SUFISM AND SUFI LIFE DURING THE SHAHJAHANI ERA

Transcription

1 23 SUFISM AND SUFI LIFE DURING THE SHAHJAHANI ERA Gulfishan Khan* ABSTRACT Sufism (tasawwuf) with its varied aspects and manifestations was integral to the sociocultural life of the medieval period. For the men of God, Mughal cities specially the twincapital Agra, and Lahore, were the sacred spaces called abodes of piety. The peaceful valley of Kashmir was the other preferred destination, while the whole of India was no less a paradise. Important mystical influences continued to emanate from Central Asia and Iran. Saint Mian Mir enjoyed exceptional popularity among the commoners as well as the royalty. Some of the prominent Sufi families began to seek close ties with the Mughal states as in the case of the Suhrawardy saints of Gujarat. Learning and knowledge remained the true hall-marks of Sufis. This paper seeks to highlight some salient features of Sufi life primarily from the official sources of Shahjahani era. Keywords: Sufism, Shah Jahan, Sayyid Jalal Bukhari, Mian Mir, Abdul Hamid Lahori, Badshahnama. OFFICIAL VIEWS OF MYSTIC LIFE DURING THE SHAHJAHANI ERA In the previous epochs too, the broad expanse of India (Hindustan) had been a delightful abode of men of gnosis (urafa) and friends (auliya) of the Merciful and Compassionate God. But the present laudable era and blissful times are marked with an abundance of felicity and unlimited divine blessings throughout the environs of paradise-like India. This manifest felicity is mainly due to the prayers of these searchers of Truth (haq-pizhuh) and devout saints and worshippers of God the Almighty (Badshshnama, : 339 Shah Jahan Nama (1900): folios 921-2) This paper seeks to highlight some salient features of Sufi life primarily from the official sources of Shahjahani era mainly Badshahnama of the distinguished historian Abd al-hamid Lahori (d.1655), Shah Jahan Nama of Inayat Khan Sand Amal-i-Salih of the accomplished historian and an elegant prose-writer Muhammad Salih Kanboh which also remain the major sources for the study of Mughal court culture. The respective epilogues (Khatima) at the end of * Professor, Department of History, Aligarh Muslim University, U.P.

2 24 Gulfishan Khan the above official texts contain short biographical notices of notable intellectual and spiritual personalities of the period in the form of biographical accounts called tazkira. The section on biographical notices is divided into four categories (tabaqa), the first category is dedicated to the lives of famous Sufi-saints (mashaikhs) (Lahori, 1958). Some of the saints discussed in the above works are well-known personalities of the time and therefore, their personal lives which included parentage, primary education and spiritual experiences are generally known (Bilgrami, 2005). Included among the renowned saints in the above works are the Qadiri sufi-saint Mian Mir ( ) and his successor (khalifa) Mulla Shah Badakhshi, ( ). It is noted that Mir Muhammad popularly known as Mian Mir, invariably addressed as the saint of the age (awliya-i-zaman), was born in Sihwan in the province of Thatta. His pure ancestry was traced back from the second Caliph Umar ibn al- Khattab (d.644). It was specifically pointed out that some of his family members and one of his sisters (with out mentioning Bibi Jamal Khatun d.1639 by name) were saints of high repute. Mian Mir, the leader of the seekers of the path (ahl-i-suluk) spent sixty years of his life in Lahore, the pure soil (khak-i-pak) of the Punjab where he grew up into a mature saintly figure. And when his soul passed from this transitory world to the realm of eternity his pious body was laid to rest in the village of Ghiyaspur in the vicinity of Alam Ganj near Lahore. He was an engaging conversationalist, skilled preacher as well as a dedicated teacher who remained occupied in imparting lessons to the seekers after Reality. Muhammad Salih wrote: He [Mian Mir] was highly sought after by the prominent intellectuals for the solution of difficult and knotty problems which they encountered in their pursuit of knowledge. Often these were the men whose understanding of issues related to mysticism and other technical aspect of the science of gnosis was as deep as the ocean. Many of them could reproduce Shaikh al-muwahhidin Ibn al- Arabi s Futuhat-i-Makkiya by heart. Similarly they could also recite by heart Hazrat Maulawi Jami s celebrated commentary on Fusus al-hikam [Sharh al-fusus] Similarly, Mian Mir s outstanding successor Mulla Shah Badakhshi is portrayed as a living saint who remained occupied in the devotion and veneration of the Almighty God in the peaceful valley of Kashmir. It is noted that Mulla Shah Badakhshi arrived in Lahore early in his youth and sought discipleship of Mian Mir, and like his mentor and guide he also preferred life of celibacy. During the winter the saint lived in the fabulous city of Lahore, but for the summer his preferred residence