) of this age (kalpa). At the same time that Hindus celebrate Diwali, Jains commemorate the death of Mahavira and his attainment of Nirvana by lighting lamps. Mahavira is often depicted in standing meditation in statues, including the largest at Sravana Belagola in Karnataka. In the 4 th century BCE, Alexander the Great marched with his Persian troops from Babylon to India. When Alexander came, the art that ensued from that time was an Indo-Greek fusion called Ghandhara Silpa. 64

65 The Maurayan Empire (C BCE) Following Alexander the Great s death, Chandragupta Maurya, gained control of almost the entire Indian subcontinent, establishing the first Indian empire (c BCE). The Mauryan dynasty continued to rule most of present-day India (with the exception of the Tamil south) as well as substantial parts of present-day Afghanistan. The Mauryan Buddhist emperor Asoka, who ruled from approximately 265 to 238 BCE, focused on the expansion of his religion rather than his political empire by sending many Buddhist emissaries throughout Asia. He conveyed the laws of the land through having expertly-carved stone proclamations erected throughout his realm, now some of India s oldest deciphered original texts. The Gupta Period ( CE) The Gupta realm, though less extensive than that of the Mauryas, encompassed the northern half and central parts of the subcontinent. The ascension of Chandragupta I was marked by a series of gold coins. Though once considered the Classical Age of India, more recent archaeological evidence suggests this was a time of economic and cultural decline in contrast to the period between the Mauryan and Gupta empires. Purānās: These texts from the Gupta period focus on the myths, legends, and genealogies of gods, heroes and saints, primarily from the Mahabharata. Whereas the Vedas were restricted to men of the three highest castes, the Purānās and the Epics were available to women and to those of the lower Sudra caste (however not Untouchables), and thus became the scriptures of the common people. Medieval Period (6 TH -16 TH CENTURY CE) This was a period of great religious fervor, during which impressive stone temples were built, but also during which religion of many forms challenged the norms of society. Bhakti: The Bhakti movement is a Hindu devotional movement that began in South India around the 6th century C.E. It is a popular form of Hinduism, which encouraged use the vernacular language (in this case, spoken Tamil) over the academic Sanskrit, and emphasized the role of teachers, who often communicated to both to God and other bhaktas through music and poetry. Its foremost teachers among the Saivites (worshippers of Shiva) were Appar and Mahendravarman. Among the Vaishnavas, followers of the god Vishnu, they were Nammalvar and a female teacher, Andal. Bhakti was introduced to the north by Ramanuja ( ) and spread across northern India in the 14th and 15th centuries. Bhakti asserted that anyone could communicate directly with God, without the mediation of a priest, simply through his or her own passionate love. The term Bhakti is derived from the Sanskrit meaning, to share. And the bhakta, devotee or lover of God often expressed the relationship with God as that of a lover and beloved. The Bhakti movement was both spiritually and socially revolutionary as is apparent in the lives of its most revered saints: such as the blind poet, Surdas, the renegade princess, Mirabai, and the Untouchable, Ravidas. 65

