Muslim Metaphysics An Exposition

Transcription

1 Muslim Metaphysics An Exposition Dr. Ali Raza Tahir Assistant Professor Department of Philosophy, University of the Punjab, Lahore-Pakistan Corresponding Author Dr. Ali Raza Tahir Assistant Professor Department of Philosophy, University of the Punjab, Lahore-Pakistan Sponsoring Information Department of Philosophy, University of the Punjab Quaid-e-Azam Campus, Lahore-Pakistan Abstract In this article, I have tried to discuss about the subject matter, nature, and scope of Muslim metaphysics. What is the relationship between Islamic metaphysics and Muslim metaphysics? How would we distinguish it from other metaphysical approaches? What is the origin of Muslim metaphysics? What are its prominent features? What are the main approaches and routes in it? Is there any continuity in Muslim metaphysics? I have strived to explore the answers of these questions in this article. Key words: Metaphysics, Theology, Philosophy, Mysticism, Peripatetic philosophy, Hikmat al Ishraq, Hikmat e Mutaalia Introduction Islam is the basic and real origin of Muslim metaphysics. Islam means, the faith in the Oneness (Tauhid )of Allah almighty, finality of the prophecy of Holy Prophet (SAWW), Quran- as the revealed book of God, the Day of Judgment, and the life here after. In brief, we may say that Islam means Faith (Eman) and Action (Aml e Saleh): As described by Allah mighty in Quran and As elaborated, and expounded by Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W.) in His sayings (Hadith) and by His actions Therefore, Islamic teachings as revealed by Allah almighty and explained by Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W.) are known as Islamic metaphysics. Muslim metaphysics The intellectual pursuits of the Muslim scholars based on Islamic metaphysics are known as Muslim metaphysics. Allah almighty has granted different faculties to different beings. Some people naturally have their inclination towards religious dialectics, some have their tendency towards reason, and some have their fondness with intuition. Due to this difference in approach, we find three main modes in Muslim metaphysics i.e. Theology, Philosophy, and Mysticism respectively. The scholars of every age have been discussed all the issues of their time under above three fountainheads according to their own approach, inclination, and field of interest. Although their activities are, revelation based but those are absolutely the result of their own pursuits with in the limit of the human possibility. Therefore, the Muslim metaphysics is not as eternal, everlasting, comprehensive, and universal as there is the Islamic metaphysics by its nature. COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1027

2 Distinctive features of Muslim metaphysics When a person having a faith in Islam (Islamic metaphysics) tries to understand, explain, and elaborate to his belief, creed, faith, according to his own approach, and strives to resolve the issues and problems of his age and makes an effort to meet the challenges of his time that becomes Muslim metaphysics. Because in spite of a divine origin all efforts are by a being and with in human capabilities so, the Muslim metaphysics may be; Changeable Imperfect Criticize able Relative Improvable Difference between Muslim metaphysics and Metaphysics in general All these characteristics illustrate the dynamic nature of the Muslim metaphysics. Allama Dr. Muhammad Iqbal describes to this fact in these words. All lines of Muslim thought converge on a dynamic conception of the universe. (Iqbal, 1989: 110) However, the Muslim metaphysics is different from all other approaches in the following aspects. i. Source of knowledge Revelation is the basic source of knowledge for Muslim metaphysics. Although it utilizes to reason and senses for intellectual enterprises but the fundamental and primary source for it is revelation. We may quote a number of verses of the Holy Quran and the sayings (Hadith) of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W.) ii. iii. in this respect. Nature of the Absolute Reality The basic question for all the metaphysical discussions is about the nature of absolute reality. According to Islam, the Absolute Reality is only one and is spiritual by its very nature. Quran describes it as: Say: He, Allah, is one. Allah is he on Whom all depend. He begets not, nor is He begotten. And none is like Him. (Al- Quran, 112:4) Character of the Absolute Reality The absolute reality is neither a principle nor an idea. He has a direct relation with His entire creature with out any discrimination. Allah Almighty describes to it in these words. We are nearer to him than his life vein. (Al-Quran, 50:16) Specifically He has an I-Thou relationship with human beings. He is not like any person, being, and creation but has a personal link with all His creation. Hazrat Ali (A.S.) explains to this attribute of Tauhid in these words. Praise is due to Allah whose worth cannot be described by speakers, whose bounties cannot be counted by calculators and whose claim (to obedience) cannot be satisfied by those who attempt so, whom the height of intellectual courage cannot appreciate..he is a being but not through phenomenon of coming into being. He exists but not from non-existence. He is with every thing but not in physical nearness. He is different from every thing but not in physical separation. (Ali, 43-44) COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1028