was the beautiful valley of Kashmir. However, the official historian also provided details of the mosque built by the Princess Jahanara ( ), her devoted disciple for the great saint. On the 4th of Rajab June 1651 His Majesty paid a visit to the mosque that had been recently built for that asylum of learning, Mulla Shah Badakhshani. Constructed in an exquisite artistic style, the mosque cost 40,000 rupees, with the requested funds having been provided by Princess Jahanara Begum. It was surrounded by large buildings serving as habitations for the poor, which were constructed at a further outlay of 20, 000 rupees. On this occasion, Mulla Shah enjoyed the pleasure of His Majesty s society; and the attendants of her royal Highness presented him with a very valuable diamond on behalf of her noble self (Begley and Z.A. Desai, 1990: ; Rahman, 2009: 535). However, the list of the sufi saints is headed by the prominent Ahmedabad born saint Sayyid Muhammad Rizawi Bukhari (d.1636). The authors in general and Abdul Hamid Lahori in Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016

3 25 particular sought to high light that Sayyid Muhammad Rezawi belonged to the family of luminaries which had produced renowned mystics and saints. A number of members of this pious family are universally acknowledged to have attained the most eminent spiritual rank and exalted dignity. Sayyid Jalal Bukhari ( A.D.) popularly called Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan Jahangasht whose blessed tomb is located in Uchh is among his famous and praiseworthy ancestors (Dehlawi, 1914: 142-3). The other celebrity of the same family was Sayyid Burhan al-din Bukhari ( ), popularly known as Qutb i-alam (the Pole of the Universe), a grandson of the above mentioned Sayyid Jalal Bukhari Makhdum-i-Jahaniyan. Qutb-i-Alam also enjoyed the distinction of being the patron-saint of Gujarat, as he was the first person who left Uchh and settled down in the province. Qutb-i-Alam migrated to Gujarat during the reign of Sultan Ahmad ( ) who was deeply devoted to him. He settled near the new capital Ahmedabad and is lying buried in Batwa. His son Sayyid Muhammad known as Shah Alam ( ) was equally famous and influential who is lying buried in Rasulabad near Ahmedabad. Further, when Sayyid Muhammad Rizawi died in 1045AH/1636, he too was buried in the western gate of the tomb (roza) of Shah Alam Bukhari, located in Rasulabad in the outskirts of Ahmedabad. It is specifically pointed out that he is the fifth lineal descendent of Shah Alam and at the same time, by twentyone generations his pure lineage goes back to the family of the Holy Prophet and Amir al- Muminin (Commander of the Faithful) Ali ibn Abi Talib (d.661). Abd al-hamid Lahori noted that the natives of India are mostly followers of this order (silsila). The above saints are also mentioned as part of high ancestry of Sayyid Muhammad Rizawi (Rizawi, pp ). His son and successor Sayyid Jalal Bukhari, ( )) is also included among the saints who devoted their lives in attainment of spiritual excellence. Indeed Sayyid Jalal is described as an embodiment of unparalleled virtues, as a unique man endowed with all the perfections. A scion of sufi family he was also a poet of merit and composed verses with the nom de plume Reza which shows his high lineage of being a direct lineal descendent of Imam Musa Reza (Jalal, ). He is portrayed not only a man of noble lineage but also a paragon of universal virtues and a model of excellence. Muhammad Salih wrote that apart from enjoying a high position he was endowed with all the external virtues and exoteric qualities (kamal-i-zahiri) which makes a man perfect. He was eloquent in speech and polite in conversation. His style of interaction with the emperor and nobility was pleasing and graceful. He was grave in disposition but a sagacious man capable of understanding the subtleties of matter. Personal qualities and intrinsic worth of Sayyid Jalal endeared him to the emperor Shahjahan. The emperor was so enamoured that in 1643 he offered the high office of Sadr al-sudur to him with a rank (mansab) of 4000, which was later enhanced to 6000 zat. Sayyid Jalal s entry in the imperial service is thus described in an evocative manner: In these days, a descendent of the Holy Prophet named Sayyid Jalal Bukhari, some of whose ancestors in the past had been included in the circle of noble grandees at the court of Sultans of Gujarat was induced by his Majesty to change the garb of saintly piety for that of worldly pomp. He was then presented with a handsome robe of honour, a fine horse with a gold saddle, and a donation of 30,000 Rupees: and moreover endowed with an excellent mansab of 4000 and appointed to the honourable office of Minister of Religious Law (Sadr al-sudur). Meanwhile his eldest son Sayyid Jafar, who was also the very model of saintliness, was designated to succeed him in his spiritual duties as the spiritual successor of Shah Alam.