66 Jayadeva: This 12 th century bhakti poet composed the Gitagovinda, songs in praise of Krishna, which are sung throughout India even today. It consists of 24 songs set to 11 ragas. His wife, Padmavati, was a dancer who is said to have been co-composer, enacting the songs visually through her dance while he composed. Mirabai: More than any other bhakti saint, the popularity of this 16 th century princess has spread across the subcontinent. Mira was so devoted to Krishna that she felt no other devotion was possible. Though she was married into another princely Rajput family, she continued the life of a bhakta, worshipping, dancing and singing with other religious enthusiasts in the streets. Shamed by her actions her new family tried to poison her by placing a poison liquid at the feet of the Krishna on her altar, knowing that she would have to consume any prasad left there. Legend says that the liquid was indeed turned into charanamrit, immortal liquid from his feet and she glowed with even greater health. Ravidas: This 15 th -16 th century Bhakti poet and singer was an Untouchable, a chamar, or leatherworker who lived in the village of Sri Govardhanpur on the outskirts of Benares. His words often challenged the hierarchy of Hindu society, stating that in relation to God, every person is untouchable; yet because God is who he is, every person is touched. As Ravidas puts it, he rescues even the tanners of hides. Kabir ( ): There was none more passionate or critical. Though he was born a Muslim, he was critical to practices of all established religion: If the mosque is the place where God resides, then who owns the rest of the land? Ram lives in images and holy locations? Then why has no one ever found him there? He was an exemplar of nirguna (formless) bhakti: believing that God cannot be named, described or bound. He belonged to a weaver caste in Benares and his poetry often describes God as the master weaver. Tulsidas: Though the Ramayana was composed in Sanskrit by the poet Valmiki some 2,000 years ago, in the latter 16 th century, this Benarasi poet composed the Ramcharitmanas, a vernacular version that ordinary people can understand and enjoy. Tulsi s Manas as it s called, is still performed every year in Benares. Surdas: A blind poet who describes all as blind to the love of God. For who has ever recognized the brilliance of the sun but by seeing it through eyes gone blind? Chaitanya Maha Prabhu ( ): This saint is credited for bringing bhakti to Bengal, which by the 17 th century eclipsed the earlier tantric religion. He is also known for popularizing congregational devotional singing, in particular nam kirtan, chanting the names of Krishna. * There are two forms of Bhakti: Nirguna ( without attributes ) in which God is thought to be greater than any form we can conceive of, and Saguna ( with attributes ) in which God is conceived of as a being with attributes, with character and personality. For Mirabai, Surdas, and Chaitanya Maha Prabhu, God was conceived of as Krishna; for Tulsidas, he was Ram. Ravidas, Kabir, and the Sikh Guru Nanak were all Nirguna bhaktas. 66

67 Sufism Sufi, meaning pure or wisdom is the inward contemplative aspect of Islam; an extension from religion into the realm of mysticism. As with Bhakti, love, in particular mystical love, is the core of Sufism and its followers identify themselves as lovers of God and the prophet Mohammed. Also like the Bhakti movement, the great poets, philosophers and musicians of Sufism often exist at the margins of society as wandering mystic ascetics, known variously as dervishes, fakirs and qalandars. The first person to bear the name Sufi was a Syrian named Abu Hashim al-sufi (767 CE). Sufism was introduced to India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti ( CE), who was born in Samarkand. Moinuddin Chisti settled in the city of Ajmer in Northern India, and formed the Chisti silsila in It is the most popular form of Sufism throughout the Indian subcontinent. The Geneological Tree (shajra) of the North Indian Chistiya Sufis: Moinuddin Chisti Founder Saint in India, also known as Khwaja Gharibnawāz (d C.E. in Ajmer) Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar Also known as Baba Farid (d C.E. in Delhi) Nizamuddin Auliya (d C.E. in Delhi) Amir Khusrau (d C.E. in Delhi) Sikhism Guru Nanak ( ): Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion, was born in the Punjab, forty miles southwest of Lahore. Situated at the crossroads of Hinduism and Islam, Sikhism arose as an alternative to both. After a day in silent meditation Guru Nanak is said to have first uttered there is neither Hindu nor Muslim. The first words of the Sikh scripture the Adi Granth are attributed to Guru Nanak: ek omkar meaning that God, signified by the syllable AUM, is one. Guru Gobind Singh: the tenth in the lineage of the Sikh gurus. He arose as a leader during a time of political chaos and terror in the Punjab. In 1699, he called for five men to be sacrificed by his sword, but when these men came forward he decapitated goats instead and made the men the foundation of a Sikh brotherhood (khalsa). He blessed these men with bravery and installed them to protect against injustice. As signs of their new identity they vowed to always bear five items: kachh (a special undergarment), karha (a steel bracelet), kirpan (small sword), kangha (comb) and keski (a turban). They also each took Guru Gobind Singh s surname, meaning lion. 67