3 iv. Scope There are three main realities in this world: God, man, and universe. Muslim metaphysics discusses about their nature and tries to discover their mutual relationship. Specifically, Existence of God, Attributes of God, Revelation and Reason, Prophetic Consciousness, Faith and Action (eman and amle saleh), Freedom and Responsibility, The Day of Judgment, Resurrection, Reward and Punishment, Creation, Religious language, Human Psyche, and Space and Time are the main problems of Muslim metaphysics. v. Goal It is practical rather than theoretical by its very nature. Quran is the main origin of all metaphysical pursuits for a Muslim. What is basic spirit of all the teachings of Quran? Allama Dr. Muhammad Iqbal describes in these words. Quran is a book which emphasizes deed rather than idea. (Iqbal, 1989: preface) There is no division in spirit and matter or spiritual or material in Islam. Therefore, the main object of Muslim metaphysics is the development of the universe on spiritual basis. Here I once again quote to Allama Dr. Muhammad Iqbal, In Islam the spiritual and the temporal are not two distinct domains Suffice it to say that this ancient mistake arose out of the bifurcation of the unity of man into two distinct and separate realities which somehow have a point of contact, but which are in essence opposed to each other. The truth, however, is that matter is spirit in space-time reference. The unity called man is body when you look at it as acting in regard to what we call the external world; it is mind or soul when you look at it as acting in regard to the ultimate aim and ideal of such acting. (Iqbal, 1989: 122) Development of Muslim metaphysics The metaphysical activities in the intellectual domain of the Muslim world started in three dimensions: Theology, Philosophy, and Mysticism. All three disciplines originated in 2 nd /8 th centuries under different situations and different circumstances. Although they sprang from the same fountainhead but we find remoteness in them in the early age of their cultural career. The ages of Development Muslim metaphysics may be divided into four ages according to their characteristics. The age of independent development The age of cooperation The age of mediatory thinkers Merger of all the springheads COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1029

4 1-The age of independent development We discuss about the beginning and development of theology, philosophy, and mysticism in this age one by one. Theology Muslim theology-definition, subject matter, and scope Discussion about the basic concepts of Islam with in religious text and by religious text is known as Muslim theology. Subject matter of theology may be divided into two parts: Affirmation of faith Defense of faith Methodology The basis of all the theological discussions is on conventional propositions, accepted opinions, and generally accepted principles. Mainly there are two methods have been used in such discussions: Intellectual/Rationalistic Scriptural /Traditional A Muslim theologian applies both the methods in his intellectual endeavors. Therefore, the method of a Muslim theologian is synthetic. Main problems Essence and attributes of God Freedom and determinism Faith and action The use of reason (argumentation)and script (religious text and traditions) for intellectual pursuits (Lahiji, 1399:4 ) Causes of the beginning of theological discussion Brutalities and cruelties of the so-called Muslim rulers The misinterpretation of the rulers of religious text to justify their shameful deeds and sinful acts Debates between the real followers of Islam and the defenders of the shameful acts of the rulers Objections about the basic concepts of Islam by non-muslims Inquiries of the beings who newly accepted Islam Different schools of thought in this age In the first period of Muslim thought, two theological schools emerged on the intellectual horizon of Muslim thought: Mutazailites and Asharites. Prominent features of different theological schools Mutazilites: The founder of this school of thought was Wasil bin Ata (80/688 A.D / 739 A.D.) In the first half of the 8 th Century we find Wasil Ibn Ata---a Persian disciple of the famous theologian Hasan of Basra starting Mutazilaism (Rationalism) that most interesting movement which engaged some of the subtlest minds of Persia, and finally exhausted its force in the keen metaphysical controversies of Baghdad and Basra. (Iqbal, 1964:39) In those days, the freedom of will and determinism were the burning issues in Muslim world. On these issues, two approaches were in current in Muslim world: Jabarites (Determinists) and Qadarites (upholders of Freedom of will). Wasil bin Ata founded his school to meditate these two extreme approaches. The methodology of this school was reason and tradition. Although they were true, muslims but they put their emphasis on reason along COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1030