4 26 Gulfishan Khan Thereafter, Sayyid Jalal became a constant companion of the emperor and accompanied the imperial entourage on various official trips such as that to Kashmir in News of the sudden death of Jalal Bukhari at Lahore on 4 Jan 1647 deeply upset the emperor (Haq, 1939: 220). After the death of Sayyid Jalal, the emperor kindly bestowed the high office of Sadr al-sudur upon his son Sayyid Ali along with the title of Rizawi Khan. The other important mystic discussed in the epilogue is Khwaja Khawind Mahmud ( ). He was a grandson of the great mystic Khwaja Alauddin Attar, and from his maternal side he was related to Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshband (d.1389). He was a spiritual disciple of the great mystic Khwaja Ishaq Dehbedi Mejaz (Foltz, 1996: 233). Most of the people of Central Asia (Turan, Mawraunnahar) are followers of this order. He arrived in paradise-like India (Hindustan Bahisht nishan) via Kabul during the reign of the emperor Akbar (r ) and joined his court. Emperor Shahjahan granted a few villages as suyurghal (revenue free land grant) in paradise-like Kashmir for the maintenance of Khwaja and his descendents. Khwaja got settled there along with his family and other relatives and established his own hospice (khanqah) in Kashmir. Khwaja visited imperial court on several occasions such as the weighing ceremony of the emperor and each time he got some share of gold and silver distributed on the occasion. Another saintly figure Mir Hisamuddin Badakhshi was also of Central Asian origin. He began his life in the service of state as a high ranking imperial officer (mansabdar) but gave up professional life in preference for saintly life when he was still in the prime of his youth. Mir Hisamuddin s father Qazi Nizam arrived in India during the reign of emperor Akbar and joined the court where he gradually rose to the high status of an noble (amir) Mir Hisamuddin Badakhshi was born and brought up in Badakhshan but he possessed a natural inclination for Hindustan. He sought spiritual discipleship of Khwaja Baqi Billah ( ), the first major Naqshbandi saint who arrived in India and made Delhi his abode. From Khwaja he learnt the path of a wayfarer (suluk and tariq) silent recollection or recollection in the heart (zikr khafi) and permission to enrol disciples. He led extremely pious life and is said to have recited complete text of the Holy Quran within two days. He remained occupied in dissemination of word of God among the seekers of truth. One of the important saints named Shaikh Bilawal Qadri, (d.1637) also lived in Lahore and spent days and nights in remembering God the Almighty. He occupied himself in the task of moral and spiritual upliftment of the masses. One of the regular features of his Khanqah life was that food was served to the indigent and poor regularly. Emperor Shahjahan, the asylum of religion, visited the saint in his convent (buqat) at Lahore several times. Incidentally, Mulla Khwaja, a pupil of Mian originally from Bihar, who arrived in Lahore in his early youth. He acquired knowledge of traditional subjects in his home-town before coming to the capital. He sought discipleship of Mian Mir, the most revered personality of the period, and chose to live in Lahore. [where he is said to have died in an advance age of 95 in 1662 whose resting place is near the tomb of his revered teacher Mian Mir.] Emperor Shahjahan met the saint several times during his visit to the capital. Another saintly figure called Shaikh Pir, who often experienced state of ecstasy (wajd) especially in the assemblies of music (sama). He possessed reasonable knowledge of Indian music (naghma-i-hindustan) and was said to have also compiled a few treatises on the mystical Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016

5 27 subject. He usually accompanied the royal armies (urdu-i-mualla) while on march. The saint s mortal remains are resting in the Meerut city. Shaikh Nazir was the other saint who was born in the pious city of Medina and owed spiritual allegiance to the eminent saint Sayyid Ahmad bin Sayyid Rafiuddin bin Sayyid Jafar Shirazi, a distinguished saint of Gujarat. He was son of Sayyid Haji and his given name was Sayyid Nasir Muhammad but he became known as Sayyid Nazir, a name bestowed by his spiritual preceptor. He had experienced the wider world through travels in his early youth. He joined the court of the emperor Shahjahan the father of the kings, when he was still a prince and was amply rewarded with royal favours by the dervish-cherishing monarch (Padshash-idervish nawaz). He performed difficult ascetic practices such as namaz-i-makus and thus excelled in devotion and penances. He used to move in ecstasy (wajd) even in the court assemblies when magical musicians and singers sang in melodious voices. During the