68 Christianity in India The earliest Christian groups in India are Malabar Christians, also called the Christians of Saint Thomas, who have lived and practiced in India since at least the 6 th century CE. They claim to have been Christianized by Saint Thomas himself. Like other Christian groups in India, their devotional practices also include Hindu religious symbolism. Today approximately 3% of the population of India is Christian. St. Francis Xavier: ( ) was instrumental in establishing Christianity in India as well as the Malay Archipelago and Japan. He first arrived in Goa, then the center of Portuguese activity in the East, in May of While traveling the southwestern coast of India, he baptized over 10,000 and developed the College of Holy Faith as a center for the education of native priests. The areas he evangelized in India have remained Catholic to this day. In 1927 he was named patron of all missions. Judaism in India The Bene-Israel (Hebrew: "Sons of Israel"), have lived for centuries in western India. The Jewish community in Cochin is the oldest in India, dating from at least the 4th century CE, though how they came to India remains a mystery. One theory suggests that the first Jews came to India in the time of King Solomon over trade routes established for teak, ivory, spices and peacocks. Others speculate that Indian Jews are the descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, who disappeared from history in 721 BCE. The earliest evidence of permanent Jewish settlements appears on two copper plates describing, in ancient Tamil, privileges granted to a Joseph Rabban by the 4 th century Hindu ruler of Malabar, Bhaskara Ravi Varrma. These are now stored in Cochin's main synagogue. Prior to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, there were approximately 2,500 Jews in the state of Kerala and 350 in the section of Cochin known as Jew Town. Today however, due to emigration to Israel, there are just 5,500 Jews in all of India and a mere 22 in Cochin. Many estimate that this mainly elderly community will be gone within 25 years. Larger and more recent Jewish communities exist in Bombay, Delhi and Calcutta. Like the Christians in India, the Jews have adopted and modified many Hindu customs: oil lamps hang from synagogue ceilings and all synagogues are entered barefoot. The majority of Jewish marriages are arranged, married couples and their children live with the husband's parents, and Jewish women commonly wear bindis. The Moghul Period The Moghul dynasty came to power in India with the victory won by Babar at the Battle of Panipat in However, Islam arrived to the subcontinent much earlier through Arab, Turkish, Persian, and other invaders from as early as the 8th century CE. By the 13th century much of the subcontinent was under Muslim rule. The first ruler of the Moghul dynasty was Babar (r ), who claimed his right to rule the subcontinent because of the conquest of Delhi by his ancestor Timur. He was also a descendant of the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan. Babar s son Humayun reigned from 1530 to 1540 and again in Though each ruler had his own attitudes toward the indigenous Indian population, the merging of Hindu and Muslim cultures during the Moghul period was profound and multi-faceted, exemplified by the marriage of Emperor Akbar to Jyodabai, a Hindu princess 68

69 Akbar (r ): considered the greatest of the Moghul emperors. Many facets of modern Indian government are based on elements of his administrative system. A tolerant man, Akbar abolished a discriminatory tax on Hindus and encouraged the blending of Hindu and Muslim elements in palace architecture, art, literature, and music. His interest in religion led him to host religious discussions between Hindus, Parsis, Christians, and Muslims. Illiterate himself, he made his court a center of culture through patronizing scholars, poets, painters, dancers and musicians, including the great musician Tansen. Until 1707 a series of able emperors expanded to the empire, each in his own way. Akbar's son and successor, Jahangir (r ), was a heavy drinker who reveled in luxurious living, as did Jahangir's son Shah Jahan (r ). Best known for his great building program, which culminated in the Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan was also instrumental in extending the Moghul Empire to the Deccan Plateau. Both Shah Jahan and his son and successor Aurangzeb were much less tolerant of Hindus than their predecessors had been. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Moghul Empire disintegrated quickly, although ineffective rulers remained on the throne at Delhi until India came under the rule of the British Empire in During the 18 th century, as British gained control of India, and Muslim rulers could ill afford to keep their vast retinues of dancers and musicians, these artists were forced to move out from Delhi, the heart of Moghul India, to surrounding kingdoms. Thus, different regional schools or gharanas developed, with distinctive styles: Jaipur became known for kathak and sitar; Lucknow, for a very different kind of kathak as well as tabla; Gwalior, for vocal music, especially khyāl; Benares for tabla, and Rampur, which was known for various instrumental styles. The last of the great courts, Rampur sovereigns kept over 500 musicians, and became the destination for Ustad Allauddin Khan. The British Period ( ) At the time the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498 arrived in India, the subcontinent was being exposed to major external influences arriving by sea, a process that culminated in the assimilation of the subcontinent within the British Empire. Direct administration by the British, which began in 1858, led to political and economic unification of the subcontinent. For the arts, their rule was not nearly as positive as that of the patron Moghuls. For example, noting the potential of theater to aid in social unrest, the British government crafted the Dramatic Performances Act in 1879, giving the government the right to prohibit public performances suspected of being scandalous, defamatory, seditious, or obscene. Despite the barriers placed on the performing arts by the British, during the mid-1800 s Kathak enjoyed a renaissance through the patronage of kings and zamindars (feudal overlords) not only as a form of entertainment, but as a classical art form. In the Hindu courts of the vast semidesert of the principality of Rajasthan, kathak developed in the Jaipur gharana (school), a regional style emphasizing the technical mastery of pure dance. To the east in the court of Wajid Ali Shah, the last nawab of Oudh and himself a student of Kathak, the dance emphasized dramatic and sensuous expression and developed into the style characteristic of the Lucknow gharana. 69