5 with tradition. In other words, we may say that reason was a primary source in their intellectual endeavors rather than tradition. No doubt, Mutazilizm was a theological movement but it was known as a rationalist movement in religious domain. Rationalism was an attempt to measure reality by reason alone; it implicated the identity of the spheres of religion and philosophy, and strove to express faith in the form of concepts and or terms of pure thought. (Iqbal, 1964:55) Asharism: The founder of this theological school was Abu al Hasan Ali ibn Ismail al Ashari (260/868 A.D.-330/938 A.D.) It was a reaction against the rationalistic theology of Mutazilites. It was a protest against the use of reason in the interpretation of the dogmas of religion. It is recoil from the impossible task of building a system of purely rationalistic theology to reliance upon the word of God (Quran), the tradition (Hadith) and the usage (Sunnah) of Holy Prophet and the pattern of the early community (Salaf). (Saeed: 1974:21) Therefore, the basic importance for Asharism was of tradition and religious text. Asharites also used the reason in their theological debates but that was secondary in importance. The method of Mutazilites was reason and tradition while for Asharites it was tradition and reason. Opposition between a theologian, philosopher, and a mystic in this age In beginning a Muslim theologian, philosopher, and mystic were alien for each other. In this period, we find no link between these three movements. Each was the opponent of other and there was a rivalry among them. Philosophy Muslim philosophy definition, subject matter, and scope Intellectual activities on rational grounds in the guidance of revelation in all walks of life are known as Muslim philosophy. God, man, and universe are the main theme of Muslim philosophy. A philosopher tries to discover their mutual relationship.(sadra,1303:27) Methodology Philosophy depends upon self-evident propositions. The method of a philosopher is inference and argumentation. A philosopher uses both deduction and induction to deduce a conclusion. Main problems A Muslim philosopher deals with all the issues, which are related with God, man and universe, but the main questions of his interest are as under: Rapprochement between Philosophy and Religion Arguments for Divine Existence Creation versus Emanation Nature of Prophetic Consciousness Concept of Human Psyche Reasons of the beginning of philosophical discussions In Quran the emphasis of Allah Almighty on thinking, reasoning, and contemplation A continuous and constant inspiration and encouragement for thinking and contemplation in the sayings (Hadiths) of the Holy Prophet(S.A.W.W.) Harmony between revelation and human psyche In the teachings of Islam a constant encouragement to use reason and sense perception Condemnation of blind faith Rationality and free thinking as essential characteristics of a true Muslim COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1031

