History of World Religions. The Axial Age: India. History 145. Jason Suárez History Department El Camino College

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1 History of World Religions The Axial Age: India History 145 Jason Suárez History Department El Camino College

2 Harappan Civilization (c B.C.E.)

3 Indo-European-Speaking People Between c to 1500 BCE, Indo-European-speaking people believed to have originated in the Ukraine/southern Russia began migrating to different regions of Europe, Mesopotamia, India and Central Asia. By 1500 BCE, a group of Indo-European-speaking people who called themselves Aryans (noble people) began migrating into the Indo- Pakistan subcontinent. The arrival of the Indo-European-speaking people to this region introduced to Indian history what many scholars call the Vedic Age (c BCE).

4 Early Migrations into the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent

5 Vedic Age What we know about the early religious systems of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent comes to us from the Vedic Age. Recall that the Harappan writing system has yet to be deciphered and it was not until about c. 600 B.C.E. when Sanskrit (Vedic Sanskrit), the language of the Indo-European-speaking people, was adopted into a writing system. As the Indo-European-speaking people migrated into the Indo- Pakistan subcontinent, they brought with them religious concepts and a pantheon of naturalistic gods. The importance placed on rituals and sacrifice made priests (Brahmins), much like in other early civilizations, very important in society.

6 Brahmins During this period, Brahmans (priestly class) became a dominant force as they performed important rituals and sacrifices to gods as a means of appeasing the divine. Tremendous emphasis was placed on the correct performance of ceremonies and sacrifices as this was critical to securing well-being on earth and to securing a place in heaven amongst ancestors and gods. The performance of these religious traditions became the monopoly of Brahmans They were educated on how to effectively perform these rituals that invoked the gods to act on the behalf of humans. They also invested kings and many became advisers to rulers.

7 Indo-European-Speaking People The world-view of the Indo-European-speaking people was embodied in the Vedas (revelation/wisdom/knowledge), a collection of hymns, ritual texts and philosophical treatises compiled between c BCE. The oldest of the Vedas is the Rig Veda. The fusion of the Vedic tradition with local traditions served as the foundation for Hinduism. Other written sources available to historians from this period include Vedic commentaries called Brahamas (c BCE), philosophical speculations referred to as the Upnishads (c BCE), and epics (c. 400 BCE) such as the Mahabharata (about two rival Aryan clans) and the Ramayana (about King Rama).

8 The rise of the Maurya Empire Since the collapse of Harappan Civilization and the arrival of the Indo-European speaking people, the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent had witnessed the rise of small kingdoms. It also experienced invasions by Darius I ( B.C.E.) and the forces of Alexander of Macedon ( B.C.E.). The political void caused by the withdrawal of foreign intervention in this region of the world facilitated the rise of the Maurya Empire (c B.C.E.). Its founder was Chandragupta Maurya ( B.C.E.).

9 Asoka Asoka ( B.C.E.) became the third king of the Mayryan Dynasty. His reign is better documented than previous rulers because he left a series of inscriptions referred to as the Rock Edicts. He assumed the title Beloved-of-the-Gods, He Who Looks on with Affection. Not long after his coronation Asoka s military waged war against Kalinga (kingdom on the east coast). This campaign had a tremendous impact on Asoka s life as 100,000 are believed to have perished. It appears that this loss of life moved Asoka to attempt to apply Buddhist principles to the administration of his empire. Ashokan pillar, c. 279 B.C.E B.C.E

10 A shift in thought The achievement of the Brahmans served as a prelude to religious and philosophical challenges as reformers that rejected key elements of the dominant brahmanical system. This included the emphasis placed on the sacrifices derived from the Vedas and the caste system. Reformers also emphasized the goal of final liberation from cyclic existence Thus with time, this region of the world experienced a reorientation of its traditional religious practices to concerns that sought to, transcend the world and themselves in search for personal liberation Buddha Period: Tang dynasty ( )

11 Commonalities Samsara The cycle of death and rebirth. Origin of this doctrine is obscure - the Vedas only mention the concept of redeath It becomes a general assumption for most of the religions and philosophies in India Karma The results of one s actions accumulate over one s life. Every action has an effect that must be accounted for One s future incarnation is dependent on the ethical quality of one s behavior in life thus upon death, an individual s karma determines whether one is reborn in a higher or lower status. Moksa Liberation or release from the cycle of death and rebirth, or samsara. How to live in a way to achieve moksa This quest stimulated many of the practices that are associated with the religious systems of India

12 Jainism Jainism was founded by Mahāvīra ( Great Hero ) ( B.C.E.), the son of a chief of the Jnatrikas. He achieved enlightenment at age 42 and thus attained the status of completed soul and conqueror (jina= Jainism). This was done through strict asceticism and noninjury to all living things He eliminated attachment to material things by controlling desires, restraining the wandering of the senses, and limiting consumption to the minimum. Thus Jaina path to liberation involves renunciation of material things coupled with ascetic practices aimed at purifying the soul by cleansing it of the karmic accretions that have colored it and bound it to matter. The Eleven Disciples (Ganadharas) of Mahavira: Folio from a Kalpasutra Manuscript Date:15th century

13 Liberation God is unnecessary in Jainism because the soul by itself is capable of knowing everything and accomplishing the highest goal of liberation. Each being must suffer the results of his or her actions, and no god can change this. It is up to the individual to work out his or her own salvation. For Mahavira, liberation meant release of one s true self from the constraints of the body and thus the achievement of salvation, inner control, and transcendent peace of mind, enlightenment, all being. Mahavira Preaching to Monks and Nuns Folio from a Kalpasutra Manuscript: 15th century

14 The Five Vows Ahimsa Non-violence To attain this liberation, Mahavira implored his followers to adopt the Five Vows. Satya Truth The ideal environment to follow the Five Vows was in a monastic community where a supportive context for achieving liberation (nirvana) was emphasized through austerity and mendicant monasticism. Asteya Brahmacharya Non-stealing Celibacy Aparigraha Non-attatchment

15 Buddhism Buddhism (see the Theravada-Mahayana forms of Buddhism) was founded by Siddhartha Gautama ( B.C.E.), the Enlightened One. The Buddhist challenge to the Brahmanical order would be solidified even further by the patronage of the Mauryan Empire and the ruler Asoka who converted to Buddhism. Siddharta Gautama was born as the son of a Kshatriya prince in a region that today is part of Nepal. Sources indicate that encounters with old age, sickness and death would profoundly impact his life. One such source records the following about his experiences, Confronted by old age, sickness and death, he left his family to lead a life of an ascetic (self-denial for spiritual improvement) and mendicant (begging/no property). Standing Buddha Offering Protection Period: Gupta period (4th 6th century)

16 Suffering is due to ignorance Having witnessed the suffering of the world, he renounced his royal heritage in order to escape the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth It was this cycle led to suffering, loss, and pain. He recognized that ignorance of dependent arising led one to misunderstand the true nature of reality which in turn leads to suffering He believed the world as impermanent (anitya) and thus things that seem to provide happiness such as wealth, fame, power, sex, relationships are in fact sources of suffering (duḥkha). He also believed that lives are influenced by the effects of their own actions (karma) and that seeking happiness in an impermanent world was fundamentally wrong. The Great Stupa

17 Every being is responsible The Buddha believed every being is responsible for its own destiny In the end, individual beings are what they are because of the actions they performed in the past. Nirvana is said to be the final cessation of suffering, a state beyond the cycle of birth and death attained through the Eightfold Path. Shortly after his death, a council to codified the teachings of the Buddha into what is referred to as the Three Baskets (tripiṭaka; Pāli: tipiṭaka) Vinaya: rules of conduct for the monastic order Sūtras: discourses purportedly spoken by the Buddha Abhidharma: scholastic treatises that codify and interpret the teachings of the Buddha. Death of the Historical Buddha Period: Kamakura period ( )

18 Hinduism Another early responses to the Brahman tradition was Hinduism (Hindu way of life) which would become the dominant religious and cultural influence in India. When describing this belief system one historian explains that The nature of Hindu religious texts... made possible the endless interpretations, providing legitimization and sanction for a wide variety of beliefs and practices. In part, this is due to the fact that Hinduism does not have an a single sacred text equivalent to the Qur an or the Bible, nor does it have a single historical founder or prophet. Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja) Chola period ( ) In other words, it does not identify a single authoritative text as the foundation for its views and beliefs. Instead, Hinduism acknowledges the existence of a corpus of sacred texts that have been produced over centuries. Sruti That which is heard/revealed tradition/vedas Rig Veda Upnishads Mriti That which is remembered/law books and epics Laws of Manu Mahabharata

19 The four goals of human life

20 Yoga The term yoga may be used to refer to a range of practices for disciplining mind and body. The focus is on developing progressively greater control over the agitations and fluctuations of mind and body in order to arrive at a state of perfect equanimity. One accomplishes this by turning the attention inward, away from sense objects, which leads to detachment and wisdom. Thus the attainments of yoga include unshakable mental stability, equanimity, dispassion, and eventually liberation from the cycle of birth and death. A person who becomes detached from external things has no basis for continued existence and thus becomes liberated from the cycle of birth and death. Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi Gupta period, 5th century

21 Four main yogas

22 Mahabharata - Bhagavad-gītā The Mahabharata chronicles the contest between the Kauravas and the Pandavas and their struggle for the ancestral kingdom of Bharata. One of the most important scenes of the Mahabharata takes place in a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna. This dialogue, referred to as the Bhagavad-gītā, (Song of the Blessed One), addresses a variety of themes that are primordial to Hinduism. This dialogue is one of most important texts in Hinduism because it takes its reader, through the many practices of Hinduism, including Vedic rituals, karma and morality, meditation and yoga, and devotion to the gods. Krishna and the Gopis Take Shelter from the Rain 1760