70 This gharana is said to have originated with Wajid Ali Shah's court dancer Thakur Prasadji. The lineage of Kathak dance can be traced from generation to generation. Thakur Prasadji's nephews, Binda Din Maharaj and Kalka Prasad, excelled in the study of Kathak. Binda Din's three nephews, Achhan, Lacchu and Shambhu Maharaj, helped carry the Kathak tradition into the twentieth century. Achhan Maharaj, and upon his death, Shambhu Maharaj, had among his many disciples Ram Narayan Misra and Prohlad Das, respectively guru and father of Chitresh Das. The British influence had a subtler effect on the South Indian middle class, in which a movement began in the 1920s to abolish the tradition of devadasis, hereditary female temple dancers. With the establishment of the Devadasi Act in 1947 practising devadasis were denied their rights to perform and thus losing their means of economic survival. Hinduism in the 19 TH and 20 TH centuries The mystic Ramakrishna, a devotee at a temple of Kali called Daksinesvar to the north of Calcutta, was one of the three principal leaders of the Hindu revival in the 19 th century. His philosophy stressed that all religions are true but that the religion of one s own time and place was the best expression of the truth. His teachings were attractive to educated Hindus confronting the clash of Indian and Western values. His disciple Swami Vivekananda attempted to further merge Indian spirituality with Western material progress, by maintaining that the two complemented one another. In 1893 Vivekananda appeared at the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago and attracted a large number of western followers. In 1897, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission at the monastery of Belur Math on the Ganges River near Calcutta. In 1898 Vivekananda established the Vedanta Society of New York City, thus bringing Hinduism to American shores. In 1920 Paramahansa Yogananda came to the United States as India s delegate to an International Congress of Religious Liberals. He wrote Autobiography of a Yogi, one of the most popular books in the world on Indian spirituality. Yogananda lived in the U.S. for 32 years where he taught the science of Kriya Yoga, meditation and the art of spiritual living. Independance (1947- present) When British rule came to an end in 1947, the subcontinent was partitioned along religious lines into two separate countries India, with a majority of Hindus and Pakistan, with a majority of Muslims. (The eastern portion of Pakistan gained independence as Bangladesh in 1971) Mahatma Gandhi ( ): leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule, Mahatma ( Great Souled ) Gandhi is considered to be the father of the country. He is internationally esteemed as an advocate of ahimsā, nonviolent protest to achieve political and social progress. Gandhi returned to India after studying law at University College, London but could not find work, so he finally moved to Durban, South Africa to work as a legal advisor. Upon his arrival in British South Africa he found horrible segregation and racial discrimination. Gandhi stayed in South Africa for 21 years working to secure rights for Indian people. He developed a method of direct social action based upon the principles of courage, nonviolence and truth called satyagraha. He believed that the way people behave is more important than what they achieve. Satyagraha promoted nonviolence and 70