6 The acquaintance of knowledge from all fountainheads-a religious obligation of all the followers of Islam (Sharif, 1983:136) The first Philosophical School Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-kindi (186/794 A.D.-260/868 A.D.) was the first Arab philosopher. He is known as the father of Muslim philosophy. He put the foundations of peripatetic philosophy in the Muslim world. As it i obvious from the term peripatetic, the thinkers of this school of thought follow to Aristotle rather than Plato. Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al Razi (250/858A.D-312/920 A.D.) and Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Uzlagh Abu Nasr al Farabi (257/878 A.D.-339/958 A.D.) progressed the Al- Kindi s approach and provided the solid grounds for the better nourishment of peripatetic philosophy in the Muslim world. However, the person who gave the rise to this school of thought was Abu Ali al-husayan ibn Abdullah ibn Sina (370/970 A.D.-428/1036 A.D.). The peripatetic school of thought reached at its peak in the thought of ibn Sina. He was the last thinker of this school of thought. After ibn Sina the decline of this school of thought started and in the end, it lost its way in the intellectual domain of Muslim world forever. Methodology of Peripatetic philosophy Its emphasis was on reason and abstract rationalism was the prominent feature of its methodology. Prominent features of Muslim philosophy in this age The prominent feature of peripatetic philosophy was the harmonization of philosophy with religion. The Muslim thinkers tried to compromise between faith and reason. Mysticism Muslim mysticism-definition, subject matter, and scope A struggle to discover Absolute Reality is known as Muslim mysticism. The subject matter of Muslim mysticism is Absolute Reality. Every thing, which is related to Absolute Reality, is the Absolute scope of Muslim mysticism. Methodology Religious experience through purification of self, meditation, and religious exercises is the methodology of Muslim mysticism. Main problems Discovery of Absolute Reality Union with Absolute Reality The problem of identity along with unity Emergence of a Perfect Being (Lewisohn, 2005:Foreword) Motives of the genesis of mysticism A natural urge in the inner self of a being to get the direct vision of Absolute Reality The emphasis of Islam on absolute servitude to Allah and obedience to his Prophet(S.A.W.W.) A constant and continuous guidance of Holy Prophet (S.A.W.W.) to His followers to develop an unending link with Allah almighty Brutalities of the so-called Muslim dictators Unending ambitions of wealth and lustful attitude of the majority of Muslim society Prominent features of mysticism in this age In this age, mystics were in a state of fear. A fear of hell had surrounded them. They were busy to prevent them from the anger of God. They had engaged them in worship and religious exercises constantly. Therefore, the desire of worship and obedience had comprehended them. The servitude, the worship, the obedience, and fear were the prominent features of Muslim mysticism of this age. (Shaikh Suhrawardi, 1364:2) COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1032

7 Retrospect In this age a Muslim theologian, philosopher, and mystic were alien for each other. We find no link between theology, philosophy, and mysticism in this age. Although their origin was same but every one was working independently in its field. Each was the opponent of other and there was a rivalry among them. Of course, we find an independent development among all in this first era of Muslim thought. 2-The age of criticism, cooperation, and synthesis The first age of Muslim thought had been continued till seventh/ thirteenth centuries. Although in this age, there was a distance between all springheads: theology, philosophy, and mysticism apparently but we find a meaningful link in them also. This link, relation, or cooperation was of twofold. First direction of this link was internal i.e. commonality in problems and harmony in methodology in some renowned thinkers. Secondly, some thinkers appeared on the intellectual horizon of Muslim world who contributed to open the common avenues in different disciplines and set the foundations of new schools of thought. Now we present a brief introduction of that twofold activity. A-An internal link with in theology, philosophy, and mysticism (Commonality in problems and harmony in methodology) Commonalty of methodology-abstract Rationalism of Peripatetic philosophy and Rationalism of Mutazilites (Theology) Inclination of Al-Kindi (first peripatetic philosopher and founder of the peripatetic school in Muslim world) towards Mutazilites Mutazilites started their discussions from Faith but gradually they accumulated metaphysical discussions in their scope Inclination of Ibn e Sina (the biggest first and the last of peripatetic philosophy) towards mysticism at the peek of his intellectual life-we may divide to Ibn e Sina s philosophy into two kinds: a) Peripatetic philosophy-in this field his major work is: Al-Shifa, Ayyun al Hikam, Nijat, Al-Isharat etc. b) Oriental philosophy-in oriental philosophy he wrote under the topics: Risala tu fil Ishq, Hayye ibn e Yaqzan, Risala tu al Tuair, Slaman wal Absal, Mantiq al Mashriqain, and last three chapters of Al-Isharat. ( In this way Ibn e Sina opened a fresh avenue of reconciliation between Philosophy and Mysticism) In the beginning, a mystic was busy to gain spiritual delights in solitary. However, with the passage of time in 3 rd /9 th, 4 th / 10 th, and 5 th /11 th centuries we find inclusion of philosophical and metaphysical problems in their discussions and writings. The process of change in the subject matter of mysticism started with Maruf Kakhi (a mystic of 2 nd / 8 th and 3 rd / 9 th centuries) who said mysticism means the ratiocination of Haqaiq e Rabbani ( gnosis of Real and of realities related to Him). In 3 rd / 9 th centuries Shatihat (sayings of a mystic which apparently seem opposite to religion) of Bayazid in which he described his experience of union with Truth (Absolute Reality) is an open example of transformation of a mystic s approach from pure ascetic solitary to metaphysical Understanding of universe. In 3 rd / 9 th century, Zunnoon Misri expedited this process by using symbolic and allegorical language in his writings. In 3 rd century, Mansor Hallaj disclosed his mystical experience in the words: I am the creative truth. Although he was hanged by, religious orthodoxy but he materialized his Gnostic experience and in this way stepped forward in the ratiocination of mystical experience. In 4 th / 10 th century, Shibli developed the all above steps as a specific language for mystical discourses. In 4 th century, some mystics wrote some COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1033

8 important books in mysticism on this pattern i.e. Quwwa tul Qoloob of Abu Talib Makki and Al-Lumma of Abu Nasr Siraj Tusi etc. In 5 th / 11 th century Abu al Hassan Ali bin Usman Hajwari wrote Kashf al Mahjob and advanced the movement. In this way, a commonality in method (in some respects) and harmony in subject matter of philosophy and mysticism emerged. B-Independent thinkers and movements Ikhwan-al-Safa In the end of 4 th /11 th century, some thinkers and scientists founded a movement under the name Ikhwan-al-Safa. They started their intellectual activities silently. Their movement was underground. Their main object was to establish harmony between religion, philosophy, and science. They were well aware about all religious traditions, philosophies, and movements. They contributed in the fields of metaphysics, religion, politics, ethics, and science. In this way, they tried to provide a common ground for all the disciplines like philosophy, theology, and mysticism. (Routledge, 2000:382) Khawaja Nasir al Din Tusi (595/ /1280) He was a well-known theologian, philosopher, mathematician, and jurist of 6 th /12 th and 7 th /13 th centuries of the Muslim world. He wrote a number of books on different topics but his most renowned work is under the topic Tajreed al Aqaed. This book is on theology. The most prominent features of this book are as under: Transformation of theological method into rational method The use of rational and demonstrative method in theological issues rather than dialectical method (before Tusi the method of theology was only dialectical) Inclusion of philosophical issues in theological discussions A venerable commentary on Ibn e Sina s valueable book Al Isharat (thus he defended Ibn e Sina s philosophy against the attacks of Ghazali) In this way, Tusi provided a ground for rapprochement between philosophy and theology and set the foundations to engulf the difference between these two disciplines. (Routledge,2000:903) Shaikh al Ishraq Shahab al Din Suhrawardi (548/ /1194) Suhrawardi is one of the most eminent thinkers of the Muslim world. He was of thirty-eight years only when the grouping of Muslim rulers and religious orthodoxy snatched his life. They hanged him in the punishment of his independent thinking. He developed a remarkable philosophical system under the Hikmat al Ishraq. Prominent features of his philosophical system are: Use of intuition along with reason as a source of knowledge Inclusion of all positive elements of: ancient Persian philosophy (specifically of Zoroastrianism), Greek philosophy (particularly Plato s thought), Peripatetic philosophy, Muslim mysticism, Quran and Hadith Classification of system as Hikmat rather than philosophy In this manner, he developed a link between Muslim philosophy and Muslim mysticism. He drew nearer philosophy with mysticism. Thus, his philosophical mediated between philosophy and mysticism. (Al-Ishraq, 1562: 5) COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1034

