Cover Page. The handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation

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1 Cover Page The handle holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation Author: Bamualim, Chaider S. Title: Negotiating Islamisation and resistance : a study of religions, politics and social change in West Java from the early 20th Century to the present Issue Date:

2 NEGOTIATING ISLAMISATION AND RESISTANCE: A STUDY OF RELIGIONS, POLITICS AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN WEST JAVA FROM THE EARLY 20 th CENTURY TO THE PRESENT PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus Prof. Mr. C.J.J.M. Stolker, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op Woensdag 9 September 2015 klokke uur door Chaider S. Bamualim geboren te Kupang in 1966

3 Promotiecommissie: Promotor: Co-Promotor: Overige leden: Prof. Dr. L.P.H.M. Buskens Dr. N.J.G. Kaptein Prof. dr. C. van Dijk Prof. dr. A. de Jong Prof. dr. M.C. Ricklefs (Australian National University) Prof. dr. H.L. Beck (Universiteit van Tilburg) -ii-

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I would like to extend my special gratitude to Prof. M.C. Ricklefs. Without him I would not have been able to arrive at this stage. He offered me a generous fellowship, superb supervision and critical reading of my manuscript as well as warm friendship, especially when we worked together at the National University of Singapore (NUS), from April 2008 to July Unfortunately, Leiden mos does not allow me to thank the people at Leiden University for their role in the completion of this dissertation. I am very thankful to A/P Michael Feener who often offered his help in times of need. This research project was funded by the Singaporean Ministry of Education for which I am extremely grateful. I am also indebted to Prof. Albert Lau and A/P Yong Mun Cheong for giving me the chance to join the Department of History from 2008 to I would like to thank Letha Kumar who helped me with the administration of my fieldwork trips. My thankfulness and humility should go to the people of West Java for their openness and warmth. At this point I would like to make a particular mention of Hawe Setiawan who shared his indepth understanding of Sundanese culture and society. I also thank my friends who helped me in collecting data, particularly Gaus, Hijar, Nabil and Muchtadlirin. I am also grateful to Prof. Komaruddin Hidayat, Prof. Azyumardi Azra, Prof. Kamaruddin Amin, Prof. Amsal Bakhtiar, Prof. Bahtiar Effendy and Prof. Dede Rosada for their encouragement. I am grateful to uncle Rafiq, aunty Aloya, Nazir, Aji al-attas, and Din Wahid for their sincere support. I am indebted to my friends at CSRC for their strong support including Irfan, Idris, Efri, Sholehudin, Haula, Sari and Risma. Special thanks to Budi Rahman, Agung Prihatna and Dayat, whose help I will never forget. The editing work was done by Dr. Dick van der Meij. I owe much to Dick for his contribution, not only because he got this manuscript ready to be defended, but also because for his support as a friend. Thanks for our laughter in the process! To my beloved wife and children, Ety, Diny, Zidan and Sarah: Without your love I would not have been strong enough to accomplish this work. Similar encouragement also came from my mother Aisyah and my father Saleh. They never tired to inspire me to finish the book. -iii-

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6 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii INTRODUCTION 1 Hypothesis 2 Organisation of this Book 3 Methodology 5 Study Focus 5 Literature 5 Fieldwork 8 CHAPTER ONE ISLAMISATION AND OTHER FAITHS IN WEST JAVA 11 Muslim Sundanese and Variety of Islamic Practices 13 Islamic Pillars, Mysticism and Myth 13 Ulama and Adat 21 Menak and Islam 27 Penghayat and Native-Syncretic Creeds 30 Kyai Madrais and the Significance of Self: Agama Djawa Soenda (ADS) 31 Mei Kartawinata and His Doctrine: Aliran Kebatinan Perjalanan (AKP) 38 The Christian Sundanese Community 41 The Jemaat Cikuya: The Origin of Christian Sundanese 44 The Christian Community in Pengharepan, Sukabumi 52 The Christian Community in Gununghalu, Cianjur 54 The Christian Community in Kampung Sawah, Bekasi 57 Culture-Based Christianisation 58 The Christian Javanese 59 Conclusion 60 -v-