71 civil disobedience as the most appropriate methods for obtaining political and social goals. In 1914 Gandhi returned to India. Within 15 years he became the leader of the Indian nationalist movement. Using the tenets of satyagraha he lead the campaign for Indian independence from Britain. Gandhi believed it was honorable to go to jail for a just cause. Altogether he spent seven years in prison for his political activities. Gandhi also used fasting to impress upon others the need to be nonviolent. In 1932, while a prisoner, he fasted to protest the British government's decision to segregate the Untouchables by placing them in separate electorates in the new constitution. The fast produced emotional upheaval in the country and became the starting point of a campaign to remove the social injustices to the Untouchables whom Gandhi renamed Harijans, the children of God. Gandhi had called for a united India where Hindus and Muslims lived together in peace, however with India s independence in 1947; it was partitioned into India and Pakistan. This led to fierce rioting between Hindus and Muslims. On January 13, 1948, at the age of 78, he began a fast in an effort to stop the violence. After 5 days the opposing leaders pledged to stop the fighting and Gandhi broke his fast. He was assassinated only 12 days later by a Hindu fanatic who opposed his program of tolerance for all creeds and religion. Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood. Albert Einstein about Gandhi On religion: Due to the strong influence of Vaishnavism and Jainism on Gandhi from his childhood, he believed deeply in ahimsā (noninjury to all living beings), vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification, and a reciprocal tolerance between believers of all faiths. He was fascinated by the writings of Tolstoy, with whom he corresponded regularly, read the Qu ran in translation, and delved into Hindu scriptures and philosophy. Through study of comparative religion and theology and talks with scholars, he concluded that all religions were true, but each was imperfect because they were interpreted with poor intellects and sometimes with poor hearts. When a brilliant young philosopher named Rajchandra, who became his spiritual mentor, convinced him of the subtlety and profundity of Hinduism, the Bhagavad Gītā became his spiritual dictionary exercising a great influence on his life. Two Sanskrit words in the Gītā particularly fascinated him: aparigraha (nonpossession), which implied that one must give up the material pleasures that hamper the spiritual life, and samabhava (equanimity), which taught him to remain unaffected by pain or pleasure, victory or defeat, and to work for its own sake, without hope of success or fear of failure. 71

72 N O T E S 72

73 H I N D U T R I N I T Y A T T R I B U T E S, D E P I C T I O N S, V E H I C L E S, C O N S O R T S, E P I T H E T S B R A H M Ā Attribute: Depicted: Vehicle: Abode: Epithets: God of creation; father of gods and men Seated with four faces (chaturanana), in white apparel, four arms and hands holding: the four Vedas and a scepter; a bow, a spoon and a string of beads, an alms dish or drinking vessel, or seated on a lotus growing from the navel of Vishnu. Hamsa (white swan) symbol of discrimination and soul of supreme spirit Brahmā Loka (paradise) Abja-bhu (lotus born) Adi-kāvī (first poet) Consort: Attribute: Depicted: Epithets: Saraswatī Goddess of knowledge, wisdom, and music; mother of the Vedas; inventor of Sanskrit (devanagari alphabet). Standing with four arms: one right hand holds flower to husband, Brahmā; other right handholds a book of palm leaves (to show love of learning); one left hand holds a garland; other left hand holds a small drum, or seated with two (of four) arms playing the vīnā. Sāvitrī, Gāyatrī, Brahmanī 73

74 V I S H N U Attribute: Depicted: Vehicle: Abode: Epithets: Consort: Attribute: Depicted: God of preservation; Vish lit., to pervade or like light, to penetrate; fulfills the role of redeemer and savior through the Avatāras (descents) or incarnations: Matsya (fish), arahavatara (wild boar), giant tortoise, Narasimha (man-lion), Vamana (dwarf), Rāma (hero of the epic Ramayana), Krishna (legendary character portrayed in music and dance; central figure in the epic Mahabharata), Buddha (great saint who began Buddhist religion) Kalkī (last incarnation yet to come when he will appear on a white horse). Reclining on a lotus or on the coils of the serpent Sesha, floating on the waters of the cosmic ocean; dark complexioned; with four hands holding: padma (lotus), gada (mace), shankha (conch), chakra (discus) also shown with the sarnga (mighty bow), the panchajanya (conch), and the nandaka (sword), wearing the jewel kaustubha around his neck with the star shaped mark - srivatsa (sign of immortality) on his breast. Garuda (eagle) Vaikuntha (celestial dwelling) Svayambhu (who exists of himself) Ananta (the infinite) Hari (the abductor who carries souls to save them) Mukunda (liberator) Janarddana (who captivates adoration) Mādhava (made of honey) Kesava (whose hair is like the solar rays) Narāyana (moving on the waters) Padma nabha (lotus-navelled) Srinivāsa (splendor-raimented) Asudeva (beneficent lord) Narauana (the source and refuge of beings) Lakshmī; born from the churning of the cosmic sea Goddess of wealth and prosperity Standing or sitting on a lotus, elevating lotuses in her hands with lotus buds and corollas rising around her. 74