night he guarded the royal residence of the emperor who is shadow of God on earth, and which he regarded a self-imposed but pleasant duty. Despite the fact that he was assigned a handsome allowance from the royal treasury, yet he preferred to earn his daily bread like a common labourer. He died in Kabul in 1648 but his mortal remains were brought to Agra and were laid to rest on the banks of River Jamuna towards the building called Bhoj (imarat-i-bhoj). Lahori mentions two more sufi saints: one is Mulla Muhibb Ali Sindhi whose ancestors arrived in paradise-like-india under Emperor Humayun and joined Mughal services. He was born in Thatta where his father Sadr al-din Muhammad was in the employment of Emperor Akbar. Having acquired traditional education he joined the services of Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan ( ). At the age of thirty, he adopted life of a mystic and began to live in seclusion at Burhanpur. While going for the annual Haj pilgrimage, he met a distinguished holy man Shaikh Muhammad Fazl Allah at Surat and became his spiritual disciple who in turn bestowed a khirqa on his pupil. After return from the Holy Cities he entered the court of the emperor Shah Jahan soon after latter s accession to the throne. After having served the royal threshold he sought leave from the imperial service and again went back to Burhanpur. There he occupied himself in worship of God the Almighty, and praying incessantly for the happiness and prosperity of the heavenly kingdom. Hence he reserved his entire life for the service of poor, indigent and orphans. He often moved in ecstasy and during the mystical absorption he composed masnawi, ghazal, qasidah and rubai. The other saint Shaikh Abul Mali also belonged to the Punjab where he was born in the qasba Bhera one of the pargana of Lahore. He was also a spiritual disciple of Mian Mir. Shaikh Habib popularly known as Raja was also such mystic who had renounced worldly desires and lived at Agra, the capital of the empire. He prophesied many important political events such as the siege of the fort of Qandhar and Turkish occupation of Baghdad.Shaikh Sadiq Burhanpuri, a disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Thanesari Chishti, one who prophesied coronation of Shahjahan is the other saint discussed in the epilogue. Additionally, Muhammad Salih mentioned Shaikh Abdur Rashid of Jaunpur an accomplished teacher and influential preacher whose discourses on Unity of God and other aspects related to Gnostic wisdom moved hearts of its listeners. He remained recluse who refused to come out of his isolation. He even refused an audience to the reigning sovereign. Sayyid Muhammad, a sufi from Kannuj is described as a model of Prophetic life per excellence. First he lived in solitude in

6 28 Gulfishan Khan his home-town where he imparted lessons in exoteric and esoteric learning. He joined emperor Shah Jahan after 1658 when the emperor was passing his distressful days in confinement. He remained with the emperor from the 32 nd regnal year till the last breath of the emperor. He remained occupied in explaining the verses of the Holy Quran and the Prophetic Traditions (Hadith) and thus benefited all those who joined royal assemblies of the sad emperor. Later, he joined Emperor Aurengzeb s court where he expounded upon the works of Abu Hamid al- Ghazali (d.1111) such as Ihya al-ulumal-din (Revival of the Religious Sciences) and Kimiya-yi- Sadat (The Alchemy of Happiness). There were also sufi saints like Shaikh Inaytullah, a teacher and mentor of the celebrated historian Muhammad Salih who is also his biographer. Shaikh Inaytullah s family belonged to Lahore in Punjab but he was born and brought up in Burhanpur, the city of joy (darul suruar). Although a scion of service gentry family, yet he gave up the family profession for life of solitude. He lived near the tomb of Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (d.1235) where through the days and nights he remained occupied in offering compulsory prayers and recitation of the Holy Book. His pure soul left this transitory world in 1671 and lies buried in his own hospice which he got built during his life in the compound of the tomb of Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki. EPILOGUE Sufism was an integral aspect of socio-cultural life of medieval India during the seventeenth century. Sufi ideals with virtues of perfect trust in God and loving surrender to God s will permeated the whole fabric of Indo-Islamic society. The fact that the official and semi-official chronicles contained biographical sketches and details of mystical activities of the prominent contemporary Sufis, many of whom represented a living force in the social life, lends weight to our arguement. A close study of the lives of the saints demonstrate a verities