7 CHAPTER TWO ISLAMIC MODERNISM AND ANTI-ISLAMIC SENTIMENT (1920s-1980s) 63 Embracing Islam as an Ideology 63 Persatuan Islam (PERSIS) 63 Confronting Nationalism 70 Opposing Christian Missionary 71 Criticising Traditionalist Practices 72 Turning Islam into a Political Identity 76 Sarekat Islam and Muhammadiyah 76 The Rise of Anti-Islamic Sentiment 81 Anti-Islam Opposition: Seeking an Authentic' Faith 81 Anti-Islam Sentiment s Slowdown 83 PERMAI: A Political Resistance against Islam 88 Turning Away from Islam 91 Pressure against Aliran Kebatinan 91 Disappointment and Dissolution 92 Embracing Roman Catholicism 94 Conclusion 97 CHAPTER THREE THE WANE OF ALIRAN KEBATINAN AND RELIGIOUS RESURGENCE: THE NEW ORDER S POLITICS ON RELIGION, ISLAMISATION AND CHRISTIAN REVIVAL ( ) 99 Soeharto s Politics on Religion and Pressures against Aliran Kebatinan 101 Soeharto s Claim of Pancasila and Anti-Communist Mentality 101 Aliran Kebatinan Continued Decline 103 The Weakening of Aliran Kebatinan in Subang 105 AKP Suspension 108 State and Islamisation in Sumedang 109 The Politics on Marriage and Coercive Conversion 110 Declaration of Apostasy: Opposing the Politics on Marriage 111 Successful Islamisation under State Sponsorship 112 Political Change and Christian Revival 118 The Revival of Pentecostals in West Java 121 -vi-

8 Considerable Pentecostal Growth in West Java 123 Muslims Search for Mission Restriction 127 Engaging Dakwahism, Engaging Politics 134 Dakwahism and Secularism 137 Conclusion 139 CHAPTER FOUR THE EMERGENCE OF MUSLIM STUDENTS AS DAKWAH ACTIVISTS AND THE ISLAMISATION OF EDUCATED MUSLIMS ( s) 143 Socio-Political Context 144 The Coalesce of Santris on Secular Campuses and their Search for Piety 149 Neutralising the Dominance of Secular Students 150 Leadership Inspiration, Intellectual and Religious Vision 150 Soekarno s Inspiration: Seeking the Fire of Islam 150 M. Natsir s Crucial Role: Modernist Appropriation of Public Space 153 Nurcholish Madjid s Influence: Cultivating Monotheism 155 The Training of Muslim Students to be Dakwah Activists 157 Campus Activists Radicalisation 161 The Shift in Dakwah Orientation 168 The Leading Role of Middle East Graduates 168 The Promotion of the Ikhwani Vision 171 What Made the Shift Possible? 174 Conclusion 181 CHAPTER FIVE ISLAMISING LEMBANG: OBSERVING ALIRAN KEBATINAN S DECLINE AND ITS STRUGGLE TO REVIVE ( ) 183 Social Change that Leads to Islamisation 183 Lembang s Geography and Socio-Demography 183 Muslim Migration into Lembang 185 The Growth of Islamic Institutions and the Transmission of Its Doctrines 188 Changing of Land Ownership 192 Aliran Kebatinan in Decline 194 -vii-

9 The Weakening of the Syncretic Basis 194 Preserving the Creeds through Family Ties 199 Recent Signs of Revival 203 Obtaining Political Recognition in Law No. 23/ Conversions Away from Islam 207 Conclusion 210 CHAPTER SIX CHRISTIANISATION IN BEKASI: RECENT TRENDS AND OPPONENTS AMIDST ISLAMISATION ( ) 215 The Development of Religions in West Java 216 Trends in Christianity s Upsurge in Bekasi 218 Pentecostals Revival and Chinese Leadership 223 The Huria Kristen Batak Protestan (HKBP) Church and Batak Christians in Bekasi 230 A Case of Tension in Mustika Jaya 235 Christianisation and its Opponents 242 Increasing Assaults Targetting Churches 247 The Ministers Joint Decree Number 8 and Conclusion 252 CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSION: NEGOTIATING ISLAMISATION, POLITICS AND SOCIAL CHANGE 255 Islamisation and Unified Religious Systems 256 Holding Balance between Islam and Adat 256 Unified Religious System under Threat 258 Purified Islamic Discourse and Social Disintegration 258 Dramatic Shifting Contexts 259 State Recognition of Islam and Soekarno s Rational Interpretation of Religion 259 The Extermination of DI and Its Impacts 260 The Rise of New Order and the Fall of Penghayat 262 Dakwahism and Islamisation from Below 262 Christianity Turned into Islam s Greatest Opponent 263 Educated Muslims Turned Dakwahists 264 -viii-

10 The Reform: The Contests Continued 265 Penghayat s Reclaim of their Identity 265 Christianisation and Ethno-Religious Sentiments 266 Radical Islamist s Dictating of the State 266 SAMENVATTING 269 ABBREVIATIONS 275 GLOSSARY 279 KEY ANALYTICAL TERMS 285 BIBLIOGRAPHY 289 MAPS ix-

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