Arguments for the existence of God

Transcription

1 Arguments for the existence for of God the existence of God Arguments for the existence of God Arguments for God s existence have a long history in the Roman Catholic Church. A strong Catholic Christian tradition says that believers should use their God-given ability to reason in order to seek a deeper understanding of God. This idea of faith seeking understanding led medieval Catholic thinkers to develop arguments for God s existence to support their belief in God. The arguments from design and cosmology that you will cover in this chapter came out of this tradition. They suggest that evidence of God s existence can be found in nature and from the fact that the world exists at all. These arguments are frequently challenged, especially by people who think that because cruelty and suffering exist, there cannot be a loving God at all. Many Catholics believe that religious experiences such as visions of God or the saints are revelations from God himself. These have great personal significance for people who experience them. Modern Catholics disagree about whether these experiences and other miraculous happenings, either in the Bible or in the modern world, point to God s existence. Catholics believe that the most important way in which God reveals himself is through Jesus Christ, who came to earth to bring about the completion of God s revelation to humanity. According to the New Testament, Christ is the image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15) and therefore if we want to know what God is like, we should learn what Jesus is like. For all Christians, the sacred writings of the Bible are a main source of this revelation. Catholics believe that God inspired the Bible s authors to record the truth about the story of God s relationship with humanity. The life and teachings of Jesus in the New Testament are the last chapter in this story and support Catholics belief in a loving God. Figure 1.1 Why might people believe that this shows evidence of God s existence? 2

2 Learning objectives: In this chapter you will find out about: how Catholics believe God s existence and God s plans for the world are revealed to humanity the nature of religious visions and miracles as revelations from God the significance of different types of revelation today how different types of revelation may or may not be interpreted as evidence for God s existence why the problem of evil and suffering can be used to reject the idea of God s existence. Check point Recall Before starting this chapter you should remember that: for Catholics, as for all Christians, the Bible is the revealed word of God Catholics believe that Jesus Christ completes God s revelation, disclosing the nature of God other forms of revelation include visions, miracles and evidence of God s creative design in nature Catholics believe that God is present in all his creations Some experiences make it difficult to understand God, such as suffering, but Catholics try to use their experiences and reason to better understand God. Look ahead In other chapters you will find out: Catholic forms of expression (Chapter 4) Catholic teachings on marriage, sexual relationships and families, including different responses to these teachings and non-religious and personal attitudes to them (Chapter 6). 3

3 Arguments for the existence of God 5.1 Revelation Learning objectives: To discover what types of divine revelation there are. To understand how, for Catholics, Jesus Christ completes what God wants to reveal to human beings. To find out what Catholics believe Jesus Christ reveals about the nature of God. To understand what significance these beliefs have for Catholics today. To explore why Catholics believe that the revelation of Jesus Christ proves the existence of God. Types of revelation Revelation is revealing knowledge that would otherwise be hidden. Although God is invisible, Catholics believe that evidence of God can be discovered by human beings. The two major ways God can be known are sometimes referred to as general revelation and special revelation. General revelation is sometimes known as natural theology, and Catholics believe that this can be discovered in the world around us. The imprint of God s creative nature on the world can be discovered using people s ordinary powers of observation and their ability to reason. Special revelation is sometimes called direct revelation because through it God is believed to deliberately reveal knowledge about himself and his plans. Christians believe that the Old Testament prophets received their mission to guide God s people directly from God or through his angelic messengers. Later, the Virgin Mary received God s message through the Angel Gabriel telling her that she would give birth to God s son, Jesus Christ. For all Christians, the central and final revelation of God s nature and God s will is Jesus Christ himself, who is both God and human. He is the Son of God and so, as Jesus himself claimed, whoever has seen Jesus has seen the Father (John 14:9). All Christians rely on the Bible as a primary source of knowledge and understanding about Jesus Christ and about God. Catholics recognise three major sources through which Jesus reveals God: Figure 5.2 Jesus divine nature is revealed to his disciples the Bible the official doctrines (teachings) of the Catholic Church that have been handed down in the Catholic tradition and interpret Jesus Christ for human beings the sacraments of the Catholic Church, in which Jesus Christ is believed to be directly present. 4

4 The nature Revelation of God Divine qualities omnipotence and omnibenevolence omniscience creative power perfect goodness judge of all people Examples where Jesus shows these curing the sick, walking on water (Matthew 14) rising from the dead after sacrificing himself on the cross (John 20) the ability to foretell precise details of his own death (Matthew 16), including who would betray him (John 13:11) turning five loaves and five fish into enough food to feed a large and hungry crowd (Mark 6:32 44) Jesus is said to have been tempted in every way, just as we are yet was without sin (Hebrews 4:15) the parable of the sheep and the goats (Matthew 25) tells of Jesus return to earth to hold each person to account for their behaviour. He invites people who looked after the disadvantaged into heaven and banishes those who ignored them to hell Other types of special revelation include the example of holy people who, like Jesus, reveal the nature of God in their lives, and religious experiences like visions and miracles. Jesus and the nature of God Christians recognise that God s nature and purposes are a mystery that even Jesus cannot completely reveal. Jesus had human limitations, such as the need to eat and a body that could be crucified and killed. However, the Bible suggests that Jesus can demonstrate what God is like, because he is both divine and human. Many Christians believe that Jesus behaviour reveals a divine nature, which they see as proof that God exists. The significance of Jesus for Catholics today Like other Christians, Catholics see biblical accounts of Jesus compassion and forgiveness as a model for their own behaviour. Jesus commands to love one another and to practise fairness and compassion (Luke 4) lead many Catholics to help make a better life for vulnerable people such as refugees, and to work for peace and justice in the world. Catholics believe that the magisterium has the authority to interpret Jesus teachings for the modern age. While some Catholics feel that the Church needs to be more forward-thinking, they accept the Pope s authority to teach in Jesus name, and official Catholic teaching is still relevant to the way they try to live. Catholics believe that when they receive the sacraments of the Catholic Church, they experience a spiritual meeting with the risen Jesus through the priest. The central sacrament received by Catholics is the Eucharist, but they value all the sacraments as revelations of God and medicine for the soul. Activities 1 Make a list of five characteristics you would expect God to have. 2 Write a short paragraph to answer the question, How does reading about Jesus in the Bible help Catholics to believe in God? 3 Make up a question for each of the following five answers, then compare your questions with the person next to you: special revelation; general revelation; sacrament; natural theology; doctrine. Exam-style question Outline three key Catholic beliefs about revelation. (3 marks) In the past God spoke to our ancestors through the prophets at many times and in various ways, but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son, whom he appointed heir of all things, and through whom also he made the universe. The Son is the radiance of God s glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by his powerful word. (Hebrews 1:1 3, New Testament) 5

5 Arguments for the existence of God [In the Sacrament of Penance] Jesus receives us with all of our limitations, He brings us the mercy of the Father who forgives us, and transforms our heart, rendering it a new heart, capable of loving Him, who loved His own to the end. (Pope Francis, 1 July 2013) Exam tip Try to learn some actual examples of revelation through Jesus Christ that support belief in God. Extend your knowledge Can you remember? What does each of the seven sacraments reveal about Jesus Christ and the nature of God? What is the magisterium and where does its authority come from? Why do Catholics believe that the nature of God is revealed by Jesus Christ? Look up the stories of Jesus and the storm (Mark 4:35 41) and of Jairus daughter (Mark 5:35 43). In what way might these two stories help Catholics to understand the nature of God? Summary There are two major types of revelation: general revelation and special revelation. Christians believe that special revelation happens when God deliberately decides to reveal some knowledge about himself to human beings. The ultimate revelation of God to human beings is Jesus Christ, who shows what God is like. Catholics believe that this revelation comes to them through the stories of Jesus life and teachings in the Bible, through the traditional doctrines of the Catholic Church and through the sacraments. Check point Strengthen S1 Where do Catholics get their beliefs about revelation from? S2 What do you think the Bible quotations in the box are saying about Jesus? S3 Why don t Catholics use the Bible alone to find out about God? Extend E1 How does the revelation of God through Jesus relate to the sacraments? E2 What can you learn about the nature of God from Pope Francis statement about the sacrament of reconciliation in the box for this topic? E3 Why might some Christians disagree with Catholic beliefs about revelation? 6