9 Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn al-arabi al-tai al-hatimi (560/ /1246) One of the most distinguished mystics of the Muslim world is Shaikh e Akbar Mohayy al Din ibn al Arabi. He wrote a number of books but Fusus al-hikam (Gems of Wisdom), and Futuhat-e Makkia, (Victories of Makka) are the most important in this field. In these books Shaikh has described his religious experiences, basis of mysticism, and metaphysics of mysticism. Ibn al Arabi divided mysticism into two parts: practical mysticism and theoretical mysticism. Before Ibn al Arabi mysticism was single dimensional. He introduced the theoretical aspect in mysticism along with metaphysical discussions and issues. Thus, metaphysical problems and discussions also became a permanent part of Muslim mystical tradition. Therefore, Ibn al Arabi developed a solid link between mysticism and philosophy. (Mutahri, 1362:657) 3-The age of mediatory thinkers In theology Tusi, in philosophy Al-Ishraqi, and in mysticism Ibn al Arabi opened the new avenues of cooperation. This era of bringing near started from 6 th /12 th century and continued until 10 th / 16 th centuries. This age was consisted of near about more than two centuries and a half. In these centuries, a number of theologians, philosophers, and mystics appeared on the horizon of Muslim metaphysics. Mostly they were expert in all disciplines with sufficient knowledge. Thus, they preceded the mediatory process through their discussions, writings and wisdom poetry between theology, philosophy, and mysticism gradually until the emergence of Mulla Sadra. Therefore, they provided a ground for the development of a balanced, coherent, and multidimensional metaphysical tradition. 4-Merger of all the springheads-theology, Philosophy, and Mysticism in the form of a single stream Mulla Sadra (Sadr Al-Din Muhammad Al-Shirazi-963/ /1659) a unique theologian, the great philosopher, an authentic jurist, and a well mystic of his age gathered all the traditions of knowledge in his philosophical system. He called his system Hikmat e Mutaalia (metaphilosophy). His philosophical system is both creative and synthetic. Basic constituents of his system Theology Peripatetic Philosophy Hikmat al Ishraq Mysticism Teachings of Islam (Nasr, 2002:637-39) Contribution of Mulla Sadra 1- The coldness between theology, philosophy, and mysticism came into end and all lines of thought converged into a single stream. 2- In his philosophical system, mysticism and philosophy settled on their jobs i.e. discovery held for mysticism while judgment of the findings of religious experience (of discovery) became the responsibility of philosophy. 3- The real soul of Muslim metaphysics appeared in his thought i.e. a live relationship between Muslim metaphysics and the physical world or a relationship between theory and action. 4- Mulla Sadra broke barriers set up by orthodoxy of medieval ages and opened the new avenues for exchange of knowledge between East and West. 5- He used the Quranic term Hikmah for his philosophical system rather than theology, philosophy, or mysticism. We may divide all the branches of knowledge under the term Hikmah as: COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1035

10 Hikmat e Jadli-Dialectical Wisdom or Theology, Hikmat e Burhani-Discursive Wisdom or Philosophy, Hikmat e Zauqi-Intuitive Wisdom or Mysticism, Hikmat etujrbi-impirical Wisdom or Science. Conclusion Muslim metaphysical tradition has its own specific order. It is live and dynamic. There is a beautiful confluence of all the approaches in it. It has an ability to meet the challenges of time and bears an evolutionary temperament in all respects. It is balanced by its nature and enriches to itself from all sources of knowledge. COPY RIGHT 2012 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1036

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