The New Global Terrorist Threat: A Case of Pakistani. Identity and Global Jihad

Transcription

1 TheNewGlobalTerroristThreat:ACaseofPakistani IdentityandGlobalJihad A Master s Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Brandeis University Department of Global Studies Chandler Rosenberger PhD, Advisor In Partial Fulfillment for the Degree Master in Arts in Global Studies By: Rebecca Nadine Gil August 2010

2 ABSTRACT The New Global Terrorist Threat: A Case of Pakistani Identity and Global Jihad A thesis presented to the Department of Global Studies Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Brandeis University Waltham, Massachusetts By: Rebecca Nadine Gil ThispaperdescribeswhythenumberofPakistaniterroristsandactsof terrorismareontheriseinindiaandintheunitedstates.byexaminingtheglobal jihadismmovementinpakistanasanunintendedconsequenceoftheindian Partition,Pakistancanbeviewed,asanantacidabstractwithfewroots,andwithit, soistheidentityofthepakistani.manypakistanisarelookingforwhatevery humanbeingneeds:asenseofbelongingandidentity.forsomeofthemglobal jihadismisareligiousexpressionofthisfrustration.byexaminingterrorismand personalitytraitsofterrorists,thispapersuggeststhatbecauseseveralpakistanis havefoundasenseofbelongingwithinjihadistmovements,pakistaniterrorism gearedtowardsthewestislikelytoincrease. 2

3 TableofContents Abstract....2 Table of Contents Chapter I: Introduction Chapter II: Pakistani Terrorism: It is an Issue of Identity : Defining Terrorism : The Terrorist Mind: Psychology and Belief...15 Ideology.15 Personality Traits of a Terrorist..19 Jihadism: Why Personality Counts..23 Chapter III: Partition: The Roots of Pakistani Identity Problems : Problems From the Start : India After Partition : Pakistani Terror in India : Jihad and the Pakistani Identity : What s next?...45 Chapter IV: Conclusion: Pakistani Identity and the West...47 Works Cited.53 3

4 I. Introduction ThispastMay,FaisalShahzad,anAmericancitizenwithPakistaniroots, coollydroveasmoking1993nissanpathfindersuvandparkeditintotheheartof TimesSquare.Hehadacquiredthecarjustthreeweekspriorfromacraigslist advertisement.thecarcontainedariflecabinetpackedwithmorethan45 kilogramsoffertilizer.shahzadleftthecarrunningandcasuallywalkedoutofthe vehicle.withthousandsofpeopleconstantlymovingthroughtimessquareitwas notlongbeforethevehiclebegantoworryseveralpeopleandwasquicklyreported totheproperauthorities.theterrorplottoblowupabusypartoftimessquare wasfoiledjustintime. U.S.AttorneyGeneralEricHolderannouncedthearrestmentofFaisal ShahzadafewdaysfollowingasShahzad splanewasclearedfortakeoff: Faisal ShazadwasarrestedinconnectionwiththeattemptedcarbombinginNewYorkon Saturday.MrShahzad,anAmericancitizen,wastakenintocustodyatJFKAirportin NewYorkasheattemptedtoboardaflighttoDubai, saidholderinapress conference.shahzadhadreturnedfromathree weekvisittopakistan,wherehe reportedlyvisitedhiswifeandhadreportedlybeentakingpartforfivemonthsin PakistanJihadcamps(Weiser,1). ThoughwemayneverknowthetruereasonsbehindShahzad splanned attack,therehavebeenseveralspeculations.firstly,shahzad sfamily,likemany otheramericanfamilies,hadfallenvictimtotheeconomiccrisistohittheunited Statesandtheworld.Hewasforcedtosellhisfamily shomeandbegantorenta 4

5 newhome.thefinancialwoesofhisfamilymayhavecontributedtohisterrorist actions.shahzadwasunabletoobtainthe AmericanDream offinancialstability andprosperity.wereshahzad sactionsaresultofhislackofsuccesslivinginthe UnitedStates?Theanswerisprobablynotduetothefactthathewasabletoafford severallongtripstopakistan. AnotherlikelycontributormayhavebeenonlineradicalMuslimlecturers thatshahzadhadtakenaninterestin.knownforhisextremeviewsandcriticismof theunitedstatesandthewest,anwaral Awlaki,aYemeni Americancleric,may havehadalotofinfluenceonshahzad sbeliefs.didshahzad sdissatisfactionwith hisfinancialpositionultimatelypushshahzadintoapathofmuslimextremism? HisinabilitytosuccessfullyassimilateintheUnitedStatesandradical MuslimteachingsprobablydidfuelShahzad sdissatisfactionwithhisownliving situation.howeverthefactorthatseemedtohavepushedshahzadovertheedge, werehisvisitstohisnativehomelandofpakistan.infact,withinaseven year period,shahzadhadvisitedthecountryontendifferentoccasions.evidenceshows that ShahzadwasoutragedbythecampaignwhichthePakistaniarmy under intenseamericanpressure hasbeenwagingagainstmilitantgroupsinthetribal areasofnorthwestpakistan,flankingafghanistan America'sdroneattacksagainst Talibantargetsinthetribalareashavearousedparticularfury,aswellasfierceanti Americanfeeling,becauseoftheciviliancasualtiestheyhavecausedandbecause theyareseenasintolerableinfringementsofpakistan'ssovereignty (Seale,1). ShahzadwasrecruitedintoTehrik i Taliban,oneofthemanygroupsoperating 5

6 underthetaliban.inhistimeintraininghelearnedhowtobuildabomb,whichhe thentriedtorecreateintimessquare(wesier,1).shahzadtriedtoseekrevenge againsttheunitedstates,byhisplannedactofterror(seale,1). SincetheinitialarrestofFaisalShahzad,afewothershavebeenarrestedin relationtothefailedterroristplot.shahzadisbelievedtohavetieswiththe PakistaniTaliban.Thoughitisstillunclearwhoisresponsibleforthisfailedattack, onethingissure:terrorism,andspecificallyterrorismwithpakistaniorigins,isstill averyrealthreattotheunitedstatesandisunlikelytogoawayanytimesoon. AsintheUnitedStates,Islamicmotivatedterrorismwithlinkstojihadist groupsinpakistanhashitindiaandothercountriesacrosstheglobeoverthepast severalyears.innovember2008,aseriesofterroristattackswerecarriedoutin Mumbai. Jihadigroups,believedtohavebeentrainedandarmedbyshadowy elementsinpakistan,havemountednumerousattacksagainstindiainthelast decade,ofwhichthemostspectacularwasthenovember2008terroristattackon Mumbaithatkilledmorethan160people.Arrivingbyboat,thecommandogroup attackedatrainstation,twohotels,ajewishcenterandabar(seale,1).in response,theunitedstateshasbeenpressuringpakistantocontroltheir homegrownterroristcellswithintheircountry.shahzadmayhavebeenfighting againsttheunitedstatesdemand. Pakistaniterroristshavegrownquicklyfromthelocaltotheglobalscale. Therearethreecategoriesofsubnationalandtransnationalnon stateentities, whichcanbebrokendownintothecategoriesof:ethnic,religiousandideological. 6

7 Thesenon stateentities [pursue]interestsdetrimentaltothenationalinterestsof thestates theyarefightingagainst(dekmejan,1).inthebook:spectrum of Terror, theauthor,r.hrairdekmejiandividespoliticalviolenceintoseparatecategories. Movingfrommicrotomacropoliticalviolencethereis:Individual terrorismsuchas assassinsandbombers.next,thereissubnational terrorism, whichisclassifiedby ethnicnationalists,religiousmilitants,ideologicalradicalsandhybridorganizations. Movingon,transnational terrorism isdefinedbyterroristgroupsthatcross boundariesofsovereignstates.pakistaniterroristsarequicklymovingacrossthe spectrumfromtheindividualtotransnational. Angryandfrustratedpeoplehavefoundrefugeinthejihadtrainingcampsin Pakistan.AccordingtoDekmejan,Subnationalistgroup ssuccessesareoften dependenton: (1)thepopularityoftheircause,(2)theeffectivenessofleadership andorganization,(3)changesintheirobjectives,(4)thestrategicrationalefor violentactions,(5)thenatureofstateresponsesrangingfromnegotiatedsettlement torepression,masskillingandgenocide,and(6)theroleofexternalpowersand worldconclusions (Dekmrejan,12).Pakistanisarestilloutragedbydisputedlands apartofindia,andnow,bytheunitedstate slatestcampaigns. Thereareoftenseveralcontributingfactorsthatmotivateindividualsor organizationstocommitactsofterrorism.anindividualororganization s motivationsforterrorismareofteninfluencedbytheorganizationorperson s history.furthermore, thetimeandplaceinwhichterrorismoccursarerelevantto themotivationsbehindterrorismformanyreasons.thesocializationofmembersof 7

8 asocietyorsubgroupwithregardtoviolenceanditsjustificationmustbe considered (Mahan&Griset,10).Oftenthereisa cycleofrevenge whereone groupretaliatesfromviolencecommittedagainstthem(mahan&griset,10). Severalotherscholarsofferotherexplanationsforthemotivationsbehind actsofterrorism.forexample,laurencemiller sdescriptionincludes: athree stage process.stageonebeginswithunacceptableconditions: It snotright. Stagetwo followswithresentmentandasenseofinjustice: It snotfair. Instagethreethe causeoftheinjusticeispersonified: It syourfault. (Mahan&Griset,10).Though thisexplanationdoesnotalwaysreigntrueforthemotivationsbehindsterrorism,it doesofferamodelthatworkswellforothers.otherscholarssuchasmartha CrenshawandJeroldM.Postapproachtheissueofmotivationsfromapsychological perspective.crenshawfocusesonthepsychologicalforces,whichcreatethe motivationforterrorism,whilepostfocuseson psycho logic,which is constructedtorationalizeactstheyarepsychologicallycompelledtocommit. Individualsaredrawntothepathsofterrorismtocommitviolence (Post,25; Mahan&Griset,10).Otherpsychologicalexplanationsfocusonfamilybackground, upbringing,andsocialstructure(mahan&griset,10). InTerrorism in the Twenty First Century,CindyC.Combsidentifiesgroup dynamics,religion,age,sex,education,economicstatusandlocationtobekey contributorstothemotivationbehindactsofterrorism.groupdynamics helps to shape terrorist thought and action (Combs,61).Usuallythesegroupsarefanatical, believingthattheyknowtherealtruthandonlytheycanchangewhattheyperceive 8

9 tobenottruebyviolentaction.usuallyterroristsaremotivatedmorebyunfairness thanaparticularpoliticalevent(combs,61).groupdynamicsalsocontributestothe group sextremity: Ifitistruethattheaterrorist ssenseofrealityis distorted thenthegreatertheassociationtheterroristenjoyswithhisorhergroup offellowterrorists,thegreaterthedistortionwillbe (Combs,61). Inotherwords, anindividual sthoughtsandideasaregreatlyinfluencedbythatofagroup,even moresointhecaseofaterrorist. Whenreligionisanaddedcomponenttothegroupdynamic,ideascan becomeevenmoreextreme.whenusinggodasjustification,therealityofa situationisslanted.insteadoftrulydealingwiththepresent,religionusesthefuture todealwiththepresent: Religiouszealotscommittingactsofterrorismareassured bytheirreligionsanditsleadersthattheiractsareacceptabletoahighermorality thanmaycurrentlyexist (Combs,62).Whenreligionisinvolvedasasourceof justificationforterrorism,itismoredifficulttomoderateactionwithreason,which greatlycontributestoaterrorist smotivation(combs,62). ThereisreasontobelievethatterrorisminspiredbyextremistMuslim rhetoricandstemmingfrompakistanisnowthegreatestthreatstoindiaandthe UnitedStates.However,inordertounderstandthethreatthatnowfacesthese countries,onemustlookintothedeepercontextofwhatterrorismis,whoisa terroristandwhyterrorismoccurs.thispaperseekstoexplainwhythenumberof Pakistaniterroristsandactsofterrorismareontherisebyexaminingtheglobal jihadismmovementinpakistanasanunintendedconsequenceoftheindian 9

10 Partition.Pakistanisainventedconstructwithfewroots,andwithit,soisthe identityofthepakistani.pakistanisarelookingforwhateveryhumanbeingcraves: asenseofbelongingandidentity.globaljihadismisareligiousexpressionofthis frustration.withabuildingpressureonpakistanfromthewest,moreandmore Pakistanisareexpressingtheirfeelingsofisolationthroughactsofterrorism. 10

11 II. PakistaniTerrorism:ItisanIssueofIdentity Terrorismhasgreatlyinfluencedthedevelopmentandpoliticsofstates.Yet, thereisaclearlackofconsensusforbothalocallyandinternationallyrecognized definitionofterrorism.terrorismisapolitical,legalandmilitaryissueandbecause ofitsmanyaspects, itsdefinitioninmoderntermshasbeenslowtoevolve.notthat therearenotnumerousdefinitionsavailable therearehundreds.butfewofthem areofsufficientlegalscholarshiptobeusefulininternationallaw,andmostofthose arelegallyusefullackthenecessaryambiguityforpoliticalacceptance (Combs,8). WithintheUnitedStatesalone,thedefinitionvariesfromorganizationto organization. 2.1DefiningTerrorism: TheUnitedStatesCode,publishedbytheOfficeoftheLawRevisionCounsel oftheu.s.houseofrepresentatives,definitionofterrorismstates: as premeditated,politicallymotivatedviolenceperpetuatedagainstnoncombatant targetsbysubnationalgroupsor clandestineagents (Title22,Chapter38, 2656f; Mahan&Griset,3). TheCodeofFederalRegulations,publishedbytheexecutive branchagenciesoftheunitedstatesdefinesterrorismas theunlawfuluseofforce andviolenceagainstpersonsorpropertytointimidateorcoerceagovernment,the civilianpopulation,oranysegmentthereof,infurtheranceofpoliticalorsocial objectives (28,C.F.R.Section0.85;Mahan&Griset,4).Anotherdefinitionusedby thefederalbureauofinvestigation(fbi))describesterrorismasaggressiveactions thatappeartobeintendedtointimidateorcoerceacivilianpopulation;influence 11

12 thepolicyofagovernmentbyintimidationorcoercion;oraffecttheconductofthe governmentbymassdestruction,assassinationorkidnappingandoccurprimarily outsidetheterritorialjurisdictionoftheunitedstatesortranscendnational boundariesintermsofthemeansbywhichtheyareaccomplished,thepersonsthey appearintendedtointimidateorcoerce,orthelocaleinwhichtheirperpetrators operateorseekasylum (FBI,2006;Mahan&Griset,4).Furthermore,aseparate definitionexistswithinthefbifordomesticterrorism(mahan&griset,4).theclear lackofaconciseandnationaldefinitionofterrorism,withintheuntiedstates,is worrisome.livingintheunitedstates,terrorismisaveryrealpartofourlives.how canweknowthethreatifwedonothaveonecleardefinitionofit? Scholarshavealsocontributedtothediscussionofdefiningterrorism.Bruce Hoffmandefinesterrorismas deliberatecreationandexploitationoffearthrough violenceorthethreatofviolenceorthethreatofviolenceinpoliticalchange (Hoffman,2006,41;Howard&Sawyer,2004,23;Mahan&Griset,4).JessicaStern arguesthatterrorismis anactorthreatofviolenceagainstnoncombatantswiththe objectiveofexactingrevenge,intimidating,orotherwiseinfluencinganaudience (2003,p.xx,Mahan&Griset,4).Anotherwell knownscholar,walterlaqueur definesterrorismsimplyas theuseofcovertviolencebyagrouptoachieve politicalends (2001,p.79;Mahan&Griset,4).Laquerechoestheopinionofmany ofhispeers. R.HrairDekmejian sdefinitionofterrorismisused,whichstates: The strategicuseofforceorthethreatofforce,beyondtheboundsofinternationallaw, 12

13 againsthumanandmaterialtargetscarriedoutbyanyindividual,subnational group,transnationalorganization,orstatetoachieveapoliticalobjectiveinpursuit ofitsperceivedself interests (Dekmejian,20).Politicalmotives,violenceorthe threatofviolence,theignitionoffearininnocentbystandersandactsbeingdirected ataparticularaudienceareallcrucialcomponentsofterrorism (Combs,10). SeveralIndianscholarshavealsoaddedtothedefinitionofterrorism.Inthe bookterrorism in India, theeditors.c.tiwaridescribesterrorismas generally recognizedasaspecialmethodofstruggletoobtainspecificpoliticalresultsand thatthereareatleastfivemajorparticipantsintheprocessofterror: (a)the perpetratorsofviolence;(b)theimmediatevictims;(c)thewidertargetgroupor societywhichtheterroristsseektointimidate;(d) theneutral bystanderswithin thesocietyexperiencingterrorism;and(e)theinternationalpublicopinion,insofar asitisawareoftheseevents (Tiwari,xi).Hespecificallygoesontomentionthat foranacttobelabeledterroristthereneedstobeaspecificthreatofviolenceand threattoothers.therulesofwardonotapplytotheact,andtheactmustbedone publicallyinordertogainpublicity.inotherwordsitmustbeapartofspecific strategyinordertogainattentionfromagreateraudience(tiwari,xi).another contributerintiwari sbookisp.d.sharmawhowritesthatallterrorists All terroristsprimarilyaimtoarousethemassofthepeopletoarealizationthat constitutedauthorityisnolongersafelyentrenchedorunchallenged.theactsmay beconceivedasanadvancenoticeofwhatmaybeexpectedfrommassaction.death anddestructiontothemarenot merethreats,butapartofprogrammeofaction (Sharma,50).Theybelievethateventuallyotherswilljointhemintheirobjectives. 13

14 OnelastacademicscholarworthyofnoteisEqbalAhmed,whoisawell knownandhighlyacclaimedanti colonialismscholar,notedthatthe terroristof yesterdayistheherooftoday,andtheheroofyesterdaybecomestheterroristof today.thisisaseriousmatteroftheconstantlychangingworldofimagesinwhich wehavetokeepourheadsstraighttoknowwhatterrorismisandisnot (Ahmend, 1889,p.20;Mahan&Griset,4).Ahmedclassifiesterrorismintofivedistinctgroups: stateterrorism,religiousterrorism,criminalterrorismpoliticalterrorism,and oppositionalterrorism,whichalluseterrorismmethodstoresistthegovernment (Mahan&Griset,4).Thescholarlydefinitionof terrorism continuestovary dependingonthebackgroundanddisciplineoftheacademic. Terrorismisacrimeunderinternationallaw.Furthermore,beinglabeleda terroristhasrealworldconsequencesforallpartiesinvolved.ifanorganizationor individualislabeledaterrorist,thelabelplacesnegativeattributesontotheir politicalambitions: Quitesimply,freedomfighterscouldbeseenasrebels, extremistsorseparationists,andanationalliberationmovementscouldbe describedasinsurrectionsdependingonperceptionsandwhetherthequestionis addressedbythosewhoquestiontheregimeinpoweroraresympatheticothe regimeinpower.moreover,rebels,extremistsorseperationistshavebeen convertedtopatriotsandfreedomfightersontheachievementofindependenceofa country;hencethedefinitionalproblemhasbecomemoreacuteinthepost colonial eraandinthedecadesfollowingthesecondworldwar (Chari,34).Manytimesthe labelof freedomfighter and terrorist areusedonthesameindividualor organization,bringingevenmoreconfusiontothedebate(mahan&griset,3). 14

15 2.2TheTerroristMind:PsychologyandBelief Ideology Terrorismisoftenexaminedthroughanarrowlens.Welookattheactof terrorism,withoutevertrulyexaminingwhoistheterrorist.wheredoesthe terroristcomefrom?whatishisorherbackground?whydidtheterroristcommit theact?themindoftheterroristisvitalinunderstandingterrorism. Therearecommontraitsfoundintheindividualswhocommitthesetypesof violentacts.theterroristfeelsinferiortohislargerenemy,butmorallysuperior.he feelsasifhehasbeenwrongedandterrorismisameansthroughwhichhecan retaliate.theactofterrorismistheresultofthisdistasteforthelargerenemy. Throughterroristacts,theterroristbelievesthattheycangainpowerthroughthe useoffear.terrorgivesafeelingofpowertothepowerless. Thereisnorealwaytounderstandandpredicthumanbehavior.Aterrorist actisevenhardertounderstand(mahan&griset,1).thedefinitionisinaconstant stateofchange.itevolvesbasedonthenewpoliticalsituationsandthewaythat nationstatesandpoliticalentitiesprocessandrespondtotheseevents(combs,9). Terrorismisalsoviewedasaformofpoliticalviolenceandatypeofwarfare. Terroristsoftenusethemediatodelivertheirmessagesandlooktoitasa measureoftheirsuccess: Theactofterror [is]designedtoconveyamessageto individualtargetgroupsandthegeneralpopulation.politicalterrorism,therefore, containsanelementoftheatre.inthismanner,theworldhasbeenconvertedinto thestageforterrorism sdrama.theprincipalactorsonthatstagearetheterrorists 15

16 andtheagenciesofthestate,withtheaudiencecomprisingthetargetgroups,the generalpopulationandtheinternationalcommunity.theaudienceisequally,ifnot moreimportantthantheactualvictimsofterrorism (Chari,34 35).Theeverincreasingamountsofcommunicationtechnologieswidenthestageforterrorist organizations.television,radio,printmediaandtheinternetbringlivecoverageof eventstoviewersacrosstheglobe. Fortheterrorist,thereisusuallyanongoingpersonalstruggle.Thismay includeeventsofembarrassment,repression,orharassment.secondly,theterrorist isexpectedtohaveextremeviewsandbeliefs.hisorherbeliefsaremoreextreme thanothersinhisorhersituation.thirdly,fortheterroristthereisverylittleroom forflexibility.eventsanddecisionsareseenintermsofblackandwhite.thereisa needforresponsibility,blameandretaliation.lastly,aterroristusuallyholds a capacitytosuppressallmoralconstraintsagainstharminginnocentswhetherdueto instinctoracquiredfactors,individuals,orgroupforces (Maham&Griset,11). Beliefsofmoralityarediscardedinordertoachievetheactofviolence. Manyterroristsexperienceviolencegrowingup.Theyoftencomefrom marginalizedcommunities,wheretheyfeelneglected.oftentheseareasexperience violence,deathanddestructionasapartofeverydaylife.theyknowfromfirsthand experiencethatviolencehurtsthoseinvolved.terroristsbelievethatiftheyuse violenceagainsttheirmightyenemy,itwillhurtthemaswell(ardila,12).actsof terrorallowindividualswhofeelwrongedtofeelpowerfulthroughtheuseoffear (Ardila,10). 16

17 Aterrorist scommitmenttohisideologyisunbending.thereisnoroomfor negotiationorcompromise: Inmanywaysterroristsdonotgrow,theyarestuckin therutoftheirunbendingideology.amalignancyofthemindwhichistheprincipal comorbidofpsychopathologyofterror (Navarro,25).Aterroristholdsontoan unbreakableideaorpassion.thisindestructiblepassioniswhatdrivesthe individualintoviolence: Toterrorize,aterroristmusthaveanidea,athought,a passion,ahatred,anideologysofixedandrigid,thathecancarryoutaviolentact withoutreflection,remorse,orhesitation (Navarro,26).Theideaissetinstone andtheterrorist smindinunchanging:evenhardevidencewillfailtoimpacthis corebeliefs(navarro,26). Manyterroristsalsosufferfrom MagicalThinking.Theyareconvincedthat somehowthedestructionofthatwhich[they]despiseorhatewillsomehowcure theillsoftheworld (Navarro,34).Theirbeliefsaresetonachievingunrealistic goalsand theyseethemselvesassacrificesfortheirdeities,andtheycountonthe approvalandthebackingoftheirculture.thesebeliefsgivesensetotheirlives, symbolicformstoachieveimmortalitythroughtheirowndeaths (Ardila,12). Hijackingsofplaneshavenotstoppedpeoplefromflying.Terroristattacksonbuses, havenotstoppedpeoplefromtakingpublictransportation.peoplecontinuetogoto workinlowermanhattandespitethedestructionoftheworldtradetowers. AmericanscontinuetohavepresenceintheMiddleEastdespitetheattemptstoget ridofthemandindiacontinuestothrivedespiteterroristactivitiesinandaround itsborders. 17

18 Therigidityoftheterrorist sideologyultimatelyforcestheterroristinto seclusion.family,friendsandhobbiesareeventuallypushedoutoftheindividual s lifebecauseoftheirgreatercommitmenttotheirideology.thisleavestheindividual furtherisolatedandlongingforagroupthatsharessimilarinterestsandbeliefs.a groupprovides itsmemberstheemotionofinvulnerability, whichensuresthem somedegreeofencouragementforobviousrisksofdangers.additionally,[the group]helpstorationalizethewrongdoingandgivesmoralitytoitsmembersto justifytheirselves [stereotypingallows]membersofthegroup[to]dehumanize theirenemiesandjustifytokilltheothersinmind (Navarro,74). Theterrorist s dissatisfactionwiththeworldaroundhimisadvancedbyhisstubbornnessandin hisunwillingnessandinabilitytoadapttotheconditionsthatsurroundhim.his unbreakableideologymakestheworldanditsprocessesintoblackandwhiteterms. Thegroupreaffirmstheterrorist sbeliefs,isolatingtheindividualfurtherfrom reality(navarro,27). Takeforexample,RamziYousef,aconspiratorinthe1993WorldTrade Centerbombings.Yousef sideology,stubbornandunchangingandhis dissatisfactionfortheworldaroundhim,madeiteasytojustifytheterroristattack. Yousef sbeliefs becameunbendingroadmapsortemplatestoactionwhich[he] pursuedwithoutremorse supremelycommittedtotheirrespectiveideologies,[he] remainsdefiantlyunrepentant (Navarro,27).Yousefisclearexampleofhow ideologypushesindividualsintoextremistmeasuressuchasterrorism(navarro, 28). 18

19 Personality Traits of a Terrorist InEricHoffer s TrueBelievers massmovementparadigm,heidentifiesthe keymembersthatmakeupmassmovements.firstly,therearetheleaders.the leadersareselectinnumberandarethemembersofthegroupwhoareusuallythe mosteducated.theseleadershavecharisma,agrandvisionandaplanofaction (Navarro,28). Theseleadersarewelcomingtothenextcategory,thefollower.Thefollowers seektofillamissinggapintheirlives: Thosewhoseetheirlivesaswastedand spoiledtendtocraveequality,fraternity,andorderthatcomesfrommass movements.terroristorganizationsremarkablyfillthisvoid (Navarro,28).Inthe study:theories of Prism: Individual Capital and Frustration,theauthorsfindthat individualswhoturntoterrorism,insteadofothermethodsofconfrontation, traditionallycomefrombackgroundsofpovertyandlackofeducation: violence, terrorisminparticularispredominantlyanoptionforthepeoplewhohavelower social,culturaloreconomiccapital.peoplewhohavehigherlevelsofcapitalwould bemorelikelytofollowadifferentpathotherthanviolence (Gunes&Ozeren,31). Manyscholarshavefoundthatterroristsdonotdowellinschool,andhavelittle successesintheircareerslateroninlife.theyareusuallyloners,andoutsiders (Navarro,55).Terroristsfeellostandareonasearchforpower.Theyhaveadeep faithintheirideologiesanditspotentialtoleadthemtobetterlives.however,these individualshardlycommitterroristactsonatransnationallevel.mostcommitacts 19

20 ofterrorlocally.theirfameislimitedtotheirimmediateareaandtheyarequickly forgottenabout. Whileanunbendingideologyiscriticalinunderstandingterrorism,itis importanttolookatotherpersonalitytraitsofterroristsandterroristgroups.one traitofaterrorististheabilitytoviewtheworldintwodistinctways: Psychologicalsplittingisa primitivewaytolookattheworld,muchasapredator does,dividingtheworldbetweenthatwhichisusefulandsuddenlyuseless,withno middleground (Navarro,37).Theworldisseparatedintoblackandwhiteand thereisnoroomformovementinbetween.psychologicalsplittingisdangerous becauseitdismissestheimportanceofhistory.therefore,thereisnolearningfrom pastmistakes.psychologicalsplittingalsohasaseriousimpactontheterrorist s relationshipwithotherpeople.iftheterroristfeelsbetrayedbyanindividual,the terroristcantransformfromfriendtofoeinamatterofseconds(navarro37). DuringtheeventsofSeptember11 th,flight11 sflightattendants,madeleine AmySweenyandBettyOng,describedahorrificsceneofhowordinarypassengers transformedintomurderoushijackers.theyweresittingintheirseatsinone momentandfollowingtheflightattendant sorders.thenextmomentthese individualstookovertheplaneinabloodyfight: Thedocileterroristsittinginthe aircraftsuddenly[became]massmurders.achillingexampleof splitting atwork (Navarro,38).Inphysiologicalsplittingthereisnomiddlegrounds.Theworldisput intosimpleterms: Itsisarhetoricof us against them,kindnessagainstevil,with 20

21 idealizationof us andprojectiononthem,ofallthatisbad (Kiknadze,55). Deeperangerwithsocietystartsfromwithin(Kiknadze,55). Anothercharactertraitfoundinterroristsandespeciallytheleadersof terroristorganizationsisnarcissism.narcissisticindividualsseethemselvesas specialandunique.theyseethemselvesastheonlyoneswiththecapabilityof beingright.theyaretheonlyonescapableoffullyunderstandinganissueandthe onlyoneswiththerightsolutionstotheirproblems.takeforexample,osamabin Laden,whoisatextbookexampleofanarcissist.BinLadenseeshimselfasaselfrighteousstrugglerfortheholyland,SaudiArabia,andtheonlywaytofightforthe holylandisthroughjihad.narcissistsareuncompromisingandmostoftenlack compassionorempathyforothers.duetothelackoffeelings, narcissistshave primitiveobjectiverelationships,whicharefunctionalratherthanmeaningful.they seethemselvesasimportantevenwithoutachievementandmayfeelentitledto unlimitedsuccess,fame,fortune,orsex,usuallybytakingshortcuts. (Navarro;39). Narcissisticindividualsarestronglygroundedintheirbeliefsandholdlittle patienceforthosewhoareopposedtotheirviews(hare,75 89). Narcissisticcharacteristicscombinedwithfeelingsofneglectandinferiority leadmanyterroriststosufferfromfeelingsofbeingincomplete.manyatime,these individualsfeelforgottenordisregardedbysociety. Consequentlytheyattemptto amelioratewhatismissingfromtheirlivesbysubscribingtopowerfulideologies whichgivethempurpose,comfort,andmeaning(hoffer,147;navarro,41).these individualsfeelpowerlessandasaresultturntogroupswhoofferthemmight.this 21

22 longingforpowerandfeelingofhavingbeenforgottenexplainsthecontinued successofal QaedainAfghanistan.Terroristgroups,suchasal Qaeda,promisea betterlifeandaricherfuture.moreover,religioncontributesanevendeeper context.jihadinthecontextofreligionpromisesaholyandmeaningfulexperience, inthepursuitforpower(navarro,41) Anotherpersonalitytraitfoundinterrorists,howeveroftenforgotten,isfear. Itisfearthatdriveshatredandideology. Irreconcilablefearisdeepwithinits subconscious,itgivesformtotheirunbendingideology,itliesnestledwithinthe pathologicalpsycheoftheterrorist (Navarro,43).Thesefearscanrangefrom peopletochangethatsparkthehatredandmotivatetheterrorist scorebeliefs. Furthermore,therearecorefearsthatcomewiththeunbendingideologiesof terrorists.therearefearsofbeingcaught,whiletryingtopursueanactofterrorism. Therearefearsoffailure,theinabilitytofollowthrough.Thesepersonalfearsare principal,butmostimportantlythereisthefearofloosingone sleaders: Somuchis usuallyatstake;somuchhasbeenentrustedtothesemalevolentcharismatic leadersthatoftenthemissionbecomesoneofprotectingtheleaderattheexpense ofcommittingfurtherterroristacts (Navarro,46).Theleaderoftheterrorist organizationprovidesguidanceandpowerfortheindividual.withouttheleaders, thefollowerswouldgobacktothefeelingsofbeingincompleteandforgotten. Narcissism,incompletenessandfeararesignificantpersonalitytraitsof terrorists.thesecharacteristicsleadtostrongandinflexibleideologies.fearpushes theterroristsintopassionatehatredandcoursesofviolence.bothindiaandthe 22

23 UnitedStatessufferfromterrorism.Theseterroristsuseviolenceandfeartacticsto createfearintheirenemies.terrorismallowstheseindividualsandgroupstofeel powerfulagainsttheirmuchlargeradversaries. Jihadism: Why Personality Counts Jihad,orHolywar,isnotanewconceptinIslam.Itoccurswhennon Muslims threatenamuslimterritory(mendelsohn,40).infact,theconceptofjihadhasbeen aroundsincethefoundingofthereligion.inrecentyears,thepopularityofjihadhas grownatarapidspeed.traditionallyreservedforleaders,itisnowacceptablefor ordinarymemberstokillandhurtothersinthenameoftheirgod.inthe21 st centuryjihadrevitalizedandfoundanewfollowing.beforejihadwasfoundinonly certainpopulations.nowitisanacceptedformoffightingformanymuslimsacross theglobe.jihadhasgrownfromlocaltoglobalandisgainingpopularitywith Muslimsallovertheworld.Jihadhasbecomeasourceofmobilizationand unification.jihadisnolongerlimitedtojustafewstates;itisaworldwideissue affirmingradicalideologicalbeliefs(mendelsohn,38).holywarscarriedoutby terroristattacksarenowattheforefrontoftheunitedstatesandindianpolitical agendas. Inhisbook:Combating Jihadism: American Hegemony and Interstate cooperation in the War on Terrorism, BarakMendelsohn,identifiesthreemajor eventswhichledtothetransformationofjihadfromthelocaltoglobalscale.jihads reemergencefirstoccurredduringthewarinafghanistanduringthe1980s.the UnitedStates,Pakistan,andSaudiArabiaencouragedyoungMuslimsfromacross 23

24 themiddleeasttocometoafghanistantohelpfightoffthesovietarmy.afterall,a non MuslimentityoutragedMuslimsfromallovertheworld: Thiswarledtothe revivalofthenotionofjihadasacollectiveduty;formanyofthevolunteerswho cametocentralasiatowageorsupportthemilitaryeffort,itinstalledthebeliefthat jihadwasthesolutiontotheummah sweaknessesandthekeytoreturningittoits earlydays (Mendelsohn,38).Notlongafter,jihadismgrewoutofcontrolandwas soonexportedtoothercountries.thecalltojihadinafghanistanunifiedindividuals fromallovertheworld,particularlythemiddleeast,intheirstrongbeliefsandgave thempracticalbattlegroundexperience.thewithdrawalofsoviettroopsgavethe Muslimmilitantsafeelingofvictory,andthatjihadwasasuccessfulmethodof fightingforonesgoals(mendelsohn,38). Duringthe1990s, OsamabinLadenandhisalQaedanetworkprovidedan organizationalandideologicalbaseforajihadimovementcomprisingmembers fromdifferentnations,aglobalreach,andideologywithglobalscope (Mendelsohn, 38).TheeventsofSeptember11 th madejihadinthelocalapartofagreater movementagainsttheinfidel(menelsohn,38).withinthejihadmovement,the PakistanibecameapartofthismuchlargermovementandgavemanyPakistanis theirfirstrealfeelingsofbelonging. 24

25 III. Partition:TheRootsofPakistaniIdentityProblems In1757,theBritishEastIndiaCompanyconqueredthelandthatisnowknown asindiaandpakistanfromthemughaldynasty.thebritishoccupiedthelanduntil 1947.Basedonthetwo nationtheory, HindusandMuslimswholivedinIndiawere twodistinct,different,andattimesantagonisticculturalentities.thesetwo culturalentitiesinindiahadahistoricalandcivilizationalbackdrop,anidentity,and aself imageoftheirown,havingdifferentsetsofcharacteristics,yet,inthecontext ofindianpolitics,eachone sidentityandunitywasparasiticontheother (Ahmed, 56).Ignoringthedifferentculturesandethnicitiesthatfellunderneath Hindu and Muslim,theBritishpartitionedthelargelandmassintoIndia,astateforHindus, andpakistan,astateformuslims.theregionknownaskashmirremaineda disputedterritory.in1965,thetensionsoverkashmirleadtofull scalewar.the disputeoverkashmirstillremainsineffecttoday,andoftenleadstocyclesof reoccurringviolence(ahmed,58). TheBritishfirstbegantheirruleoverIndiain1857.ThediversityofIndia s populationhascreatedtensionsandpoliticalproblemsforindiabeforeits independencefromthebritishontheaugust15,1947.terrorismcommittedby radicalhindufactionswasprominentinindiapriorto1939.theviolenceforthe mostpart,targetedtheirbritishoccupiers.however,aftertheyears1939and particularly1945,muslims,sikhsandafewradicalhindugroupspredominantly begantouseterrorismasameanstoreachtheirpoliticalobjectives(laqueur,150). 25

26 AtthetimeoftheendoftheBritishEmpire sruleoverindia,indiawas partitionedintotwoseparatestates.onelandmasswasindia,whichwouldserve thehindupopulation.theothercountrycreatedwascalledpakistan,astateforthe Muslimpopulation.PakistanwastobethecountrycreatedfortheMuslimsofIndia. Pakistanwouldbeacountrythatwouldpreservetheirrights,religionandculture. ThehopewastobringpeaceandcreateanendtoHinduandMuslimclashesinthe landregion(india). Afterthe1947partition,itwashopedthatthenewlyformedcountryof PakistanwouldbecomeapowerfulstrongstatefortheMuslimsintheregion.The countrywouldnotonlypreservemuslimrightsandinterests,butitwouldgrow hopefullytobesomethingmuchmorepowerful.infact,manyenvisionedpakistan wouldbecomeamuslimhomeland aplaceforallmuslims. TheleadupandaftermathoftheBritishpartitionhadanimportantimpact ontheveryidentityofthepakistani.fromtheverybeginning,pakistanhashadthe dauntingtaskoftryingtocreateitsowncharacter.thepakistaniidentityhadtobe differentfromtheindianidentityandthischaracterwouldhavetoberealizedand acceptedacrosstheglobe.itwasimaginedthatastrongpakistaniidentitywould emergeafterthepartition.insteadofestablishingaunifiednationalidentity, PakistanwasbuiltuponthecommondisliketowardsIndia,andseparated ethnicities.feelingsofabhorrencetowardsindiafromthepartitionandthe resultingconflictoverkashmirstillplaguethepakistaniidentitytoday.pakistanis 26

27 inabilitytoestablishastrongnationalidentityhasleadmanyindividualstoturnto jihadandotherterroristmethodsintheirsearchforidentity(jaffrelot,7). 3.1ProblemsFromtheStart ItisobviousthatthereareclearreasonsforwhyPakistanishavechosen terrorism,opposedtootherwaysinwhichtoaddressissuesofpakistaniidentity withinthecontextofpakistaniandindianconfrontation.firstly,manypakistanis stillblameindiaforinternalproblemsandlackofbelongingbasedonthelinesof IslamandHinduism.Thereisarealsenseoflongingforpower.Pakistanisfeels powerlessagainsttheindianstate,whichisbigandstrongandnoteasilymoved.w. HowardWriggensdescribedtherelationshipbetweenIndiaandPakistanas: the simplefactofsizeandstrategicandeconomicasymmetry Howeverunjustified Indianleadersmayhavethought,Pakistan sover ridingconcernvis à visindiawas fear,fearofindia ssize,thesizeofitsarmy andfearcompoundedoutofinfrequent publicstatementsbyprominentindiansregrettingthetragedyofpartitionand reiteratingtheinherentunityofthesubcontinent (Hussain,267).Inmanywaysthe tensionbetweenthetwocountriesisnecessaryinorderforpakistantofunctionasa country.bycreatingaformofcoldwar,pakistanishavefoundacommonthreatin India. PartoftheproblemhastodowithPakistan sconfusionoverthenationand nationalism. Nationalismisanideology,beitbasedonterritorialorethnicnotions (Jaffrelot,7).TheFrenchSociologistMarcelMauss,describedthenationas: a societymateriallyandmortallyintegrated,withstableandpermanentcentralized 27

28 power,wellestablishedborders,arelativemoral,mentalandculturalunityofits inhabitantswhoconsciouslyadheretothestateanditslaws.underthenation,subnationalidentitiesaredismissed.pakistanontheotherhand,hasreliedheavilyon ethnicityasasourceofderivedidentity.therefore, Pakistanappearstobean unachievednationpreciselybecauseofthepersistenceofethnicidentities,which mayevenbedescribedas nationalities.the two nationtheory gavethecountrya nationalist ideology ithasevenbeendescribedasan ideologicalstate whichhas beenformulatedagainst India,the othernation.butitdidnotendowpakistanwith thesociologicalqualitiesofanation (Jaffrelot,7 8).Eventhecommonalityof religion,hascreatedtensionanderuptionsoffightingbetweensunniandshias Muslims(Jaffrelot,8).Nationalismagainsttheothernation,India,seemstohave hobbledtheformulationofanationalidentityinsteadofcreatingthenation,which theyhaddreamedof. MuhammedAliJinnah,thecreatoroftheideaofPakistanontheIndian Subcontinentanditsfirstleader, wantedtobuildastrongstaterelyingonthe threefoldprinciple onenation,oneculture,onelanguage (Jaffrelot,8).Hebelieved thatpakistanwastheonlywaytokeepsafemuslimwelfareandinterests.he believedthatmusliminterestscouldnotcompetewiththenewlyemergingindian state.histhreefoldprinciplewashisideal,comingfromthemuslimprovincesofraj, wherehefacedsocialdeclineandwasaminoritywithintheregion.infact,the UnitedProvinces MuslimleadershadbeenpreparingforthePakistanistateafter thebritishpoliciesimplementedfollowingthe1857 Revolt.Propertieswere confiscatedandthemuslimelitewerediscriminatedagainstbygovernmental 28

29 proceedings,aswellastheintroductionofdemocracytotheregion.asminoritiesin theseregions,themuslimshadmoretoloseandthereforealotmoretogainfrom theirownstate(jaffrelot,9).itwasthisfearofdeclineandmarginalizationthatled tothefoundationofastateformuslims.infact, thefirstmuslimseparatist movementsresultedfromthereactionofthemuslimelitefromnorthernindia, whoseprivilegedpositioncametobechallengedbytheriseofhinduintelligentsia,a groupwhichbenefitedfromitsmorerapidassimilationintotheenglish medium educationalsystemandtheanti MuslimbiasoftheBritishtillthelate19 th century (Jaffrelot,10).AsadirectresultoftheseBritishpolicies,politicalpartiesand organizationslikethemuslimleaguewereformed,withthegoaloffosteringmuslim unityandpreservingthelanguageofurdu,whichwaspromotedasthelanguageof themuslims. WhereMuslimsweretheminority,theideaofPakistanandpreserving Muslimrightsbegantospread.Onthecontrary,inplaceswheretheMuslim populationswerethemajority,suchaspunjaborbengal,muslimsweremore contentbecausetheyruledoverthemselves(jaffrelot,11).forthemuslimswhofelt marginalizedbythebritish,theyremainedhopefulthatislamandurducouldunite andpromotemobilizationamongmuslimsacrossthesubcontinent. AftertheemergenceofthestateofPakistan,theriftsinPakistaniidentity begantoemerge.oneoftheseriftswasbasedonthecompetingvisionsofthe Pakistanistate.TheMohajirssoughtastatebasedonthedoctrineofIslam.The Punjabs,ontheotherhand,hadseenPakistanasthedirectresultofHindus 29

30 threateningislamandtheirsocialrights.themohajirsimmediatelygainedalotof influenceinthenewlyestablishedstate;boththepresidentandtheprimeminister weremohajirs.withintenyears,whilethemohajir smuslimdoctrineremainedin tact,theinfluencetransferredtothepunjabiswhohadalreadybeguntoidentify withthesameideology.theyhadalreadyadoptedurduasanofficiallanguage (Jaffrelot,18). Whilethesetwogroupsremainedinfluential,theBengalis,ontheotherhand, wereignoredanddiscriminatedagainst,despitethefactthattheyformedamajority ofthepopulation.oneexampleofdiscriminationagainstbengalisoccurredinmarch 1949,when theconstituentassemblyappointedabasicprinciplescommittee whichsubmitteditsreportinseptember1950.itrecommendedtheestablishment ofafederaldemocracy.thepunjabirepresentativesimmediatelyobjectedthateast PakistanshouldnotbeallowedtobeinapositiontodominateWestPakistansimply becausethebengaliswereinalargernumber (Jaffrelot,18).Furthermore,by makingurduthenationallanguage,bengaliswereleftangryandmobilizedto preservetheirownlanguage,literatureandculture.thefightbetweenthebengalis andthecentralgovernmentdidnotendwithoutviolenceandspurredabengalis nationalistmovement. TheBengalisarejustonegroupwhoturnedtoseparatistmovementsin Pakistanbecauseofunfairpoliciesofitsleaders.TheSindhis,theBaluchis,andother groupshavehadorstilldohaveseparatistmovementsinpakistan.thefailureof 30

31 PakistanileaderstounifythedifferentpeopleswhomakeupPakistanhas contributedgreatlytoitsfailuretoestablishapakistaniidentity(jaffrelot,30 34). Sectarianism,asasubstituteidentity,hasbecomeaserioussourceofconflict intermsofnationalidentity.theauthor,miriamabuzahab,describespakistan havingbeenlostinitsnationalidentity: Pakistanhasneverbeenanation state; highlyfragmented,ithasfailedinintegratingthepeopleintoanationbymaking theirpakistaniidentitytheirmosttreasuredpossession (Zahab,77).Insteadofthe nation,individualswereforcedtoidentifywithotherfragmentedidentities.this included:caste,ethnicgroup,languageorsectofislam. Forthosewhofoundasourceofethnicidentityinthe1970s,itwasalmost immediatelyoutlawedandviewedasdisloyalty.duringthe1980sandtheafghan war,identitywaslinkedtoreligiousislam(zahab,77). ZiaulHaq sislamization policy meantstatemonopolyonreligionanddominanceofaparticularsect,and brought theologicaldifferencestothefore (Zahab,79).GeneralZia sislamization campaignwaspredominantlysunniinscopeandinfuriatedshia.thecampaignwas alsoadirectthreattoshiasocialstatusinpaksitan.asaresultoftheafghanistan andwarandtheiranianrevolution,shiaswerefurthermobilizedandempowered (Nasr,87).OutsideShiainfluenceswereusingPakistantofurthertheirownpolitical ambitions. SunniandShiaviolencehaseruptedfrequentlyinPakistan sshorthistory. Sincethe1980sbothSunniandShiapartieshaveemergedresponsiblefor promotingviolence.thesepartiesinclude: SunniSipah e SahabaPakistan 31

32 (Pakistan s ArmyoftheProphet scompanions orssp,establishedin1984)andits allies,thesunnitahrik( Sunnimovement,establishedin1993),TehrikNifaz Shariat IMuhammadi( MovementforProtectionofMuhammad sreligiouslaw, establishedin1994),lashkar e Jhangvi(JhangviArmy,establishedin1990), Lashkar e Taiba( TheArmyofthePure,formedin1997 8),andTehrik IJafaria Pakistan( Pakistan sshiamovement ortjp,formedin1979)anditsmilitant offshoot,sipnah e Muhammad( ArmyofMuhammadorSM,formedin1991) (Nasr,85).Ithasnothelpedthesituationthatmanyofthesegroupsreceivefunds fromoutsideofpakistan.saudiarabiahasbeenknowntosendfinancialsupportto SunnigroupsinPakistan,whileIranhasalsohelpedsupportandmobilizeShia groupsintheregion(nasr,32).thesegroupspromoteasenseofbelongingand placesforindividualswhofeeldisconnectedtothegovernmentinpakistan.clashes amongsunniandshiagroupshavefurthergivenrisetothepakistanitaliban(nasr, 85).ThePakistaniidentityhasbecomefragmented: Ithasmetamorphosedfrom religiousschismintopoliticalconflictaroundmobilizationofcommunalidentity (Nasr,86).Nowsectofreligionhasgivenwayasaformofpoliticalidentityand violencehaseruptedbecauseofit. OnecaseofsectarianismoccurredinCentralandSouthPunjab,where politicalschismsduringthe1970s,ledtoalotofresentmentamongthelocal populations.sincepartition,thepakistanigovernmenthadignoredsouthpunjab.in bothcentralandsouthpunjab,theareasarepovertystrickenwiththeexceptionof afewwealthylandownerswhohavemaintainedtheirwealthovertheyearsby turningtheirlandintoorchidsandthenusingmachinesinsteadofsomeofthe 32

33 experiencedlaborersinthearea.withothermediumlandownersmovingin,much oftheruralpopulationhasbeenturnedawayfromtheirtraditionaljobsandhaveno landtogoto.fastmovingsocialandeconomicchanges,rapidpacedurbanization, theadditionofnewclasses,andapowerfulunchangingrulingeliteleadtoextreme povertyandsocialinequalitiesintheregion. Sectarianmilitancyinthiscontextcan bedescribedasareactiontoagrowingsenseofinsecurityandhopelessness resultingfromunevendistributionofresources,asarevoltofuprootedand marginalizedperipherydeprivedofaccesstothepoliticalarena (Zahab,79 80). Withthelackofindustrializationandeducation,andthemalfunctionoftraditional structure,sectbecameasourceofidentity.sectarianismservesasaplatformof sharedangerandfrustrationandachanceatpowerinaregionthathaspushed themintopoverty(zahab,80). InPunjab,educationwashardlyevermadeavailabletochildrenbecauseit wasbelievedthatwitheducation,thechildrenwouldleavefortheurbanareasand wouldthereforeneglecttheirsocialendeconomicroleaslaborers.sincetherewasa reallackofpropereducationinpunjab,madrasas,begantoincreaseinnumber duringthesecondhalfofthe1990s.themadrasas cameintobeingbecauseof religiouspartiesradicalizedforeigninfluencesstartedreceivingforeignfunds whichtheythenusedtolaunchcampaignsinfavoroftheirprograms (Zahab,115). Thesemadrasas,havebecomesuccessful: Notallmadrasas aresectarianbutthe sectarianhavemultiplied.inafeudalenvironmentwhereviolenceispartofthe socio politicalcultureandisevenvalued,thesectarianmadrasasidentifywiththe partieswhichprotectthem,preachviolenceforenforcementoftheirkindofislam 33

34 andtheeliminationofothersects (Zahab,83).Religiouspoliticalpartiesalign themselvesandoperatemanyofthemadrasas. TheMadrasas areknownfor teachingviolenceandhatredtowardsothersectsofislam.jihadorholywarisnot onlyforthenon Muslims,forthemadrasas,theinfidelhasbecomemembersof othersectsofislam.povertyandnorealaccesstoeducationforcestheseyoung childrenofruralpeasantstowardsextremismandviolence. Inmadrasas,studentsaregivenaneducation,food,lodging,andmost importantlyaplacetobelong.classesaretaughtinarabic,whicheventheteachers donotfullyunderstand.studentsaretaughtgoodbehaviorandobediencethrough physicalabuse.thestudentsofthemadrasas arecutofffromtherestofthesociety andfindapurposeinlifebyservingtheirreligion. Themadrasasgivetheirstudents familiesarespectfulplaceinsociety: Theparentsgainrespectofthelocalmullah forsendingtheirchildrentotheseschools,ahadithsaysthattheparentsofahafiz e Quran willbeblessedwithaluminouscrownonthedayofjudgment (Zahab,83). Themadrasas givestheirstudentsaplacetobelongandafuture.duetofactthat thereisareallackofpakistaninationalidentity,individualswhohavebeenaffected negativelybychangehaveturnedtoorinthecaseofmadrasas beentaughttoseek anidentitywithinreligionthatputsemphasisonhatetowardsthepakistaniother withavaryingbeliefsystem(zahab,84). ManywhohavefailedordroppedoutoftheUrdusystemofeducationlacka realeducation,andthereforejobqualifications.theirlackofeducationhasleftthem feelingisolatedfromtherestofsociety.theirfamiliesaretoopoortosupportthem, 34

35 andtheycannotrelyonthegovernmenttohelpthem.theyareleftstranded, searchingforasenseofbelongingandalongingforacharismaticleadertotake themtoabetterlife.insouthpunjab,whereshiastraditionallyheldalotoflandand power, religionhasbecomeatoolandasocialdemarcationratherthanafaith,the membersoftheothersectareviewedasrivalsandasathreattothematerialstatus ofone scommunity.sectarianismhasbeenusedasanumbrellaforthestruggleof theemergingclassesagainstmoreentrenchedinterests (Zahab,86).Thenew challengetotheshialandownersarethesunnimiddleclass.manyofthesunnis comefromananti Shiaideologicalbackgroundandasaresulttensionandviolence thathasescalatedoverthepastdecade(zahab,85). InsteadofunifyingtheMuslimpeopleinPakistan,religionhasbecomea sourceofconflictandasourcefornationalidentity.extremistgroupsnowrivalthe traditionalreligiousparties,whohavefailedtoportraythetruevisionofislam. SunniversusShiatensionshaveturnedintoendlessroundsofviolence: Therivalry hasdegeneratedintoachainreactionofvengeanceandtit for tatkillinginasociety whererevengeisviewedbymostasanaturalsentimentlinkedtoonesidentityand oneshonor (Zahab,87).Thisreligiousfrustrationhastakenarealtollonthe Pakistaniidentity.Manypeoplefeellikethegovernmenthasfailedthem.Many comefrompovertyandlittleeducation.withnorealfeelingofbelongingin Pakistan,itiseasytoseehowreligionwouldserveasafoundationforasourceof identity.however,thedifferentsectsofislam,havecreatedfurtherdividesamong thepeople: Thereisnodearthofunemployedyoungpeoplewhoarelookingfora solutiontotheireconomicproblemsandwhothinkthatanislamicrevolutionis 35

36 longoverdueinpakistan (Zahab,124),TheactofJihadisappliedtothegeneral Pakistanisociety.Hatredtowardstheotherisareligiousmissionandcanbeeasily spreadtoplacesacrosstheworld.pakistanishavefallenvictimtohelplessnessand despairandareturningtoothermeansofidentity. Unfairgovernmentalpoliciesandidentityconfrontationshaveleadtoa changingviewofjihadamongmanyofpakistan scitizens.jihadbecameanaccepted toolofcombatagainstthesoviet stakeoverofafghanistan.withthesuccessof JihadagainsttheSoviets,manyPakistanisandMuslimsacrosstheworldseeJihadas asuitablewayofachievingagoal.thelackofapakistaninationalidentityhas pushedpakistanisintofindingalternativeidentitiesandintothecomfortinghands ofjihadistmovements. Jihadimovementscanbeseenasearly1800sintheIndiansubcontinent.But itwasnotuntil1927,whenabulkalamazadmuhammadilyaskandhalawideclared thatjihadshouldbeuseduponthehindus,whoarethetrueenemiesofislam.jihad hasremainedanimportantpartofpakistaniidentity orlackthereof.duringthe 1990s,PakistanisbecameevenmorereliantuponJihadimovementstofostera senseofnationalidentity: Theendofeconomicprosperity,addedtoahuge demographicgrowth,drovemanylowandmiddleclasspeopleintounemployment. Thepoliticalinstabilityaswellascorruptionoftherulingclass,helpedtoreactivate theundergroundmythofanidealislamicparadigm.last,butnotleast,theseizure ofpowerbysomeveryprivilegedgroupsconvincedthedestituteclassesthatthey didnothaveafutureintheirowncountry (Boivin,107).Additionally,withtheend 36

37 oftheafghanwar,pakistani sponsoredtalibangainedafootholdinafghanistan. InsteadoftheJihadimovementcomingtoaclose,theJihadimovementswere exportedtothekashmirandgainedinpopularity(boivin,107).withnorealplace tocallhome,povertyandanunclearnationalidentitytorelatetoleadtoalotof frustration,whichhasplayedalargerolewithinjihadinpakistanandacrossthe globe. 3.2IndiaAfterPartition SinceIndia sindependencefromthebritishempire,ithashadanongoing struggleagainstterrorism.indiahasworkedhardatbuildingastrongstate: The problemhastobeseeninthecontextofthefactthattheindianstatealonehasthe monopolyoftheuseofforceandthestatederivesitslegitimacybystrivingto realizethevalueswhichtheindianpeoplehavereposedintheconstitution Ifthe Indianpeoplelosefaithindemocratic, peaceful andlegal methodsofbringingabout changesinoursocietythenthecultofviolencewouldprogressivelybecomea growingandmenacingrealityinindiawhichwillultimatelydestroythetenuous civicorderthatexiststoday(tiwari,viii).theimportanceofdemocracyisapparent inindiansociety.however,therehasbeena widespreadfeeling[that]hasgrownin Indiathatourdemocraticprocessesoftenremainopaqueeventothedeeplyfeltand justgrievancesofoneortheothersectionsofourpeople (Tiwari,vii).This deeply feltandjusticegrievances havecreatedalotofproblemsinmodernindiansociety (Tiwari,vii). 37