6 The nature Visions of God 5.2 Visions Learning objectives: To understand what a vision is and what the main characteristics of visions are. To explore the types of visions people experience. To discover examples of visions in the Bible. To identify examples of visions after the Bible, including those of Joan of Arc. To understand what visions reveal to Catholics about the nature of God. To recognise why visions might lead to belief in God or be rejected as evidence for God s existence. Types of visions There are two main types of visions: corporeal visions and imaginative visions. Corporeal visions are bodily visions with a physical appearance that are only visible to the people receiving them. They occur within the physical surroundings of the visionary while they are awake. Visions of saints, Mary or Jesus have been the most common corporeal visions since biblical times. These are often called apparitions because the people in the visions are no longer physical beings Figure 5.3 The Annunciation: Mary s vision of the Angel Gabriel The main features of visions Visions are personal, vivid, visual revelations in which someone, or occasionally a group of people, sees a person, place or event in a way that is completely different from everyday life. Visions bring an audible message or a new internal insight. Visions may have a big impact on the life of the visionary (the person receiving the vision). In the book of Genesis, Abraham's vision gave him complete faith that God would make him the father of a whole nation. Visionaries may take the message to others, or become religious or even convert to a new religion. Visions can involve seeing a bright light, an angel, the Virgin Mary or even Jesus. Some visions include hearing the voice of God. Visionaries can usually describe their experience clearly and are convinced they are real. Christian visionaries usually believe their vision is from God. So Peter was kept in prison, but the church was earnestly praying to God for him. The night before Herod was to bring him to trial, Peter was sleeping between two soldiers, bound with two chains, and sentries stood guard at the entrance. Suddenly an angel of the Lord appeared and a light shone in the cell. He struck Peter on the side and woke him up. Quick, get up! he said, and the chains fell off Peter s wrists. Then the angel said to him, Put on your clothes and sandals. And Peter did so. Wrap your cloak round you and follow me, the angel told him. Peter followed him out of the prison, but he had no idea that what the angel was doing was really happening; he thought he was seeing a vision. (Acts 12:5 10, New Testament) After this, the word of the Lord came to Abram in a vision: Do not be afraid, Abram. I am your shield, your very great reward. (Genesis 15:1) 7

7 Arguments for the existence of God living on earth. These visions are often of angels who are spiritual beings that appear in human form and are sent directly as messengers from God. In the Bible, visions were a common way for God to communicate with the Old Testament prophets, and some of these were corporeal visions. A good example in the New Testament is St Peter s dramatic escape from prison. Imaginative visions usually occur during dreams. There are many instances of these in both the Old and New Testaments. Three good examples are: Jacob s dream of a ladder reaching up to heaven with God standing at the top with a message for him (Genesis 28) the angel in Joseph s dream who tells him to go to Egypt with Mary and the young Jesus to escape from King Herod (Matthew 2) the extended visions in the Book of Revelation in the New Testament, including visions of Christ returning to earth to judge humanity and visions of heaven. The visions of Joan of Arc The visions of Joan of Arc are an important example of corporeal visions because they were particularly vivid, took place over a period of time and had an enormous impact on her life and on the fortunes of France in the Hundred Years War with the English. They are also a good example of how medieval visions may still be respected by Catholics today. St Joan is the patron saint of France and is a popular saint in many countries. Figure 5.4 Statue of St Joan experiencing a vision outside the Basilica of Joan of Arc near Domrémy, France Exam-style question Outline three key features of visions. (3 marks) Exam tip Learn the arguments for and against visions being used to prove God s existence. Joan of Arc was born in Domrémy, France, in 1412 and brought up as a Catholic. At the age of 12 she began having visions of Saints Michael, Margaret and Catherine. These happened frequently until she was 17. Traditionally, St Michael is believed to lead God s fight against evil; he was thought of as the protector of France. Saints Catherine and Margaret were martyrs. These apparitions spoke directly to Joan. They prepared the uneducated girl to become a warrior who went on to help recapture several French cities from the English. The visions even foretold her death. Joan was eventually captured by the English. They refused to believe that her visions came from God and declared her to be a witch. At the age of 19 she was burnt at the stake as a heretic. In 1456, the Pope declared Joan an innocent martyr and in 1920 she was officially accepted as a saint. More recent visions Some more recent visions have been recognised as authentic (genuine) by the Catholic Church, including visions at Fatima, Portugal, and Lourdes, France, in the early 20th century. There were also visions of the Virgin Mary to a group of teenagers at Medjugorje, Bosnia, in the late 20th century. Medjugorje is a popular place of pilgrimage for Catholics, but these visions are not accepted by the Catholic Church. What visions reveal to Catholics about God s nature For people who experience them and those who believe the messages they bring, visions demonstrate God s nature. Many visions describe a personal God who is concerned about individual human behaviour. Visions and the places where they happen are often associated with spiritual and physical healing, suggesting a powerful but compassionate God. Visions point to 8

8 Visions a powerful creator who can alter the physical world effortlessly. However, some visions, such as those at Fatima with their warnings of hell, suggest that God is a stern judge if people refuse to listen to his messages. Why visions might or might not lead to belief in God Visions almost always strengthen belief in God in those who receive them. They often cause people to alter their lives and to work for the good of others. This in turn may persuade those around them to believe more strongly in God themselves. The visions may increase faith in God in the wider world if miracles happen where the vision occurred, or when people pray to the person who saw the vision. Many miracles were credited to St Joan before the Catholic Church finally accepted her as a saint. However, visions may not lead to a belief in God for people who think that they are the result of an overactive imagination. The medieval visionary St Teresa of Avila told people to be cautious about accepting visions for exactly this reason. Visions of Mary and the saints are rejected by many Protestants as unnecessary because they believe that Jesus is the only 'mediator' between humanity and God. Also, visions may not be convincing because they are not seen by other people. Scientists can produce visions using drugs, and mental illness can cause people to see visions and hear voices that they believe come from God. Summary Visions are religious experiences where someone sees God, an angel or a holy person in a way that is different from day-to-day visual experiences. There are two main types of vision: corporeal visions and imaginative visions. The Bible contains examples of both kinds, and people still have visions today. Catholics believe that God s revelation was completed with the coming of Jesus Christ. Visions help some people to believe in God and learn more about God s nature, while others reject them as hallucinations or products of the imagination. Activities 1 Explain the main difference between corporeal and imaginative visions. 2 Make a glossary of terms used in this topic. 3 In groups, discuss how visions might or might not support the idea that there is a God. Make a chart to compare your findings. When the wise men had gone an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream. Get up, he said, take the child and his mother and escape to Egypt. Stay there until I tell you, for Herod is going to search for the child to kill him. (Matthew 2:13 15, New Testament) Can you remember? Which type of vision usually happens in a dream? What are the characteristics of God? What events happen in the Paschal Mystery? Check point Strengthen S1 Where do Catholics find examples of visions that the Catholic Church accepts as authentic? S2 Why do you think so many visions are described in the Bible? S3 Why doesn t the Catholic Church accept all the visions that people claim have come from God? Extend E1 The Catholic Church teaches that all revelation is completed by Jesus Christ, so why does it still accept visions that happen so long after the time of Jesus? E2 What can you learn about the nature of God from the passage quoted in the box? E3 Why might people disagree with Catholic teaching on visions? 9

9 Arguments for the existence of God 5.3 Miracles Learning objectives: To identify the main characteristics of miracles. To discover examples of miracles in the Bible. To identify miracles that have happened since the Bible was written, including the miracles at Lourdes. To explain the importance of miracles and what miracles reveal to Catholics about the nature of God. To explore why miracles can lead to belief in God and may be used as proof of God s existence. To consider why miracles might be rejected as evidence for God s existence. The nature of miracles The word miracle usually describes an unexpected event or coincidence. However, for Catholics, miracles are events with no scientific explanation that point to God s interference in the laws of nature. Jesus incarnation and resurrection are the greatest examples of these. Types of miracle in the Bible All miracles defy natural physical laws, but they can be divided into two major types: Nature miracles, where the forces of nature are overcome on a grand scale. Old Testament miracles like the parting of the Red Sea (Exodus 14:21) to allow the Israelites to escape from Egypt, or the sun halting in the sky for Joshua to finish a battle (Joshua 10:13 14), are good examples. Figure 5.5 The parting of the Red Sea Healing miracles, which bring seemingly impossible physical cures and accompanying spiritual healing. The New Testament records many healing miracles performed by Jesus and his disciples. All four gospels contain examples of both nature and healing miracles. For Christians, the most important miracles are those performed by Jesus, who possesses divine power as God s son. Can you remember? What is a vision? What are the four marks of the Church? Why is Salvation important to Catholics? In John s Gospel, miracles are called signs because they show God s control over nature (John 4:48) and encourage belief. Other gospel writers call them works of great power. The first sign in John s Gospel is a nature miracle The sun stopped in the middle of the sky and delayed going down about a full day. There has never been a day like it before or since, a day when the LORD listened to a human being. (Joshua 10:13 14, Old Testament) 10

10 Miracles where Jesus changes water into wine at a wedding feast. Miracles like this identify Jesus as God s divine son. However, some Christians think they are stories describing God s power rather than real events. Jesus healing miracles included the healing of a blind man at Bethsaida (Mark 8:22-26), as well as the raising of Lazarus (John 11) and Jairus daughter (Luke 8) from the dead. The faith of the person being healed or of their loved ones is always important in the story. Unless you people see signs and wonders, Jesus told him, you will never believe. (John 4:48, New Testament) They came to Bethsaida, and some people brought a blind man and begged Jesus to touch him. He took the blind man by the hand and led him outside the village. When he had spit on the man s eyes and put his hands on him, Jesus asked, Do you see anything? He looked up and said, I see people; they look like trees walking around. Once more Jesus put his hands on the man s eyes. Then his eyes were opened, his sight was restored, and he saw everything clearly. Jesus sent him home, saying, Don t even go into the village. (Mark 8:22-26) Miracles after the Bible There has been much debate about whether miracles ended with the completion of the Bible. Some Christians reject reports of more recent miracles, but the Catholic Church accepts that God uses miracles to show that a holy person is a saint. Saints are often associated with miraculous cures, and places where this has happened have become sites of Catholic pilgrimage. The miracles at Lourdes The place associated with the greatest number of miracles recognised by the Catholic Church is Lourdes, France. Incurably ill people go there to pray for a miraculous cure where Mary, the mother of Jesus, is believed to have appeared to Bernadette Soubirous in In the same year, Catherine Latapie was cured of paralysis after drinking from a spring that emerged where Mary had appeared. Since then, around 7,000 possible miracles have been recorded at Lourdes; sixty-nine of them have been officially recognised by the Catholic Church, most recently in Every potential miracle is investigated by a team of doctors. They decide whether the person had an incurable condition and whether they have undergone a complete, inexplicable cure. When Church officials are confident the doctors have excluded all the possible medical and natural explanations, they announce that a miracle has taken place. What miracles reveal to Catholics about the nature of God Catholics believe that Jesus' miracles are revelations of God s absolute power and love. They reassure believers of God s goodness and mercy. Jesus resisted the temptation to abuse God s power (Matthew 4:8), using it instead to heal. This points to an all-loving, immanent and personal God who is concerned with people s lives and responds to their prayers. Modern miracles are personal revelations that remind them of God's continued presence and compassion. However, some Catholics think that modern miracles favour a few people. This calls God's justice into question because many people who pray for an end to terrible suffering receive no answer. Therefore they think that believing in these miracles undermines their faith in a loving God and so they reject them. Why miracles might or might not lead to belief in God Catholics may argue that miracles provide good reasons to believe in God. Miracles are rare, but sites like Lourdes show that they aren t just tales from the past. Miracles aren t just personal experiences. The Catholic Church sees the miracles of Christ and the saints as calls to faith and one of the most certain signs and external proofs of divine revelation (CCC 156). However, some Christians emphasise the transcendence of God and suggest that the only miracles necessary to belief are the incarnation and resurrection of Jesus. They believe that claims to modern miracles simply distract attention away from worshipping God directly. Some Protestant groups believe that miracles after biblical times are the work of the Devil. Many non-religious and atheist groups claim that miracles offer no proof of God s existence because: 11

11 Arguments for the existence of God Activities 1 Outline the two main types of miracles explained above. 2 Draw a diagram to show examples of nature miracles and healing miracles in the Bible. 3 In groups, write a short play to show how the Catholic Church goes about investigating the miracles at Lourdes. You could choose the best play and act it out in class. Exam-style question Explain two reasons why Catholics may believe that miracles still happen today. (4 marks) Exam tip Support your explanation with examples. Make sure you know the difference between biblical miracles and miracles in Catholic tradition. If the exam asks about miracles today, don t use examples from the Bible. there can never be sufficient proof that miracles break natural physical laws witnesses to miracles are often uneducated, vulnerable people who are easily convinced. The Catholic Church may respond that the existence of miracles is beyond reasonable doubt. Investigators at Lourdes use objective methods (based on facts) and include theologians, scientists and atheists. Catholics may also believe that the rarity of miracles is not unjust. Miracles do not prevent someone s eventual death, but bring faith and hope in God s plan for an end to suffering. Extend your knowledge [Miracles ] essential purpose is to indicate that the human person is destined and called to the kingdom of God. These signs therefore confirm in different ages and in the most varied circumstances the truth of the Gospel, and demonstrate the saving power of Christ who does not cease to call people (through the Church) on the path of faith. (Pope John Paul II, General Audience, 13 January 1988) Read the passage above. Why do you think Pope John Paul II thought that miracles should help Catholics to believe in Jesus message of salvation? Summary Miracles are seemingly impossible events that have no scientific explanation. For Catholics, they point to interference in the laws of nature by God. In nature miracles, the forces of nature are overcome on a grand scale. Healing miracles are personal physical cures for incurable conditions that also bring about spiritual healing. Catholics believe that miracles show God s omnipotence, omnibenevolence, immanence and mercy. The Catholic Church accepts that miracles are sent by God to help people believe that Jesus Christ is both God and saviour. Atheists say it isn t possible to prove conclusively that a miracle has broken the laws of nature Check point Strengthen S1 Why might people visit sites like Lourdes where miracles are believed to have taken place? S2 What do you think is the main purpose of the miracles in the Bible? S3 Why do you think miracles are still important in Catholicism today? Extend E1 Why do you think the Catholic Church goes to such lengths to test the authenticity of miracles? E2 Why might some Catholics find the idea of miracles reassuring even though they have never experienced one? E3 Why might some Catholics reject a belief in modern miracles, but accept the miracles of Jesus in the Bible? 12

12 Religious The nature experiences of God 5.4 Religious experiences Learning objectives: To discover what a religious experience is. To explore what the Catholic Church teaches about religious experiences. To consider why religious experiences might not be believed to be revelation. To understand why some people might reject religious experiences as proof of God s existence. To consider some alternative explanations for religious experiences and Catholic responses to these. The nature of religious experiences Religious experiences are events where people believe they have come into direct contact with God. These always have deep significance for the people who experience them. Religious experiences are common in the Bible, and several types have been reported in the modern world. These include: visions miracles conversion experiences, like the example of the US neurosurgeon (brain surgeon) Eban Alexander, who became a Christian after a series of near-death experiences during a coma. He has written several books offering scientific support for his visions of heaven less dramatic experiences, which can happen during prayer when someone feels a strong presence of God or a sense that God is guiding them numinous experiences, where people experience the presence of God in the awe and wonder they feel at the beauty of creation, like a star-filled night sky or a sunset. The Catholic Church and religious experiences In the section on revelation you learnt that Catholics believe Jesus Christ to be God s final revelation to humanity: the divine word of God in person. He reveals everything God wants human beings to know about himself and his plans for the world. This is why the Catechism of the Catholic Church states that there will be no other word than this one (CCC 65). This means that any visions, miracles or other religious experiences revealed to individuals after the Bible are unnecessary for a belief in God there is nothing that hasn t already been made plain by Jesus. The Catechism suggests that Figure 5.6 The 'God helmet' uses fluctuating magnetic fields to elicit religious experiences the Catholic Church must keep working on understanding the meaning of revelation. Catholics should ignore messages that don t agree with Church teachings, and reject religious experiences that go beyond or correct the Revelation of which Christ is the fulfilment (CCC 66). However, the magisterium does recognise that God may help people to understand his individual will for them through private revelations. It sees the purpose of religious experiences as helping people to accept and follow Jesus teachings more fully in a certain period of history (CCC 67). Where private experiences bring messages for the wider world, the Catholic Church has put in place a long official process to test their authenticity. If they pass these tests, the person having them may be declared a saint, and places associated with their visions may become official places of pilgrimage. 13

13 Arguments for the existence of God no new public revelation is to be expected before the glorious manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ. Yet even if Revelation is already complete, it has not been made completely explicit; it remains for Christian faith gradually to grasp its full significance over the course of the centuries. (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 66) Activities 1 Revise what Topic 1 of this chapter says about Jesus Christ as God s final revelation, then explain what it says in your own words. 2 Read the quotation in the box on this page and rewrite it in your own words. 3 In pairs, discuss what you think are the strongest reasons for and against religious experiences as proof for God s existence. Explain which side of the argument you support and why. Exam-style question Give two reasons why Catholics might not regard religious experiences as revelation. (4 marks) Exam tip Make sure you understand why Catholics do not accept religious experiences as revelation, and that you can explain the main reasons for this. Many Catholics flock to places where they believe visions and miracles have occurred, long before the Church officially recognises them, and even when the Church has declared that the experiences in question aren t from God at all. The visions at Medjugorje, Bosnia, are a good example of this: the local bishop ruled that the visions were either a hoax or imaginary, but thousands of Catholics visit Medjugorje and believe that God has spoken there through visions of Mary. Why religious experiences may or may not be regarded as proof of God s existence Most philosophers have abandoned the formal argument that religious experiences prove God's existence conclusively. However, the modern philosopher Richard Swinburne argues that religious experiences increase the probability of God's existence for two reasons: firstly, it makes logical sense that unless someone is drunk or ill what they report has probably happened, and secondly most people tell the truth. There are several criticisms of this argument which suggest that such experiences may not be counted as revelation or provide proof of God s existence: Lack of evidence: religious experiences are subjective (unique to an individual) and are rarely seen or heard by others. Deception: people may fake these experiences to draw attention to themselves. Suggestion and illusion: a person may have a vivid imagination and experience a waking dream, or they may even have a mental-health problem that causes them to see visions and hear voices. Coincidence: miracles may be the result of a series of coincidences. Natural explanations: someone who believes they have been miraculously cured of cancer may just be experiencing a natural remission (temporary improvement) in their disease. You have already learnt that the Catholic Church denies that religious experiences are revelation because they are unnecessary for a belief in God and cannot add anything to knowledge of God. Even so it may also claim that there is evidence to support some of these experiences in the shape of the miracles that result from them. Scientific explanations for religious experiences None of the explanations above disprove religious experiences, but they may provide alternative reasons for them, which may make people doubt that they are from God. Some findings in neuroscience (the study of the brain) offer explanations of religious experiences. Magnetic stimulation of the brain has produced mild feelings of a presence in some people, and drugs called hallucinogens like the anaesthetic ketamine and stimulants like cannabis have produced visions that seem identical to religious experiences. Recent studies of a drug called psilocybin, found in some mushrooms, showed that many people experienced life-changing mystical experiences after taking it. One interpretation of this last finding is that these experiences are produced by the brain. Some may say that this drug can open the mind to genuine experiences of God. 14

14 Religious The nature experiences of God Do not quench the Spirit. Do not despise the words of prophets, but test everything; hold fast to what is good. (1 Thessalonians 5:19 21, New Testament) As he neared Damascus on his journey, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. He fell to the ground and heard a voice say to him, Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? Who are you, Lord? Saul asked I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting, he replied. Now get up and go into the city, and you will be told what you must do. The men travelling with Saul stood there speechless; they heard the sound but did not see anyone. Saul got up from the ground, but when he opened his eyes he could see nothing. (Acts 9, New Testament) Extend your knowledge Read the whole story of Saul s conversion in Acts Chapter 9 in the New Testament. What difference did his religious experience make in Saul s life? Summary Religious experiences include visions, miracles, conversion experiences and numinous experiences. Religious experiences are classed as private revelations by the Catholic Church and not as public revelation, as this was completed in the acts and teachings of Jesus Christ. Religious experiences may be accepted by Catholics as genuine and from God after a long period of scientific investigation. Catholics are encouraged to visit pilgrimage sites, as this may strengthen their faith in God. People might reject religious experiences as evidence for God s existence because of a lack of evidence, because similar experiences can be produced by drugs and because there may be natural explanations. Check point Strengthen S1 Where can Catholics find Church teaching about religious experiences? S2 Why do you think the Catholic Church is cautious about accepting reports of visions and miracles? S3 Why might people disagree with Catholic teaching on private revelations? Extend E1 Why do you think the Catholic Church does not ban Catholics from worshipping at places that have not been approved as sites of pilgrimage? E2 What can you learn about Catholic teaching on religious experience from the Bible quotations in the box? E3 In what ways could the results of studies on drugs and religious experience support a belief in God? 15

15 Arguments for the existence of God 5.5 The design argument Learning objectives: To understand the structure of the design argument for God s existence. To explore what evidence supports the design argument. To review the strengths of evidence for the design argument. To understand what the design argument shows Catholics about the nature of God. To identify which arguments atheists use to reject the design argument as proof of God s existence. To consider how Catholics respond to these arguments. The design argument Figure 5.7 If you found this clock in the sand, would you think someone had made it? Even though the Bible doesn t present any formal arguments for God s existence, it does provide the background to these arguments. The passage in the box strongly suggests that evidence of God as creator can be seen around us. The Jewish writers of the Old Testament recognised God's design in creation and these insights have been developed into a philosophical argument for God s existence, based on evidence of design in nature. William Paley's 18th-century version of this type of design argument claims that natural things in the world all show evidence having been designed. The medieval Catholic philosopher Thomas Aquinas built on the thinking of the earlier Islamic philosopher Al-Kindi when he developed his idea that the physical laws of the universe are evidence of God s existence. This argument, based on the regularity of natural laws, has been taught to Catholics ever since. Paley s design argument Paley used the example of a watch to explain his argument. First, he asks us to imagine a person who accidentally kicks a stone while walking on a heath. If asked, they d probably say the stone just happened to be there, but they would think differently if they found a watch on the ground. Unlike a stone, a watch was clearly put together for a purpose. Even someone who had never seen a watch before would be convinced that it must have been made by a watchmaker. The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands. Day after day they pour forth speech; night after night they reveal knowledge. They have no speech, they use no words; no sound is heard from them. Yet their voice goes out into all the earth, their words to the ends of the world. (Psalm 19:1 4, Old Testament) 16

16 The The design nature argument of God Paley then makes an analogy (a comparison) between the watch and the universe. Everything that makes people think watches are designed can also be seen in the universe. He uses the human eye as another example of a complex object with a clear purpose showing evidence of design. The watch has a human creator, but the universe is a far more complicated mechanism. If the watch needs a watchmaker, then the universe must need a creator, and this must be God, because God is the only being powerful enough to make the whole universe. Evidence to support the design argument The New Testament writer St Paul claims that people have no excuse for ignoring evidence of God in the creation because through them God s invisible qualities can be seen and understood. For since the creation of the world God s invisible qualities his eternal power and divine nature have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse. (Romans 1:20) It is difficult to reject the idea that the universe contains a huge collection of intricate objects, from snowflakes to the human brain, and that complex things like these don t occur by chance. The comparison between the watch and the universe is easy to follow. The argument can accommodate modern scientific theories about the origin of the universe and human life, such as the Big Bang and evolution. It gives meaning and purpose to the universe. What the design argument teaches Catholics about the nature of God This argument fits with traditional views of God and reinforces Catholic belief in God as omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent. It teaches Catholics that God wishes to reveal himself in nature. It might also suggest that God s concern for the creation is evident in its tiniest details. The structure of a snowflake or a bird s wing seem to show the same painstaking care in their construction, demonstrating God's immanence. However, many Catholics accept Darwin's theory of evolution as an explanation for the minute details of biological organisms and reject the idea that God designed every detail of each species as Creationist Christians believe. Like Aquinas, they understand God as a grand designer who set biological processes in motion and continues to guide them. Arguments against the design argument Some people believe in God, but feel that the best the design argument can do is to point to the probability of God. Humanists do not see the need for a designer of the universe and tend to believe that everything in existence has a natural explanation. Modern atheists like Richard Dawkins build on a strong set of arguments by the 18th-century philosopher David Hume that reject the design argument. Here are some of them: Just because humans design things it doesn t mean that the universe has a designer. We look for design in the world because our minds naturally look for patterns and order. Even if we accept that God designed the universe, the design argument cannot prove the existence of the Christian God. There is too much suffering in the world to suggest an omnibenevolent, omnipotent God. The fact that there is suffering in the world suggests a bad design, and if there is a God he must be a learner God who certainly can t be all-powerful. Why would there be only one designer and not several? The universe is complex, and complex things need a complex designer. Surely a complex designer would, in turn, need a designer, so who designed God? An object like a watch can t be compared with the natural world. The design argument fails because it doesn t compare like with like. The theory of evolution suggests that living things change over time due to random, chance events. The best-adapted creatures survive. This process doesn t need a designer. Catholics may respond: that God is transcendent and doesn t require a creator that suffering is the result of human disobedience that humanity and all of creation are struggling towards perfection: God guides this process. 17

17 Arguments for the existence of God Activities 1 Explain how a school minibus shows evidence of design, then explain how an eye or a hand may appear to show design. 2 Make a glossary of terms used in this topic. 3 In pairs, discuss what you think are the two strongest cases for and against the design argument. When I consider your heavens, the work of your fingers, the moon and the stars, which you have set in place, what is mankind that you are mindful of them, human beings that you care for them? (Psalm 8:3 4 Old Testament) Can you remember? How are the internal features of a church used in worship? Why is Mary such a significant figure for Catholics? How can religious experiences can strengthen someone s belief in God? Exam-style question Explain two ways in which Catholics believe the design argument shows the nature of God. In your answer, refer to a source of authority and wisdom. (5 marks) Exam tip Make sure you understand the design argument and that you can explain its stages in the right order. Practise the sequence of the argument. Summary Catholics believe in the design argument, which is as follows: oo oo oo oo the universe appears to have been designed anything that has been designed must have a designer God is the only designer great enough to have created the universe God must exist and be the designer and creator of the universe. This argument shows Catholics that God must be omnipotent and immanent. The design argument is easy to follow and fits well with a Catholic understanding of God and with the Bible. It also allows people to find meaning and purpose in the universe without going against scientific theories like the Big Bang and evolution. Atheists say that the design argument fails to prove God s existence because, for instance, suffering in the world suggests poor design and evolution suggests that creatures on earth develop without the need for a design or purpose. Check point Strengthen S1 What is the best argument in favour of the design argument? S2 What is the strongest argument against the design argument? S3 What is your own opinion on the argument? Extend E1 Why do you think Catholics can still believe in God even though the design argument can t conclusively prove God s existence? E2 Some people think that God s existence is proved by the fact that people can tell right from wrong. This is called the moral argument. Can you think of any reasons why they argue this? E3 What makes more sense to you, that God exists because there is evidence of design in the universe or because people can choose to be moral? 18

18 The cosmological argument 5.6 The cosmological argument Learning objectives: To understand the structure of the cosmological argument for the existence of God. To find out about Thomas Aquinas and the cosmological argument. To explore what evidence supports the cosmological argument. To consider the strengths of evidence for the cosmological argument. To understand what the cosmological argument shows Catholics about the nature of God. To explore what evidence atheists use to reject the cosmological argument as proof of God s existence, and how Catholics may respond to this. The cosmological argument The word cosmos refers to the whole universe, and cosmology is the study of the origins and structure of the universe. The earliest cosmological argument was developed by Ancient Greek philosophers, who observed that everything in the world has a cause that brings it into existence. If this is true, then the universe itself must also have a cause. Most Catholics consider that: we know from looking around us that anything that begins to exist has a cause the universe is the sum total of all the things that exist within it the universe must therefore have a cause that cause must be God. It is important to realise that the cosmological argument is not claiming that everything has a cause. It only claims that everything within the universe has a cause. The universe could not just exist on its own, so something must have made it: there must have been a First Cause for its existence. Catholics believe that this First Cause is God. The idea is that everything within the world has to have a cause beyond itself to explain it coming into existence. For instance, school minibuses have factory workers, children have parents, but way back at the beginning of time some cause greater than anything within the universe has to be responsible for starting off this big chain of causes. Traditionally, God is thought of as infinite and transcendent; that is to say, without limits. God isn t limited by time or the material world because God is outside it. Therefore, God doesn t need to have a cause. God is the only explanation for the universe that doesn t need a cause to start it off; therefore, God must exist. This argument fits well with the Bible s claim that God is the creator, the beginning of all things. 19 A medieval version of this argument was put forward by the Catholic philosopher Thomas Aquinas. I am the Alpha and the Omega, the First and the Last, the Beginning and the End. (Revelations 23:13) Thomas Aquinas cosmological argument There are three parts to this argument: 1. Everything in the universe has the potential to change or be changed For instance, plants grow, flower and die; gold can be made into beautiful jewellery or can be melted down again. All change is caused by something that makes something move from one state to another. There has to be something that starts all these changes or movements off. This first or prime mover must be God. Look at the picture of the dominoes. Someone pushing the first domino starts a chain reaction. The idea of a prime mover works like this. Figure 5.8 The First Cause of a domino cascade

19 Arguments for the existence of God 2. Cause and effect are part of the whole universe Things in the universe don t cause themselves, so God is needed to start all these causes off. The First Cause argument discussed above is very similar. 3. Everything within the universe is contingent If everything is contingent (not permanent), then there must have been a time before things existed. Since nothing can come from nothing, something had to exist before the universe to bring things into existence. There must be a necessary being (permanent unchanging being) to explain the existence of impermanent, contingent things. This must be God. Evidence Catholics use to support the cosmological argument The strengths of the cosmological argument are: It is easy to agree that something has to start off any chain of events. It is reasonable to claim that objects do not bring themselves into existence and must have causes. It fits well with the idea that the universe had a beginning. Most scientists agree with the Big Bang theory, which states that the universe started with a violent explosion 13.7 billion years ago. The cosmological argument explains that God caused the Big Bang. Exam-style question Explain two reasons why Catholics might feel that the cosmological argument is a strong argument for God s existence. In your answer, refer to a source of authority and wisdom. (5 marks) Exam tip Don t confuse the cosmological argument with the design argument. Remember that the design argument uses evidence of design in the natural world to argue for God as designer of the whole universe. The cosmological argument uses the causes of things in the universe to argue that God is the cause of the universe. The cosmological argument and the nature of God This argument strengthens many Catholic beliefs about the nature of God. One reason for this is that it fits well with the leading scientific explanation of the beginning of the universe; most Catholics understand the scientific explanation as the universe began because of a First Cause or Prime Mover, and that was God. It also supports a number of beliefs that are taught in the Bible: God is the omnipotent creator of everything (he caused the universe to come into existence) God is transcendent, above and beyond the universe (he must be in order to create it) God is the infinite being who needs no cause for his existence. Many Catholics find that because scientific ideas sit well with the cosmological argument, it makes the argument stronger and therefore reinforces their beliefs about the nature of God. Some Christians, such as Creationists, may think that this link to science is less important for their understanding of God. For the majority of Christians, the ideas of God as Prime Mover and First Cause are the most important part of the cosmological argument. Arguments against the cosmological argument and Catholic responses Humanists and atheists share many arguments against the cosmological argument as proof of God s existence. Here are four of the main objections. The universe is eternal and doesn t need a first cause. This objection is supported by a scientific theory called the Steady State theory, which suggests that the universe has always existed and is kept in balance. Stars are born as others die. Catholics may respond by pointing out that most scientists today prefer the Big Bang theory, which argues that the universe had a definite beginning. Therefore this objection to the cosmological argument isn t a strong one. If everything needs a cause, then God also needs a cause. Atheists ask, If God is the first cause of the universe, then what caused God? The third of Aquinas points suggests that God does not need a cause outside himself to explain his existence, as he is infinite. Therefore Catholics would see this objection as a weak one. As human beings, our knowledge is limited to the world of space and time, and we cannot be sure whether anything exists beyond the universe. Catholics may put the cosmological and design arguments together to suggest that there is evidence of a designer beyond the universe who is the First Cause of everything that exists. 20

20 The cosmological The nature argument of God Even if a divine being did cause the universe, this doesn t prove that this creative force was the Christian God. Catholics may appeal to Jesus teaching that ultimately faith in God is sufficient. Formal proof of God s existence is less important than faith. In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.. (Genesis 1:1 3, Old Testament) Activities 1 Explain the series of causes that brought about the existence of your teacher s computer. 2 Make a diagram of Aquinas cosmological argument in words and pictures. 3 In groups, discuss whether it is true that everything has a cause. Extend your knowledge Read Genesis Chapter 1 in the Bible and the texts in the boxes. Do you think these texts are well matched with the cosmological argument? Explain your answer. Summary The cosmological argument claims that we know, from observing the world, that everything is caused by something else. The universe itself must have a cause and that must be God. Thomas Aquinas offered three slightly different versions of this argument: oo God is the prime mover oo God is the first cause oo God is a transcendent, infinite, unchanging necessary being. The cosmological argument teaches Catholics that God is an infinite, omnipotent, immutable and transcendent creator and sustainer of the universe. Atheists attack the idea of God as the First Cause of the universe. They argue that: oo the universe is eternal and therefore doesn t need anything to start it off oo if the universe needs a cause then God also needs a cause oo the idea that God caused or started off the world is pure speculation oo the cosmological argument can t prove that if there is a God it is the Christian God. Catholics may respond that the cosmological argument fits well with the Big Bang theory, that God being transcendent and infinite doesn t need a cause, that the design argument supports the cosmological argument and that ultimately faith is more important than formal arguments. Check point Strengthen S1 What are the links between the idea of God as a necessary being and the traditional features of God s nature? S2 What, for you, is the most convincing part of Aquinas cosmological argument? S3 Why is the cosmological argument important to Catholics? Extend E1 Why might Catholics make links between the cosmological argument and the Bible? E2 Why might some people suggest that the design argument is a better argument for God s existence than the cosmological argument? E3 What points could you make that support the cosmological argument instead? 21

21 Arguments for the existence of God 5.7 Issues raised by the problem of evil Learning objectives: To find out about the two main kinds of evil in the world. To understand the problems evil raises for Catholics about the nature of God. To understand how evil in the world may lead some people to question or reject their belief in God. What evil is In this topic, evil means any kind of misery, sorrow or hardship, whatever or whoever experiences it and however it has been caused. That means that evil can be what you experience, or what your pet goldfish experiences, during illness. It can also refer to suffering experienced by a dog that s been abandoned without food, the evil caused by murder or theft, or even your best friend being a bit unkind to you. For many Catholic thinkers, evil has meant a lack of goodness rather than a wicked force in its own right. Two kinds of evil There are two kinds of evil: natural evil and moral evil. They are distinguished by their cause: Natural evil is due to natural events or natural forces. It includes the suffering caused by flooding, Figure 5.9 Catholics believe that a baby suffering from a fever is an example of natural evil earthquakes, volcanoes and avalanches, among many other things. It might also include suffering caused by having flu or a heart attack, or even being knocked out by a tile that fell off your roof in a gale. All of these things are beyond human control. They have sometimes been called acts of God. Moral evil is caused by human action. Acts such as rape and murder are deliberate actions that cause suffering, and may be on a huge scale, such as in the genocides (systematic killing of an ethnic group) in Rwanda and Bosnia. Moral evil might also be on an individual scale, such as a man drowning a kitten or someone stealing your mobile phone. Moral evil can also be caused by neglect or by failure to act when it was known to be necessary. It is not always easy to distinguish between natural and moral evil. If you end up in hospital after a tile from your roof hits you on the head in a gale, it seems that a force of nature is responsible for your suffering. However, what if you knew the roof needed mending and you hadn t bothered to fix it? Wouldn t you be partly responsible for your own suffering? The problem of evil and God's nature Catholics are taught that God is an omnibenevolent (perfectly loving) creator. Catholics also believe that God is an omnipotent (allpowerful) creator. An omnipotent and omnibenevolent God would be expected to create a world that shows these characteristics. Therefore, the world should be a perfect world in which evil doesn t exist. The problem for Catholics is that the world is not perfect and evil does exist. Natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes cause enormous amounts of suffering. 22

22 Issues raised by the problem of evil God is omnipotent Suffering exists God is omnibenevolent Figure 5.10 The inconsistent triad I form the light and create darkness, I bring prosperity and create disaster; I, the Lord, do all these things. (Isaiah 45:7) A second problem is that there is also moral evil in the world. People are part of God s creation, yet they deliberately harm one another. Therefore, Catholics may feel that the perfectly good, powerful God they are taught about and a creation that is full of evil and suffering do not fit very well together. They ask, How is it possible for an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God to allow evil in the world? The traditional philosophical rejection of God s existence based on this question is shown below: It seems that either God cannot be all-loving or God cannot be all-powerful. Evil in the world allows some people to claim that either God is allpowerful and is evil and uncaring, or that God is all-loving and good, but is weak and incapable of preventing evil. God s omnibenevolence, omnipotence and evil simply can t exist together. The argument is called the inconsistent triad because it shows how these three things cannot fit together. Logically only two parts of the diagram can exist at the same time so Catholics might question what they are taught about God because of evil in the world. Some may even think that God sends suffering to punish human disobedience. How evil in the world may lead some people to question their belief in God It is easy to see how the problem of evil might cause Catholics to question or lose their belief in God. If someone witnesses extreme suffering or experiences the death of someone close to them, they may question God s love or whether God is able to help them. People may ask what the point is in praying to a being that allows so much evil to exist or is incapable of removing it. It is true that many people do come to reject the existence of the Christian God for these reasons, but many do not. In the next topic you will learn what other responses there are to the problem of evil. Activities 1 Make a chart to show the problems that evil raises about God s nature as a loving and good God. 2 Make a diagram to demonstrate the problem of evil, and explain it in your own words. 3 In pairs, discuss the reasons why the existence of evil may cause some people to lose their belief in God. Exam-style question Evaluate whether the problem of evil should cause people to reject their belief in God. (12 marks) Exam tip Make sure you can explain why there is a problem for Catholics in believing that God is both omnipotent and omnibenevolent when there is evil in the world. 23

23 Arguments for the existence of God My God, my God, why have you forsaken me? Why are you so far from saving me, so far from my cries of anguish? My God, I cry out by day, but you do not answer, by night, but I find no rest. Yet you are enthroned as the Holy One; you are the one Israel praises. (Psalm 22:1 3, Old Testament) The witness of Scripture is unanimous that the solicitude of divine providence is concrete and immediate; God cares for all, from the least things to the great events of the world and its history. The sacred books powerfully affirm God s absolute sovereignty over the course of events. (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 303) Either God is not able to abolish evil or not willing; if he is not able then he is not all-powerful, if he is not willing then he is not all-good. (St Augustine, Confessions) Can you remember? What is the difference between moral and natural evil? What are the sacraments of initiation? Why is the Second Vatican Council important to the Catholic Church? Summary There is evil in the world which can be caused by human moral choices or natural disasters. The existence of evil in the world raises problems for Catholics about God s nature. Catholics are taught that God is perfectly good and loving as well as omnipotent, and therefore God should have been able to make a perfect world. The problem is that the world has evil in it, so some people argue that God must be either uncaring or weak. If evil exists, God can t be both all-loving and all-powerful. The problem of evil, as explained in the inconsistent triad diagram, causes some people to question or even to lose their belief in God s existence. Check point Strengthen S1 What is the clearest example of natural evil you can think of? S2 Why is it sometimes difficult to distinguish between moral and natural evil? S3 Why is the problem of evil so important to Catholics? Extend E1 What do you think is most damaging to a belief that God exists, the presence of moral evil in the world or the presence of natural evil? E2 What is more of a problem, the idea that God might be uncaring or the idea that God might be weak? E3 Why might some people accept that an all-powerful, all-loving God might allow evil? 24

24 Solutions to the problem of evil 5.8 Solutions to the problem of evil Learning objectives: To identify solutions to the problem of the existence of evil and belief in a loving and righteous God. To identify solutions to the problem of evil in the Bible, including in the Psalms and the Book of Job. To find out about theoretical solutions to the problem of evil from St Augustine and St Irenaeus. To explore practical solutions to the problem of evil, such as prayer and Christian charity. To consider how successful these solutions are in solving the problem of evil. Catholic solutions to the problem of evil You have seen that one response to the problem of evil and suffering in the world is to stop believing in God, or to believe that God cannot be both allpowerful and all-loving. Catholics do not see rejecting God as the answer to this problem. Here are some solutions they do consider. Solutions to the problem of evil in the Bible Like other Christians, Catholics look to the Bible to help them make sense of evil. They see the Old Testament as an aid to having faith in Jesus Christ as the ultimate solution to the problem of all evil. The Psalms The Book of Psalms, in the Old Testament, is a collection of poetic prayers. Some are joyful songs in praise of God as the creator and saviour of a beautiful world, but many express despair and ask why bad things happen to good people, while evil people seem to thrive. Others like Psalm 119 suggest that suffering can have a positive effect on human behaviour, though many modern Christians would reject the idea that extreme suffering has positive effects. While they don t offer an easy solution to the problem of suffering, the Psalms express faith in God s goodness and power to bring justice to those who keep faith, as shown in Psalm 23. The Old Testament Book of Job and evil The Book of Job is a long debate about the problem of evil. Job is the most righteous man on earth. His faith is tested by God with terrible sufferings. Job continues to believe in God, but he wants to find God, to appeal to God s justice. Eventually Job s fortunes are restored and his faith is rewarded. Catholics may believe that this story suggests that evil is sent to test people s faith. However, many Catholics think that God will eventually make everything right for those who believe in his goodness. Another solution to the problem of evil is that human beings are incapable of seeing God s overall plan. Job eventually gets to question God, but God s response makes him realise that his suffering has a meaning and purpose beyond human ability to understand. Surely your goodness and love will follow me all the days of my life, and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. (Psalm 23:6) Teach me knowledge and good judgment, for I trust your commands. Before I was afflicted I went astray, but now I obey your word. You are good, and what you do is good; teach me your decrees. Though the arrogant have smeared me with lies, I keep your precepts with all my heart. Their hearts are callous and unfeeling, but I delight in your law. It was good for me to be afflicted so that I might learn your decrees. (Psalm 119:66 71) Theoretical solutions to the problem of evil There are two main theories offering different solutions to the problem of evil. Both claim that human freedom to make moral choices is responsible for 25

25 Arguments for the existence of God moral evil. They are called theodicies, theories that show how there could be an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God when there is evil in the world. Then Job replied to the Lord: I know that you can do all things; no purpose of yours can be thwarted. You asked, Who is this that obscures my plans without knowledge? Surely I spoke of things I did not understand, things too wonderful for me to know. (Job 42:2 3, Old Testament) Exam-style question Evaluate how successful solutions to the problem of suffering offered to Catholics are. (12 marks) Exam tip Remember that the problem of evil is the problem caused by believing in an all-loving and allpowerful God when there is evil in the world. It is not the problem of evil in itself. If someone believes in an uncaring or a weak God, there is no problem of evil for them. Can you remember? What does the Bible teach about creation? What are two forms of liturgical worship? What is the sacrament of confession? St Augustine (5th century CE) St Augustine s solution was accepted by the Catholic Church. It is based on the Bible stories of the Fall of Adam and Eve (Genesis 3). Augustine claimed that God created a perfect world. Human beings were made in God s image and likeness. They resembled God in their ability to make free decisions but used this freedom badly, to disobey God. This is how moral evil started. Their actions not only damaged their relationship with God and each other, but also with the rest of creation. They were tempted to disobey God by the Devil, an angel who had turned away from God. Catholics are taught that the effect of this original sin is passed down through every generation, making it hard for humans to do the right thing. Natural evil is the result of the damage to creation caused by the Devil s disobedience. Augustine believed that God sent his own son, Jesus Christ, to rescue humanity from this crisis by dying on the cross. Augustine solves the problem of evil by showing that free choice is to blame rather than God: Adam and Eve could have chosen to obey God. St Irenaeus (2nd century CE) Irenaeus thought that human beings and creation were not made perfect, so when Adam and Eve disobeyed God they were not damaged by their actions and nor was creation, because they acted like children. They were given God s image, meaning that they were given freedom but needed to mature spiritually to become more like God. God knew they would make mistakes, but intervening would have limited their freedom, so he allowed the Fall to happen. Moral evil is expected as humanity grows towards perfection, so there is no original sin, an idea that most Catholics and Protestants reject. Natural evil is part of an imperfect world that is groaning towards a perfection it will find through Jesus (Romans 8:22). He came to earth to show humans how to live and to link God and humanity, allowing humans to reach heaven. Practical solutions to the problem of evil Prayer Catholics look to Jesus teachings to find practical solutions to the problem of evil. They find these in both prayer and action. They pray for guidance out of faith that God is a loving and powerful judge who will ultimately bring justice to the world. Jesus own suffering teaches them that there is no amount of suffering that human beings can go through that Jesus has not experienced. Christian charity Jesus teachings tell Catholics that they will be judged on whether they have looked after people who are vulnerable. The Catholic Church has a strong tradition of teachings on social justice. Many Catholics are involved in organisations such as CAFOD which work to alleviate suffering, and many volunteer in hospitals, hospices or refugee centres and soup kitchens for the homeless. 26

26 Solutions to the problem of evil The success of solutions to the problem of evil Biblical solutions to the problem of evil are successful in helping Catholics to have faith in a loving and powerful God because they show that faith will be rewarded. Practical solutions help them to feel that they are doing God s work in an imperfect world. However, these solutions are based on having faith in God in the first place. People may reject them because they fail to explain how a loving and powerful God could allow evil at all. Theoretical solutions offer clear explanations of how an all-loving and allpowerful God could allow evil, but do not prove that God exists. They offer slightly differing solutions to the problem of evil if God does exist, and therefore Catholics may find them helpful. Atheists may reply that a simpler solution is that God does not exist and evil is easily explained by chance and human evolution. Activities 1 Explain how the Psalms may help Catholics to have faith in a loving and righteous God in the face of evil. 2 Make a comparison chart to show the differences between Augustine s and Irenaeus explanations of the problem of evil. 3 In small groups, discuss which solutions to the problem of evil are the most successful. Give reasons for your group s conclusions. Summary Catholics seek solutions to the problem that God is all-loving and all-powerful, yet evil exists. They may not understand how God can allow evil, but they look to examples of people in the Bible who kept faith with God and hoped for salvation. They see Jesus Christ as God s ultimate response to evil in the world. Augustine and Irenaeus, in different ways, suggest that evil is the result of human freedom to make moral choices. Catholics find solutions to the problem of evil by trying to alleviate as much evil and suffering as possible. In doing so, they are cooperating with God s plan of salvation for the world. Atheists may argue that without God, evil is easily explained by chance and human evolution. Check point Strengthen S1 What is the difference between the Bible s solutions to the problem of evil and practical solutions to the problem of evil? S2 What is the difference between Augustine s and Irenaeus theodicies? S3 What help is offered to Catholics in solving the problem of evil by theoretical arguments? Extend E1 Why might some people say that Catholic responses to the problem of evil avoid the problem itself and therefore don t offer a solution? E2 Is it better to try to explain how God can exist in the presence of evil, or to try to end suffering? E3 What reasons can you give for suggesting that the existence of God can never be disproved by the presence of evil in the world? 27

27 Recap quiz Arguments for the existence of God Recap: Arguments for the existence of God Recall quiz Catholic beliefs 1 What do Catholics mean by the Trinity? 2 Outline what it means to say that Jesus Christ is the son of God. 3 What is meant by the incarnation? 4 What is redemption? Catholic practices 5 What are the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church? 6 Name a site of Catholic pilgrimage. 7 What is the importance of prayer for Catholics? Revelation 8 What type of revelation does the Catholic Church recognise as special revelation? 9 In what ways is God s nature revealed by Jesus Christ? 10 What is meant when Catholics talk about the Bible as the revealed word of God? Vision 11 Explain what is meant by a vision. 12 List three examples of visions in the Bible. Miracles 13 What is a nature miracle? 14 Outline three ways miracles might help Catholics to believe in God. Religious experiences 15 List the different types of religious experience. 16 List five reasons why people deny that religious experiences prove God s existence. The design argument 17 What is the design argument for God s existence? 18 List four reasons why Catholics might think the design argument is evidence for God s existence. The cosmological argument 19 Outline four simple steps in the cosmological argument. 20 List three different versions of the cosmological argument. 21 Outline what the cosmological argument teaches Catholics about the nature of God. The problem of evil 22 Briefly explain the problem of evil. 23 List three different types of solution Catholics might be offered to the problem of evil. 28

28 Recap quiz Activities 1 Make a list of the different types of general and special revelation discussed in this chapter, then use your list to make a mind-map showing the connections between them. There is no right or wrong way to connect them; for instance, you could connect miracles and visions because miracles often happen alongside or following visions, or you could link miracles to Catholic tradition as the Catholic Church rules on whether a miracle has really taken place. The idea is to investigate possible associations and revise your knowledge. Use colours to help you. 2 Look back through this chapter at the different reasons given by Catholics for believing in God. List them in order, from the most to the least convincing, in your opinion. You could put them into a graphic organiser like a diamond nine or a tree diagram. 3 Look back through the chapter and write an evaluation of revelation as a support for God s existence. In your answer you should consider points for and against the arguments for the existence of God, the problem of evil and different types of religious experience. Literacy tips Use these tips to help you with Activity 3 and evaluate exam questions. Keep your sentences short. Remember to use a paragraph for each major point you want to make. Include key terms. Include well-explained examples to support your points. When you evaluate the arguments, say whether they are strong or weak and why. Exam-style questions a) Outline three features of the argument for design. (3 marks) b) Explain two reasons why Catholics believe Mary is important in the work of salvation. (4 marks) c) Explain two ways in which visions, such as Joan of Arc s visions of Mary, are important for a Catholic s belief in God. You should refer to a source of authority and wisdom in your answer. (5 marks) d) The design and cosmological arguments are both attempts to prove the existence of God. Evaluate which of these two arguments is more successful. (12 marks) Exam tips With short 3-mark questions there is one mark for each separate feature. The command word here is outline, so a brief description is sufficient. Notice that there are 4 marks for question b), which means that you should state each reason why Mary is important for salvation and give an example to illustrate each reason. Some questions specifically ask for you to include a reference to sources of authority and wisdom. For example, this could include quotations from the Bible or teachings from the Pope. Evaluate questions ask you to make points to support an argument. With this question you need to make a decision about whether the design or the cosmological argument has a better chance of proving God s existence. You are not being asked whether they are totally successful, just which is the better argument. 29

29 Arguments for the existence of God Extend: Arguments for the existence of God Activities 1 Read The Parable of the Invisible Gardener on the right, then revise William Paley s design argument and the creation stories in Genesis. Write three paragraphs to explain the opposition between the design argument and creation stories on one side and The Parable of the Invisible Gardener on the other side. 2 Give a detailed explanation of what the writer is trying to tell us in the parable. 3 Use your knowledge of the creation stories in Genesis to help you rewrite The Parable of the Invisible Gardener, arguing in favour of the existence of the gardener. 4 Think back to your work on Catholic beliefs and how the whole of creation shows the presence of God. Revise this section. Write an extended evaluation of the idea that God s presence can be seen in creation. Source The Parable of the Invisible Gardener Once upon a time two explorers came upon a clearing in the jungle. In the clearing were growing many flowers and many weeds. One explorer says, Some gardener must tend this plot. So they pitch their tents and set a watch. No gardener is ever seen. But perhaps he is an invisible gardener. So they set up a barbed-wire fence. They electrify it. They patrol with bloodhounds. (For they remember how H. G. Wells The Invisible Man could be both smelt and touched though he could not be seen.) But no shrieks ever suggest that some intruder has received a shock. No movements of the wire ever betray an invisible climber. The bloodhounds never give cry. Yet still the Believer is not convinced. But there is a gardener, invisible, intangible, insensible to electric shocks, a gardener who has no scent and makes no sound, a gardener who comes secretly to look after the garden which he loves. At last the Sceptic despairs, But what remains of your original assertion? Just how does what you call an invisible, intangible, eternally elusive gardener differ from an imaginary gardener, or even from no gardener at all? Taken from Theology and Falsification, by Antony Flew, adapted from a story by John Wisdom. Figure 5.12 Bluebell wood naturally occurring beauty or God s garden design? 30