75 S H I V A Attribute: Depicted: God of destruction (making way for creation). The auspicious one. Originated as Rudra in the early Vedic period. Shiva assumes every attribute of the natural mysticism through the contemplation of nature in its mysterious form and the fatality of the life epic of the universe. Also know as Natarāj, king of dance, his cosmic dance symbolizes and sustains the movement of the universe. Revealed in different aspects: 1. God of Destruction and disintegrative force 2. God of regeneration and sexuality, Medeival Saivism and Tantrism centered around the worship of Shiva and consort Shakti and the culmination of both masculine and feminine energies through their union in the form of ardhānarīswara. 3. God of asceticism Mahāyogī, meaning the great yogi. 4. God of the terrible, bloody rites. Flesh eater, human and bloody sacrifices, lord of the cruel and evil side of things, haunter of cemeteries, attended by ghosts, ghouls and vampires. As Natarāj (King of dance) in Chidambaram (mythical center of the universe) dancing his tandava (vigorous) steps, vasuki nāga (snake whose three coils represent the past, present and future cycles of time), right foot crushing Muyalaka (dwarf embodying the ignorance of the bliss attained through moksha), upper right hand holding the damarū (two-sided drum symbolizing creation through the pulse of the universe), upper left hand holding fire (which burns away the impurity of the soul making way for creation), lower right hand abhāya mudra (position of reassurance, allaying of fear), lower left hand signifying release and points toward the left foot which is raised signifying release from the cycle of rebirth through the realization of moksha), surrounded completely by the torana, (halo of fire embodying samsāra endless cycle of birth and death, fire destroys life yet passion also fire creates life). The whole image rests on a padma (lotus), the creative force of the universe. 75

76 Also shown as the ascetic sitting on a tiger skin (symbol of the source of creative energy in potential form during the state of universal dissolution) unclad (signifying the transcendental aspect) covered in ashes (which stand for the physical universe), holding the trisula (trident whose three prongs represent the fundamental powers of iccha - will, kriya - action, and jnāna - knowledge, on his head three matted locks (representing spiritual, mental and physical energies integrated in the ideal of yoga), trilochana (three-eyed: right the sun, left the moon, center fire; right and left signify the physical world, the center stands for the spiritual world and power) sitting in the cremation ground (as the ultimate controller of death leading to birth in both the physical and phenomenal worlds). Vehicle: Abode: Epithets: Nandī, the bull Mt. Kailāsa (in the Himalayas) Ardhanārīswara (half male, half female) Bhairava (the terrible) Bhava (existence) Chandra sekhara (moon crested) Gangadhāra (Ganges bearer) Jhatadhāra (matted-haired) Mahādeva, Maheshvara (great Lord) Mahāyogī (great yogi) Mahākāla (mighty time) Nataraj (king of dance) Nila kantha (blue throated one, from drinking poison from churning the cosmic ocean) Sada Shiva (eternal Shiva) Pasupati (animal lord) Trilochana (three-eyed) Kāla (black or time) Kapala malin (skull garlanded) Samakara (beneficent) Shambhu (from Tamil, copper-colored one) Consort: Pārvatī; personification of the feminine power Shaktī of Shiva; dual personality representing the benevolent and fierce; ferocious and sublime Attribute: Goddess of feminine aspects of Shiva: Pārvatī - beauty and sensuality, daughter of Himalayan Mountain; counter-balances the anti-social tendencies of Shiva; moderates the extremely devastating aspects of Shiva s tandava, dance of destruction. Ūmā: Asceticism whose severe meditations win the heart of Shiva Kālī: destruction; destroyer of demons whose unbridled anger has the force to annihilate Depicted: Standing on a lotus pedestal, of exquisite loveliness and radiant sensuality, sitting on an animal skin in pose of extreme meditation, wildly dancing; long disheveled hair; very dark skin; unclothed but for a girdle of severed arms, necklace of skulls, earrings of corpses, bracelets of serpents 76

77 Epithets: Pārvatī (mountain girl) Tarīnī (deliverer) Ūmā (mother) Vijaya (victory) Gaurī (white) Satī (virtuous) Durgā (inaccessible) Kālī (black one) Kapalī (wearer of skulls) Devī (goddess) Kumārī (princess) Ardhanārīswara: Literally meaning half female, half male; symbolically Representing through the form of Shiva and Parvati within one being - the embodiment or union of both feminine and masculine energies as a balanced force in nature i.e., the reconciliation of opposites 77