of styles, practices and traditions were operating in the Mughal empire within the broad framework of sufism or rhetoric of tasawwuf. Learning and knowledge remained the true hall-marks of Sufism. Recitation of the Holy Quran was part of the daily-routine of many of the men of God. Most of the Sufi Shaikhs advocated life based on Sunna and Hadith. Sufi treatises Al-Futuhat al-makkiya (The Meccan Illuminations) and Fusus al-hikam (the Bezels of Divine Wisdom) of the great thirteenth century mystic Ibn al-arabi ( ), and Sufic writings of Maulana Nur al-din Jami ( ) were popular works used as Sufi manuals. Poetics remained the staple diet of learned sufi masters and both the authors cited poetical specimens of their compositions. I do not think that in the seven regions, Is there any city of the grandeur and beauty of Lahore? Talib Amuli Lahore along with Agra enjoyed vibrant cultural life and many sufi saints resided in the second capital of the empire. Sindh and Gujarat became centre of mystical activities very early. Qadiri order enjoyed considerable popularity in Punjab with Lahore as the main centre. Burhanpur in Deccan was also an important Sufi centre. Preference for the big cities among the Sufi-saints such as Agra, Delhi, Lahore and Burhanpur was mainly due to patronage, safety and propagation of ideas. Nonetheless, traditional towns such as Jaunpur and Kannauj also continued to enjoy lively mystic life. Emergence of new spiritual centres which prospered under the Mughal rule is also evident. Peaceful valley of Kashmir was one such preferred destination for many of the Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016

7 29 saints. These cities are invariably referred as the pious abode/region (khitta-i-pak), while India is termed as Hindustan Jannat Nishan paradise-like India. Important mystic influences continued to emanate from Central Asia and Iran as a result of continuous migration of a number of sufi masters (mashaikh) from that region. A number of saints whose biographical accounts are provided were close to the Mughal court and seemed to enjoy direct relations with the reigning sovereign and his courtiers. Many of them had Naqshbandi affiliations, an order which is known to have close involvement with the political elite. Thus Sufis and courtly power complemented one another. However, among the contemporary Sufis the Sihwan-born Mian Mir, addressed as the saint of the age (awliya-i-zaman), is accorded a very high degree of respect. Mian Mir emerges as the sufi with greatest appeal and largest constituency of followers. His devoted disciple and successor Mulla Shah Badakhshi was also highly respected figure of the period. An interesting trend is the gradual integration of pre-eminent Sufi families with the state. Members of the renowned sufi families entered imperial services such as the family of Sayyid Muhammad Rezawi of Ahmedabad. They enjoyed jagir (land revenue assignments) and other emoluments in lieu of services rendered to the state. In the official biographical accounts utilized in the present paper there is a clear emphasis on lineage and ancestry and genealogies are reproduced. But Sufi brotherhoods such as the Chishtis, Qadiris and Naqshbandis are mentioned but not necessarily as essential affiliations. All are discussed under the uniform category of mashaikh irrespective of their silsila affiliations. For instance, the case of Sayyid Jalal Bukhari where a great deal of information is provided about the prominent saints of this order but they are not identified as the Suhrawardy saints. REFERENCES Begley, W. A. and Z.A. Desai (1990). The Shah Jahan Nama of Inayat Khan An Abridged History of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, compiled by His Royal Librarian, Delhi: Oxford University Press. Bilgrami, Fatima Zehra (2005). History of the Qadiri Order in India (During 16th and 18th Century), Delhi: Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Dilli. Dehlawi, Abdul Haq Muhaddith (1332/ 1914). Akhbar al-akhyar fi asrar al-absar, Delhi: Mujtabai Press. Foltz, Richard (1996). The Central Asian Naqshbandi Connections of the Mughal Emperors, Journal of Islamic Studies, 7(2): Jameel-ur-Rahman, (ed.) (2009). Mulakhkhas-e-Shahjahan-nameh (Abridged Shahjahan-nameh, compiled by Mirza Mohammad Tahir Khan Ashna entitled Inayat Khan, Delhi: Al-Hoda Inernational Publishers and Distributors. Kanboh, Muhammad Saleh (1958). Amal-i-Salih, 3 vols. Lahore: Taraqqui-i-adab. Lahori, Abdul Hamid ( ). The Badshahnama, 2 vols. ed. M. Kabiruddin Ahmad and M. Abdur Rahim, Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta. Moin-ud-Din, M. (1905). The History of the Taj and the buildings in its vicinity, Agra. Nizami, K.A. (1957). The Suhrawardy Silsila and its Influence on Medieval Indian Politics, Medieval India Quarterly, Vol 3: