Chapter - IV J\OBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH AND BUDDHIST THOUGHT

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1 Chapter - IV J\OBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH AND BUDDHIST THOUGHT 4.1 Introduction Research methodology and sources of data for this study were discussed in the preceding chapter. The researcher decided to follow historical method and philosophical analysis to study the Noble Eightfold Path from educational perspective. In this chapter, textual documents and discussions are presented and attempts are made to inquire into Buddhist thought from primary sources. First, a brief history of the Buddha and his teachings are presented as the necessary background of the study. After this introduction, the status of literary sources which contain the Buddha's teaching are critically evaluated. Then, textual documents taken from the primary sources on the Noble Eightfold Path are presented. In the last section, Buddhist thought as reflected in the Noble Eightfold Path is discussed. 4.2 The Buddha, His Teaching and Buddhist Texts There is no dearth of literature on the Buddha and his thought. In A History of Educational Thought, Frederick Mayer (1960, p. 40) wrote: "He [the Buddha] was not only a man of unusual religious insight, but also a philosopher and educator of great depth and penetration." Mayer had attempted to disperse the cloud of numerous legends surrounding the Buddha, in order to reach the path which was advocated by the Buddha. In doing so, Mayer called the Buddha an "outstanding and most provocative saint" in history, because he offered "the best solution" for human problems. However, he had not proved the Buddhist educational thought with persuasive explanation and evidence. In this section, the life of the Buddha, as a philosopher and educator, is introduced with textual evidence taken from primary sources. And it is followed

2 by a brief introduction to his teachings and texts in which his teachings are preserved The Buddha One of the earliest texts describing the life of the Buddha was the Ariyapariyesana-sutta of the Majjhima-nikaya?^ Based on the narration in this text, together with other internal evidence drawn from the whole Tipitaka, Buddhist scholars (Berchert, 1991; Nanamoli, 1998; Prebish, 2008; Schumann, 1989) have reached a general agreement that the historical Buddha, bom as Siddhattha Gotama, lived in ancient Northern India in the 5''^ and 6"^ centuries BCE. He was most likely bom in c.563 BCE in Kapilavatthu (a territory of Indian-Nepalese border today) and passed away in c.483 BCE^' in Kusinara (now Kushinagar District, Uttar Pradesh, India). The Buddha was a man of flesh and blood (Schumann, 1989, p. 8), who walked on the rich soil of the Ganges plain over 2500 years ago. He was bom to the Sdkyan clan. By his potentially awakening orientation and strenuous efforts, he became fully-awakened {sambodhi). With Full-Awakening, he was entitled the Buddha or the Awakened One (Schumann, 1989, p. 56). Since then throughout the history, his words have been the source for the development of a unique culture that brings in unparallel prestige to many communities and institutions in Asia (Harvey, 1990, p. 5; Swearer, 2000, pp. viii-xxv), which proclaim their allegiance to his teaching. The Buddha's teaching in brief is called Dhamma, which is bound to the Indo-Aryan culture in which the young Siddhattha Gotama was bom and brought up. Today, the advent of the Buddha and his teaching is perceived in different ways, depending upon background of the person who approaches him. To a historian of religion, the Buddha may represent a consummate enlightened being. To a "' See Chapter III, Section "" Though some researchers hypothetically suggest other dates, most of the scholars support the dates BCE and this dating is generally accepted in the circles of Buddhist studies. 75

3 philosopher, the Buddha may represent a great thinker or a sage, who reahsed the eternal state of Being. To a meditator, the Buddha represents a yogin, who had attained the intrinsic quality of awareness and so on and so forth. The diversity of view-point reflects the resonance of and shares allegiance to the Buddha's life and his teaching, the Dhamma?^ The students of the Buddha, from the Buddha himself down through all the schools to the present, who wish to learn the Dhamma and attain wisdom, have acknowledged two phases of the path. First comes learning the words of truth that was originally uttered by the Buddha himself; and the second is reflecting and practising his teachings within our own experience. In other words, theory and practice in the Buddha's Dhamma always go together hand in hand.^^ One balances and corroborates the other. In this connection, theory or study of the theory is a stepping stone towards our practice. Studying the Buddha's Dhamma from educational perspective, and more importantly in education discipline, makes sense only when the combination of theory and practice is kept in mind The Dhamma The Buddha's Dhamma can be summarised, in brief, in the Four Ennobling Truths: the suffering {diikkha), the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering and the way leading to the cessation of suffering. The first truth points to the reality of life, which is inherently impermanent, non-substantial in nature and "" Dhamma is a multiplex term. Essentially, Dhamma is a means, a raft for crossing over from the shore of ignorance and suffering to the shore of wisdom and peace (Nanamoli & Bodhi, 1995, p. 25; MN.22.13). To know more about the philosophical significance of the variety and variability of usages and applications of Dhamma, see Bodhi's discussion on this term in his introduction to Nanamoli's translation of the MaJJhimanikaya, The Middle Lenghth Discourses of the Buddha, and also to his translation of the Samyittta-nikaya, The Connected Discourses of the Buddha. ' The Buddha's emphasis on this inseperable combination is depicted in the Dhammapada The Buddha likened the bookish scholars to cowherds, who protected other people's cows without themselves getting the benefits of milk and milk products. Theory without practice becomes a mere intellectual game; while practice without theory tends to journey without direction. 76

4 causing pain and suffering in life. With the second truth, the Buddha identifies craving as the main cause of suffering. The third truth points to Nibbana, the highest state of well-being, which he had realized by walking on the Middle Path {majjhimd-patipadd). This path is the fourth truth, which is also called the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya-atthahgika-magga). It includes: 1. Right-view {samma-ditthi) 2. Right-resolve {sammd-sankappo) 3. Right-speech (5(7wwfl-vaca) 4. Right-action {sammd-kammanto) 5. Right-livelihood {sammd-djivo) 6. Right-effort {sammd-vdydmo) 1. Right-mindfulness {sammd-sati) 8. Right-concentration {sammd-samddhi) During his teaching career, the Buddha also explained the Dhamma in terms of the threefold training (ti-sikkhd), the four foundations of mindfulness (satipatthdna), the seven enlightenment factors (bojjhanga), and so on, to meet the individual differences. In this process, he also introduced some philosophical doctrines such as the five aggregates (pafica-khandha), dependent-arising {paticcasamiippdda) and moral efficacy of action (kamma). In this study, attempt is made to focus on the Noble Eightfold Path. In fact, all these teachings are included in the Noble Eightfold Path. Therefore, they will be discussed when the Noble Eightfold Path is presented and explained Buddhist Texts After the Buddha's demise, his teachings were collected and gathered by his immediate disciples. They compiled them into the three parts, viz. Vinaya-pitaka (collection of disciplines), Sutta-piiaka (Collection of Discourses) and Abhiddhamma-pitaka (Collection of higher Teaching). They are all preserved in an Indian ancient language, named Pali. The Sutta-pitaka contains approximately 77

5 12,632 discourses of varied lengths given by the Buddha (some by his great disciples, and approved by him). They were compiled into five main collections (Table 4.1). The rich themes in these numerous discourses include almost all aspects of thoughts and practices of human life. For this reason, the Sutta-pitaka is selected as the primary source for this study. Table 4.1: Number of Suttas Sutta-pitaka More than 12,632 discourses DTgha-nikaya Majjhima-nikaya Samyutta-nikaya A nguttara-nikaya Kh uddaka-nikaya 34 discourses 152 discourses 1889 discourses 9557 discourses 15 minor collections of short discourses However, Dipak Barua (1966, pp. 2-3) points out that there are some late interpolations in the Sutta-pitaka. Part 1 of the DTgha-nikaya, the Assalayanasutta of the Majjhima-nikaya, the Mara-samyutta and the Bhikkhuni-samyutta of the Samyutta-nikaya, among others, are some of such instances where interpolations are evident. Norman (1983, p. 37) also proves that there are some later additions in the Pali texts. According to him, many passages were added to the Mahaparinibbanasutta (DN.16) as we have today, which contains the story of the wanderings of the Buddha during the last few months of his life. Norman also points out some other evidence of later insertions in the DTgha-nikaya. Most of these later insertions are related to miraculous and mythical elements (Norman, 1983, pp ). He (p. 84) especially emphasised that a large number of stories found in the Jataka 78

6 collection of the Khuddaka-nikaya were composed and added after the development of different Buddhist schools. As regards the evolution of ideas, there are a number of doctrinal differences in early Buddhist texts (Bronkhorst, 1993, pp ; Gombrich, 1996, pp ), and it is very difficult to distinguish which formulations can be considered to be authentic (Wynne, 2003, p. 1). The distance from the Buddha's time to the period of compiling the Sutta-pitaka is considerable. And so is the distance from the Sutta-pitaka compilation to our present time. Because of the later interpolations and the evolution of ideas, historical criticism is very much essential in studying Buddhist thought recorded in the Sutta-pitaka, even though it is the most original and authentic source of the Buddha's teachings. 4.3 Authenticity of the Data Historical criticism is important in historical research in the field of Buddhist Studies, and there have been rigorous research studies conducted focusing on this task to justify the authenticity and accuracy of Buddhist texts. Therefore, in order to avoid duplication, historical criticisim is not considered as an essential part of the present work. Furthermore, the task of establishing the critical evaluation of the textual material requires a complex and large-scale investigation, which may involve various approaches such as philological, doctrinal, cultural, and so on.^"* That is simply impossible in this kind of research in the field of education. Therefore, the researcher relies on the findings of previous studies and treats the Sutta-pitaka as the most authentic source of early Buddhist teaching. According to Bhikkhu Sujato (2005, p. 225), Samyutta-nikdya constitutes the historically oldest strata of Buddhist scriptures, and this collection was the prime work codified at the First Council. However, Suttas in other Nikavas also contain ^ Bhikkhu Sujato (2005, p. 20) even says that to get firm answers regarding the matter of authenticity of early Buddhist texts necessarily requires a very large scale statistical analysis of linguistic, doctrinal and other features. 79

7 features of the historically earliest strata of Buddhist scriptures (Wynne, 2003). Though the Digha-nikdya and Ahguttara-nikaya possess some evidence of later interpolations [even extrapolation, Wynne, 2003, p. 108], the main part of these two Nikayas were compiled rather early, at least in 3'"'' century BCE, in the history of Buddhist literature. Some collections in the Khuddaka-nikaya also share this characteristic. We do not wish to delve into the complex question of historicity in this study, but a brief discussion on this matter is necessary for a study of ancient thought. There are two main problems regarding the authenticity of the Sutta-pitaka. One is that we don't have any written evidence of the early form of Buddhist texts. Another problem is that there was the development of ideas within the Sutta-pitaka itself Recently, many attempts have been made to justify the originality and authenticity of texts in the Sutta-pitaka. Most of the scholars (Barua, 1966; Malalasekera, 1928; Norman, 1983) agree that there are some inevitably later additions in the Sutta-pitaka. However, in the process of critically evaluating the Sutta-pitaka, they have established the antiquity and authenticity of this collection. In addition, at present there are two rigorous studies closely related to this matter, viz. A History of Mindfulness by Bhikkhu Sujato and 77?^ Origin of Buddhist Meditation by Alexander Wynne. Along with this main work, Wynne has also published a couple of important research articles especially discussing the problem of authenticity of the Pali texts. To some extent, these two studies have sufficiently informed us when the Pali texts represent accurately what the Buddha really said and have provided guidelines for critical evaluation of the Suttapitaka Structural Analysis of the Nikayas Bhikkhu Sujato suggests a holistic approach to study the Buddha's teachings based on a general hypothesis regarding the origin and development of the Buddhist texts, namely, "General Integrated Sutta Theory" and he calls this 80

8 approach, making an acromyn, "GIST theory." Sujato used a method of structural analysis of the Nikayas to support this hypothesis. According to his structural analysis, there are three strata of early texts: the first discourses, the first collection of discourses, and the first Abhidhamma?^ He analysed these three strata using the two criteria: concordance of the texts and the testimony of the traditions. The agreement of the three strata is confirmed as a means to justify the consistency in the Buddha's teachings at different layers of the texts. According to Bhikkhu Sujato, confirming the concordance of texts preserved by the different schismatic schools is one of the most powerful tools to identify early texts. He specially compares the Pali Nikayas of the Theravada tradition with the Sanskrit Agamas of the Sarvastivdda tradition. He provides several examples with supported reasoning and proves that the traditional narration can be maintained in the face of modem criticism. According to him, many "narrative cladding" were added to the Suttas of the Sutta-pitaka in the process of changes and editions. On one hand, he warns the researchers to be careful and critical in distinguishing between the teachings themselves and the narrative cladding in which the teachings appear. On the other, he asserts that there is a magnificent spiritual literature, which had been produced and maintained for 2500 years. He (2005, p. 179) writer: Despite everything, the NikdyasIAgamas offer us a vast body of teachings springing from a remarkably uniform vision, a clarity and harmony of perspective that is unparalleled in any comparably large and ancient body of writings. Bhikkhu Sujato comes to two important conclusions. First, the Samyutta-nikdya constitutes the historically oldest strata of Buddhist scriptures. It was widely learnt by the Buddhists during the Buddha's lifetime and used as the prime work codified at the First Council (Sujato, 2005, p. 225). Second, the holistic paradigm of the Buddha's teaching must stem from the Four Ennobling Truths. '' In Bhikkhu Sujato's study, Ahhiddhamma is a specific formulation of early Buddhist texts. It does not indicate one of the three Pitukas. 81

9 4.3.2 Authenticity of the Nikayas Among various studies on the Sutta-pitaka, Alexander Wynne's The Origin of Buddhist Meditation (2003) is one of the most critical studies. Though the main objective of this doctorate research was to trace the origin of Buddhist meditation, Wynne devotes a large part of his work to justify methodologically the historicity and authenticity of the Buddha's teachings, and further extended to the reliability of the Sutta-pitaka. In this study, Wynne takes into consideration all the sceptical views of influential scholars. He points out the main problem which these critics have faced, and proposed a new solution to it (p. 2). His method is summed up as follows: 1 - Historical facts about the Buddha's life, particularly those which pertain to his intellectual development, are established. 2 - The intellectual content of the facts is suggested by the facts themselves. This helps to develop a more detailed understanding of the Buddha's intellectual development. 3 - Dialogues in the early literature, which contain ideas and evidence relevant to the Buddha's intellectual development, are identified. If the Buddha's teaching in the dialogues shows that he fully understands these ideas, and responds to them in a way concordant with the theory of his intellectual development, the text is likely to be historically authentic. 4 - The authenticity of the texts in question is further enhanced, if the text contains its own evidence suggesting its antiquity and/or authenticity (p. 110). In fact, this argument is based on the method of deduction. With this method, he attempted to establish authentic teachings of the Buddha on the basis of historical facts deduced from the early literature (pp. 62, 108). He provided sufficient evidence from the Sutta-pitaka to justify the historical authenticity of facts about the Buddha's early life (pp. 8-23), his efforts and attainment (pp ), and the formulation and development of his teachings (pp ). He (p. 109) puts: 82

10 [T]he knowledge that the Buddha was exposed to particular idea and responded to them in a certain way, presents us with some criteria that can be used to establish the authenticity of a teaching ascribed to him... [T]he Buddha, of such a training and intellectual background as we have established him to be, responds exactly as expected to an adherent of his old beliefs... [T]his is no coincidence: provided the historical information on the personality of the Buddha is reliable, the correspondence most probably reveals an authentic teaching of the Buddha. He proves that although the doctrinal formulations including long tracts could have been moved in and out of different texts by reciters at will, most of his teachings in the Pali Tipitaka are historically authentic (p. 109). He argued that there was no reason to be sceptical about the historical worth of the biographical accounts of the Buddha in the Ariyapahyesana-sutta and the accounts of his dialogue with Brahmins UpasTva, Posala and Udaya in the Paryana-vagga of the Sutta-nipdta. The peculiarities of the texts contain compelling historical evidence. It is surely old and contains much authentic information. It is, therefore, irrevocably true that the Sutta-pitaka is the most authenthic source of the Buddha's teachings. Acknowledging the autheticity of the Sutta-pitaka does not mean that the researcher relies on the assumptions of these scholars and holds a view that the discourses as found today must be word-by-word exactly identical with the original teachings of the Buddha. But what the researcher wants to say here is that, as Bhikkhu Sujato (2005, p. 18) puts it: [T]hese teachings, in largely the same words and phrases, have been treated since earliest times as the most fundamental doctrines, and the traditions give us a plausible reason why this should be so. For the purpose of this study, the researcher agrees with Bhikkhu Sujato's and Wynne's opinions and follows the majority of the modem scholars in presuming the Sutta-pitaka available in the present form, as the most authenthic source of the Buddha's teaching. 83

11 4.4 Noble Eightfold Path: Texts and Contexts For the present study, an attempt is made to sort out the primitive expressions of the Noble Eightfold Path and related concepts from the five Nikayas. The contexts in which these expressions were given and the literally intended meaning of these expressions are examined. Brief explanations based on the original meaning of texts in the early Sitttas will be provided. In-depth analyses of the Noble Eightfold Path and discussions on the relevance of the path will be considered in the next sections. The Noble Eightfold Path is said to be the heart of Buddhist thought (Bodhi, 1999, p. 5; Harvey, 1990, p. 27). Both the main traditions of Buddhism, Theravdda and Mahaydna, acknowledge the Noble Eightfold Path as the essential teaching of their traditions. It is the Noble Eightfold Path that caught the interest of the liberal Western thinkers in the later decades of the 19"^ century (Miyamoto, 1952, p. 224). And it resulted in the dramatic emergence and development of centers and institutions as well as the explosion of academic studies in Buddhism across the globe at the end of the 20"^ century (Prebish & Baumann, 2002, p. 1). We learn from the Buddhist literature that the Buddha taught the Noble Eightfold Path to people in the then social context of ancient India more than 2500 years ago. What we know about the Buddha's teaching of the path is preserved in various sources of the Buddhist texts, especially those in the Sutta-pitaka. In this section, textual data on the Noble Eightfold Path sorted out from the Sutta-pitaka is presented Noble Eightfold Path in the Sutta-pitaka In the Pali literature, Ariya-atthangika-magga is the name for the Noble Eightfold Path. The Noble Eightfold Path is referred to (in the name oi Ariya-atthangikamagga) at least 563 times in the Sutta-pitaka. In this main collection of the Buddha's teachings, there are altogether more than 12,632 Suttas delivered by the Buddha and his disciples, of which about 30 are long, 150 medium, and the remaining are short (Bullitt, 2010). In several instances found in this vast 84

12 collection, the Noble Eightfold Path is explained in details. In other places, the Noble Eightfold Path is introduced with certain specific emphasis, for one or the other reasons. Based on the preliminary investigation, there are at least five important Suttas which focus on the Noble Eightfold Path. They are the Saccavibhanga-sutta (MN.141 at MN III 248); the Mahacattarisaka-sutta (MN.117 at M III 71), the Mahasatipat Mill 71), (DN at DN II 312), the Vibhanga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11) and the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (SN at SN V 421) (Table 4.2). Besides, there are many Suttas such as the Mahasihanada-sutta (DN ), the Sammaditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN 47), the Mahahatthipadopama-sutta (MN at MN I ), the Mahavedalla-siitta (MN at MN I 294), the Culavedalla-sutta (MN at MN I ), the Kosambiya-sutta (MN.48), the Mahasaldyatanika-siitta (MN.149.1I at MN III 289), the Kaccayanagottasiitta (SN at SN II 16), the Paccaya-sutta (SN at SN II 42-43), the Bhikkhu-sutta {S^.\2.28 at SN II 43-45), the Panvimamsans-sutta (SN at SN II 82), the Sikkha-sutta (AN.3.88 at AN I 235), and many Suttas of the Magga-vagga (SN.45 at SN V 1-62), in which one or more factors of the path are explained. In some Suttas, only one factor is explained at varying degrees, while in some other Suttas, two or more factors of the path, being grouped together according to their nature and characteristics, are introduced and/or analysed. There are also numerous occasions (DN.6.14; DN ; DN.19.61; MN.88; MN ; MN ; SN.12.65; Dhp , etc.) on which the Noble Eightfold Path is mentioned, as a way of living which leads to the highest goal of life, i.e., the nibbana. Textual sources where key terms related to the Noble Eightfold Path are presented and explanation is given respectively. It is presupposed that the textual evidences sorted out from these selected Suttas provide relevant material and meaningful data for exploring and focusing on the main topic of the study. 85

13 Table 4.2: Textual sources Textual Sources Key Suttas Dhammacakkappavattana -sutta (SN at SNV421) Vibhanga-sutta (SN.45.8atSNV8-ll) Saccavibhanga-siitta (MN.141 at MN III 248) Mahdcattdnsaka-sutta (MN.117atMNIII71) Mahdsatipatthana-sutta (DN at DN II 312) Explanatory Suttas Rasiya-sutta (SN at SNIV 331) Kaccdyanagotta-sutta (SN at SN II 16) Paccaya-sutta (SN at SN II 42-43) Bhikkhu-siitta (SN at SN II 43-45) Parivimamsam-sutta (SN at SN II 82) Magga-vagga ('SN.45 at SN V 1-62J Satipatthana-sutta (MN.IO at MN I 62) Aranavibhahga-sutta (MN at M III 231) Sammdditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN 47) Culavedalla-sutta (MN.44 at MN I 301) Sikkha-sutta (AN.3.88 at AN I 235) Kayagatasati-sutta (MN.l 19 at MN III 88-99) Anapanasati-sutta (MN. 118 at MN III 78-88) Mahdsihandda-sutta (DN ) Sammdditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN 47) Mahdhatth ipadopama-sutta (MN.28.28atMNl ) Mahdvedalla-sutta (MN at MN I 294) Kosambiya-sutta (MN.48 MN I 321) Mahdsaldyatanika-sutta (MN at MN III 289) Historical Context Among the five important Suttas in which the Noble Eightfold Path is explained, the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (SN at SN V 421) is believed to be one of the most important discourses, and is the first one, delivered by the Buddha after his Awakening. This Sutta provides a gist of the Noble Eightfold Path. 86

14 The Mahasatipatthana-sutta (DN at DN II 312) appears to be an extended explanation of the Noble Eightfold Path. The second half of this Sutta is substantially identical with the analysis of the Noble Eightfold Path in the Vibhanga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11). According to Bhiidchu Sujato (2005, p. 171), the explanation section on the Noble Eightfold Path in the Mahasatipatthana-sutta is a shift and insertion to this Sutta at the hands of Theravadins. Whether Sujato's view can be proved satisfactorily or not is a different story, but his structural analysis of the Sutta-pitaka shows that the Magga-vagga of the Samyutta-nikaya is one of the most authentic collection of the Buddha's teachings available to us. The Vibhanga-sutta belongs to this collection. Therefore, the Vibhanga-sutta is the main text from which the definitive explanations of the eight factors are taken for this study. The Saccavibhahga-sutta (MN.141 at MN ) is an extensive discourse in which Elder Sariputta was asked to explain the Noble Eightfold Path to a large group of bhikkhus. In this Sutta, the Buddha only introduced the path and asked Sariputta to explain the teaching. It is noteworthy that the place where this discourse was delivered is the deer park at Isipatana oi Benares, exactly the same place where the Buddha delivered the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta. Therefore, the way the Buddha related this significant event and reminded it to Sariputta and the audience appears to be a way of celebrating the "Foundation Day" with which he started his teaching mission! In such a way, the content of the discourse concentrates on the Noble Eightfold Path and it is almost identical to that of the Vibhanga-sutta except the introduction given by the Buddha. This makes the discourse significant. The other discourse is the Mahacattansaka-sutta (MN.l at M ). This is a unique Sutta in which the path is analysed from a different perspective. Some aspects of the path, which are not found in the above mentioned Suttas, are presented in this Sutta. In other words, this Sutta is another elaborative exposition of the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta. 87

15 What this brief textual investigation illustrates is that among thousands of discourses given by the Buddha and his disciples, the Dhammacakkappavat-tanasutta is the gist of the Noble Eightfold Path. Based on the internal evidences of several Suttas of the Sutta-pitaka (MN.26; MN.36; MN.139), we learn that the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta (SN at SN V 421) is the first discourse, which the Buddha gave after his Awakening.^'' From historical perspective, this Sutta is very important, because it reveals the vision of a great Teacher and marks the beginning of his mission. It is supposed that the content of the Sutta also shares profound significance from the philosophical perspective. In this Sutta, three important aspects of the path are described: the content of the path, the goal of the path and the context in which the path was taught. The content of the path and the goal of the path will be discussed in the following sections. Here the context is examined. In the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, the context in which the Buddha taught the Noble Eightfold Path is first presented: The pursuit of happiness in sensual pleasure is low, vulgar, individualist, ignoble and unfruitful; and the pursuit of self-mortification is painful, ignoble and unfruitful.^'' This is the context in which the two extremes {anta) are prevalent. One is selfindulgence {kdmasukhallikamiyoga), and the other is self-motification {attakilamathanuyoga). These are the two practices, which truth-and-peace The Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta is available in both the Sainyiitta-nikaya of the Theravada tradition and the Agamas of the Sarvastivada tradition. It is also availible in at least the five Vinaya texts. At present, at least 17 existing versions of the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta are found. Although there are some variations in different versions, the basic content is substantially similar. There is a remarkable consistency in both the basic narratives and the doctrinal teachings. The Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta is one of the few discourses that survive in the four main Buddhist languages of Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan (Sujato, 2005, p. 16). SN at SN V 421: Yo cayam kamesu kamasukhallikamiyogo hlno gammo pothiijjaniko anahyo anatthasamhito. yo cayam attakilamathamiyogo diikkho anariyo anatthasamhito. 88

16 The Buddha's stance is innovative and clear. Facing the two ignoble and unfruitful extremes, the Buddha chose the middle ground. And he intentionally and clearly proclaimed the goals of the path which he was going to teach. The set of goals includes vision (cakkhu), knowledge (nana), peace (upasama), insight {abhinfia), full-awakening {sambodhi) and emancipation {nibbana). It is interesting to note that a slightly adjusted set of goals is found in many other Suttas (at least 21, the number outweighing that of the initial proclamation of goals, see Table 4.3). In the adjusted statement, vision and knowledge in the initial proclamation of goals are replaced by equanimity {nibbida), dispassion {virago) and cessation of craving (nirodhd). Table 4.3: Goals-set Goals-set Initial proclamation Dhammacakkappavattanasiitta (SN at SNV421) A ranavibhahga-sntta (MN.139.3atMNIII231) Dhammaddydda-siitta (MN.3atMNl 15) Rasiya-siitta (SN.42.12atSNIV331) Adjusted statement Sakkapanha-sutta (DN at DN II 285) Mahdsunnata-siitta (MN.122 at M III 113) Viggdhikakathd-sutta (SN.56.9 at SN V 419) Tiracchanakatha-sutta (SN at SN V 420) Cinta-sutta (SN at SN V 448,19-20) Vitakka-sutta (SN.56.7 at SN V 418) Culamalukya-sutta (MN at M 1 431) Simsapa-sittta (SN at SN V 437) Maghadeva-sutta (MN at MN 11 83) In the Simsapa-siitta, the adjusted statement of goals is as follows: 90

17 Bhikkhus, this is beneficial and relevant to the fundamentals to the holy life, and leads to equanimity, dispassion, cessation of craving, to peace, insight, flill-awakening, and nibbana?'^ Why are they replaced in such a way? This is an important question we encounter. There are two things that are important in this change. The first thing is that the frequency of occurrence of the two sets indicates the difference. The initial proclamation of goal is found in the four Suttas (Table 3), including the Dammaccakappavattana-sutta. In these Suttas, the account depicts the first occasion at which the initial proclamation was declared. It is simply a repetition. It appears that this proclamation includes the goals which the Buddha had achieved. In the meanwhile, the so-called adjusted statement occurs at least in 21 Suttas in drastically different contexts. Sometimes, this set of goals were proclaimed by the Buddha as expected achievement, when he guided his disciples to direct, cultivate and regulate their actions {Sakkapanha-sutta, DN at DN II 285), speech {Mahasuhhata-sutta, MN.122 at M III 113, 115; Viggdhikakathd-sutta, SN.56.9 at SN V 419; Tiracchdnakathd-sutta, SN at SN V 420), and thoughts {Cintd-sutta, SN at SN V 448; Vitakka-sutta, SN.56.7 at SN V 418) appropriately. Sometimes, the Buddha just referred to these goals to remind his disciples of the nature and characteristics of the path they were walking {Culamdlukya-siitta, MN at M I 431; Simsapd-siitta, SN at SN V 437). At other times, the Buddha pointed straightly to the Noble Eightfold Path and emphasised its goals to inspire the learners {Maghadeva-siitta, MN at MN II 83). The exploration of these internal evidences infomis the second important change, which is the hypothetical answer to the question we have put, that is, appearantly, a paradigm shift in formulating and articulating the goals of SN at SN V 437: Etanhi, hhikkhave, atthasamhitam etam adihrahmacariyakam etam nihhidaya viragaya nirodhaya upasamaya ahhinnaya samhodhaya nihbcmdya samvattati.

18 the Noble Eightfold Path. This paradigm shift reflects the Buddha's pedagogical approach. This means that not only the Buddha's resolve and attitude towards the then existing extremes are evident, but the goal of path is also revealed in the texts. The Buddha thought carefully over the path, which he was going to teach, and intentionally formulated its contents and goals. As far as the terms nana (knowledge), cakkhii (vission), nibbida (equanimity), virdga (dispassion), nirodha (cessation of craving), upasama (peace), abhinnd (insight) and sambodhi (full-awakening) inform, the goals are the destinations at different levels of cognitive transformation and emotional balance, which ultimately culminate in nibbana. Nibbana is related to the Path, just as the top of a mountain is related to a path which leads upto it. Though proclaiming the goal is crucial, in Buddhist philosophical tradition, however, it appears to be more appropriate to describe this path than to try and describe its goal (Harvey, 1995, p. 63). We now consider the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta to explore the path The Noble Eightfold Path After a brief introduction to the context in which the Buddha started his teaching and the proclamation of goals, the Sittta goes on with the gist of the path leading to that goals. What, bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata which gives rise to vision and knowledge, which leads to peace, insight, full awakening, and nibhanal It is the noble eightfold path, i.e. right-view, right-resolve, right-speech, right-action, right-livelihood, right-effort, rightmindfulness, and right-concentration. This, bhikkhus, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathagata, which gives rise to vision and knowledge, which leads to peace, insight, full-awakening, and nibbdna.^^^ SN at SN V 420: Katama ca sa, bhikkhave, majjhima patipada tathugatena abhisamhuddha cakkhukaram ncinakanmi iipasamaya ahhiniiaya samhodhuya 92

19 This passage recurs in the Saccavibhanga-sutta (MN.141 at MN III 248), the Aranavibhahga-sntta (MN at M III 231), the Dhammaddydda-sutta (MN at MN I 15-16), and the Rdsiya-sutta (SN at SN IV 331). The path which the Buddha taught is called the Noble Eightfold Path {ariyaatthangika-magga) or the middle way {majjhimd-patipadd) interchangeably. This is the path which avoids the two extremes: indulgence in sensual pleasures (kdmasukhallikdnuyoga) and self-motification {attakilamathdnu-yogd). This is the path which gives rise to vision and knowledge, which leads to equanimity, dispassion, cessation of craving, peace, insight, full-awakening and nibbdna. The path consists of the eight factors: sammd-ditthi (right-view), sammdsahkappo (right-resolve), sammd-vdcd (right-speech), sammd-kammanto (rightaction), sammd-djtvo (right-livelihood), sammd-vdydmo (right-effort), sammd-sati (right-mindflilness) and sammd-samddhi (right-concentration). Samma-ditjhi In this section, textual sources taken from the Sutta-pitaka, especially the Vibhahga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11) of the Samyutta-nikdya, on different meanings of right-view {sammd-ditthi) are presented. First, right-view is doctrinally explained in terms of understanding the Four Ennobling Truths: Knowledge with regard to dukkha, knowledge with regard to the origination of dukkha, knowledge with regard to the cessation of dukkha, nibbdnaya sainvattati? Ayameva ariyo at/hangiko maggo, sevyathidam - sammdditthi sammasankappo sammavaca sammdkammanto sammaajlvo sammdvctyamo sammasati sammasamddhi. Ayam kho set, hhikkhave, majjhima patipadu tathdgatena abhisambuddhd cakkhukaram ncmakaram iipasamava abhinnciya samhodhdya nibhandvci samvattati. 93

20 knowledge with regard to the way of practice leading to the cessation of dukkha: This is called right-view.'*' Right-view is expounded in more details in the Sammaditthi-sutta (MN.9 at MN I 46), the Mahahatthipadopama-sutta (MN at MN I ), the Mahdcattdrisaka-sutta (MN.l at M ), the Mahdsaldyatanika-sutta (MN MN ), the Kaccdnagotta-sutta (SN at SN II 16), the Mahavedalla-sutta (MN at MN 1 294), the Paccaya-sutta (SN at SN II 42-43), the Bhikkhu-sutta (SN at SN II 43-45), the Parivimamsans-sutta (SN at SN II 82), the Anattalakkhana-sutta (SN at SN III 66) and the Nandikkhaya-sutta (SN at SN III 51). These Suttas provide rich sources of textual evidence regarding the meaning of right-view in Buddhist thought. Besides, they also offer a comprehensive image of the context in which the concept of right-view is better understood. Second, right-view is the appropriate understanding of the wholesome and the unwholesome. The Sammdditthi-sutta represents the person of right-view as the one who understands (pajdnati) the unwholesome (akusala) and its root {akusalamula), as well as the wholesome (kusala) and its root (kusala-mula). The person who has right-view to such an extent is called a noble learner {ariya-savaka).'^^ In fact, understanding of the wholesome and the unwholesome and their roots is the knowledge of the law of cause and effect. It is called the theory of kamma in Buddhist thought. Third, another important aspect of right-view is the appropriate understanding of the impermanent nature of the five aggregates {panca-kandha), which constitute the personhood. The five aggregates are physical body (rupa), feelings (vedana), perception {samd), mental formation {sahkhdra) and consciousness {vihndna). SN.45.8 at SN V 8-9: Yarn kho, hhikkhave, dukkhe nanam, diikkhasamiidaye fianam, diikkhanirodhe nanam, dukkhanirodhagaminiya patipadaya nanam, ayam vuccati, hhikkhave, sammaditthi. IVIN.9.3 at MN I 46-47: Yato kho, avuso, ariyasavako akusalahca pajanati, akusalamulahca pajanati, kiisalahca pajdnati, kusalamiilahca pajanati ettavatapi kho, avuso, ariyasavako sammaditthi hoti. 94

21 One who understands: form is ever-changing (rupam aniccanti passati), feelings is ever-changing (vedanam aniccdti passati), perception is ever-changing {sahham aniccdti passati), mental formation is ever-changing {sahkhdre aniccdti passati) and consciousness is ever-changing (yinndnam aniccanti passati) is the one with right-view.'^^ As the five aggregates are ever-changing, they are all nonself'*'' According to the Mahdvagga (Vin I 13-14), the second discourse which the Buddha gave after his Awakening focuses on this theory of non-self (anattd). Understanding the five aggregates is the knowledge of impermanent and nonsubstantial nature of being. This is known as the theory of anattd. Fourth, right-view is also explained in terms of understanding of the principle of dependent-arising (paticca-samuppada). In the Sammdditthi-sutta, the principle of dependent-arising is explained in terms of the twelve links: aging and death (Jardmarana), birth (Jdti), being (bhava), clinging (updddna), craving (tanhd), feeling (vedand), contact (phassa), the sixfold base (saldyatana), mentalitymateriality {namarilpa), consciousness (vinndna), mental formations {sahkhard) and ignorance {avijjd).'^^ As an important tenet of Buddhist thought, this principle is explained in many other Suttas (MN at MN I ; MN.38 at MN I 255; MN at MN II 32; SN at SN II 16; SN at SN II 94). SN at SN III 51: Aniccanneva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu rupam aniccanti passati. Sassa hoti sammaditthi. Sammd passam nibbindati. Nandikkhayd ragakkhayo, rdgakkhaya nandikkhayo. Nandirdgakkhaya cittam vimuttam suvimiittanti vuccati. Aniccanneva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu vedanam aniccanti passati... Anicceyeva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sahham aniccanti passati... Anicceyeva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu sahkhdre aniccdti passati. Aniccanneva, bhikkhave, bhikkhu vihhanam aniccanti passati. Sassa hoti sammaditthi. Sammd passam nibbindati. Nandikkhayd ragakkhayo, rdgakkhaya nandikkhayo. Nandirdgakkhaya cittam vimuttam suvimuttanti vuccati. SN at SN III 66: Anattalakkhana-sutta: Ruparn anattd, vedanam anattd, sahham anattd, sahkhdre anattd, vihhanam anattd. MN at MN I 261: Avijjdpaccayd sahkhdrd, sankhdrapaccayd vihhdnam, vihhdnapaccayd ndmaruparn, ndmariipapaccayd saldyatanarn, saldyatana-paccayd phasso, phassapaccayd vedand, vedandpaccayd tanhd, tanhdpaccayd updddnam, updddnapaccayd bhavo, bhavapaccayd jdti, jdtipaccayd jardmaranam sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupdydsd sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti. 95

22 Understanding the principle of dependent-arising is very important and it is emphasised in the Mahahatthipadopama-sutta that: One who comprehends the principle of dependent-arising, comprehends the Dhamma. One who comprehends the Dhamma, principle of dependent-arising."*^ comprehends the This important principle is explained in different ways in the Sutta-pitaka. The Kaccayanagotta-sutta reads: The world, Kaccayana, is generally inclined toward two views - the view of existence and the view of non-existence. But for one who sees the origination of the world as it actually is with right discernment, there is no notion of non-existence with reference to the world. And for one who sees the cessation of the world as it actually is with right discernment, there is no notion of existence with reference to the world."*^ The Sutta goes on explaining that one who does not get involved with or cling to such views, but understands the arising of dukkha when it arises, and understands the passing away of dukkha when it passes away, is one with right-view. Again, in a dialogue with Udayin, the Buddha explained the principle of dependent-arising in a very brief formula: When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases."*^ MN at MN I : Yo paticcasamuppadam passati so dhammam passati; yo dhammam passati so paticcasamuppadam passatiti. SN at SN 11 16: Dvayanissito khvayam, kaccana, loko yehhtivvena - atthitanceva natthitanca. Lokasamudayam kho, kaccana, yathahhiitam sammappaiifiava passato ya loke natthita sa na hoti. Lokanirodham kho, kaccana, yathahhiitam sammappahhaya passato ya loke atthita sa na hoti, upayitpaddnahhinivesavinihandho khvayam, kaccana, loko yebhuyyena. MN.79.7 at MN II 32: Imasmim sati idam hoti, imassuppada idam uppajjati; imasmim asati idam na hoti, imassa nirodha idam niriijjhatj' ti. 96

23 Here, the arising of this factor is conditioned by that factor, and the ceasing of this depends on the ceasing of that. To sum up, according to the textual sources, right-view includes understanding of the Four Ennobling Truths, the (un)wholesome, the impermanent nature of the five aggregates, and the principle of dependent-arising. Samma-sahkappo The second factor of the Noble Eightfold Path is right-resolve {sammasafikappo). The Vibhafiga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-11) explains right-resolve in terms of renunciation, non-ill will, and non-violence. It reads: What is right-resolve? Aspiring to renunciation, aspiring to non-ill will, and aspiring to non-violence: This is called right-resolve."*^ At the heart of right-resolve are renunciation, good-will, and non-violence. Exposition on these three mental qualities are scattered in many Siittas, such as the Mahacattarisaka-sutta (MN.l at M III 72-74), the Mahddukkhakkhandha-sutta (MN.l3.32 at MN I 89), the Dvedhdvitakka-sutta (MN.l9 at MN I 115), the Kakacupama-sutta (MN at MN I 129), the Vibhanga-sutta (SN.45.8 at SN V 8-10) and the Cunda-sutta (AN at AN V ). Focusing on renunciation, the Saleyyaka-sutta reads: Here someone is not covetous; he covets not the property of others... He is not malevolent of heart, the thoughts of his heart are not corrupt... He cultivates his mind thus: May these beings be free from enmity, affliction and anxiety. May they live happily."^" '*' SN.45.8 at SN V 9: Katamo ca, hhikkhave, sammascwkappo? Nekkhammasahkappo abyapcidasankappo avihimsasankappo, uycim viiccati hhikkhave, sammascmkappo. ^" MN at MN I 288: Idha, gahapatayo, ekacco anahhijjhalii hod, yam taip parassa paravittiipakaranam tain ndhhijjhatu hoti - 'aho rata yam parassa tarn mamassa'ti! Ahyapannacitto kho pana hoti appadiitlhamauasahkappo - 'ime satta avera ahyahajjha anlgha siikhi attanam pariharantii 'ti. Sec also AN at AN V

24 Similarly, focusing on good will, the Kakacupama-sutta reads: Even if bandits brutally severed you limb from limb with a two-handled saw, students who entertained hate in his heart on that account would not be the one who followed my teaching. Herein, you should train thus: Our mind will remain unaffected, and we shall utter no evil words; we will abide compassionate mind for their welfare, with a mind of lovingkindness, without inner hate.^' The Mahadukkhakkhandha-sutta harm: refers to right-resolve as thought free from He does not choose for his own affliction, or for others' affliction, or for the affliction of both." With these explanations, it is clear that right-resolve is the mental practice which promotes the three positive qualities: renunciation, good-will and non-violence, and eliminates the three negative mental states: covetousness, - ill-will and harmfulness. Samma-vaca The next factor of the path is right-speech {samma-vaca). In the Vibhahga-sntta, right-speech is explained in terms of refraining from lying {musavada), slanderous speech (pisundya-vdca), harsh words (pharusaya-vacd) and frivolous chattering {samphappaldpa). What is right-speech? Abstaining from lying, from divisive speech, from harsh words, and from frivolous chattering: This is called right-speech.^^ MN at MN I 129: Uhhatodandakena cepi, bhikkhave, kakacena cora ocaraka ahgamangcmi okanteyyum, tatrapi yo inano padi'iseyya, na me so tena sasanakaro. Tatrapi vo, bhikkhave evaip sikkhitabbam - 'na ceva no cittam viparinatain bhavissati, na ca papikam vacam niccharessama, hitamikampj ca viharissama mettacitta na dosantara. MN at MN I 89: Neva tasmim samaye attabyabadhavapi ceteti, na parabyabddhdyapi ceteti, na ubhayabydhudhayapi ceteti. 98

25 It is explained in more details in the Sdleyyaka-sutta and the Cunda-sutta as well. A person who abstains from lying, when being asked, should respond as per the truth: Someone avoids lying and abstains from it. He speaks the truth, is devoted to the truth, reliable, worthy of confidence, not a deceiver of men. Being at a meeting, or amongst people, or in the midst of his relatives, or in a society, or in the king's court, and called upon and asked as witness to tell what he knows, he answers, if he knows nothing: 'I know nothing,' and if he knows, he answers: '1 know'; if he has seen nothing, he answers: '1 have seen nothing,' and if he has seen, he answers: '1 have seen.' Thus he never knowingly speaks a lie, either for the sake of his own advantage, or for the sake of another person's advantage, or for the sake of any advantage whatsoever.^'* Similarly, slanderous speech (pisimaya-vdcd), harsh language {pharusdya-vdcd) and frivolous talks {samphappaldpa) are explained in details in these two Siittas. He avoids slanderous speech and abstains from it. What he has heard here he does not repeat there, so as to cause dissension there; and what he has heard there he does not repeat here, so as to cause dissension here. Thus he unites those that are divided; and those that are united he encourages. Concord gladdens him, he delights and rejoices in concord; and it is concord that he spreads by his words.^^ ^' SN.45.8 at SN V 9: Katamu ca, bhikkhave, sammavacci? Miisavada veramam pisimaya vacaya veramam pharusdva vacdya veramam samphappaldpa veramam, ayam vuccati, bhikkhave, sammdvdcd. ^^ MN at MN I 288: Ekacco miisdvddl hoti. Sabhaggato va parisaggato vd hdtimajjhagato vd pugamajjhagato vd rdjakiilamajjhagato vd ahhinlto sakkhipiittho - 'ehambho piirisa, yam jdndsi tarn vadehvti so ajdnam vd aham jdndmi' ti, jdnam vd aham 'na jdndmi' ti, apassarn vd aham 'passdmi' ti, passam vd ahani 'na passdmv ti. Iti attahetu vd parahetu vd dmisakihcikkhahetu vd sampajdnamusd bhdsitd hoti. Sec also AN atAN V267. '^'^ MN at MN I 288: Pisiinam vdcam pahdya, pisiindya vdcdya pativirato hoti ~ na ito siitx'd amiitra akkhdtd imesam hheddva, na amiitra vd siitvd imesam akkhdtd amusam 99

26 The third practice is: He avoids harsh language and abstains from it. He speaks such words as are gentle, soothing to the ear, loving, such words as go to the heart, and are courteous, friendly, and agreeable to many.^^' The fourth practice is: He avoids frivolous talks and abstains from it. He speaks at the right time, in accordance with facts, speaks what is useful, speaks of the Dhamma and the discipline; his speech is like a treasure, uttered at the right moment, accompanied by reason, moderate and full of sense.^^ The description of right-speech in the Suttas is so clear on both letter and spirit. Sammd-kammanto Right-action {samma-kammanto) concerns the non-harming of others in any way by abstaining from taking life {panatipcita), stealing {adinnddcina), and sexual misconduct {kamesumicchdcard). The Vihhanga-sutta reads: What is right-action? Abstaining from taking life, from stealing, and from illicit sex. This is called right-action.^^ bhedaya. Iti hhinnanam va sandhala sahitcmain va amippadata samagguramo samaggarato samaggcmandi samaggakaranim vacain hhasita hoti. Sec also MN at MN I 179; AN at AN V 267. '^' MN at MN I 288: Phurusam vacam pahayci, phcviisaya vcicciya palivirato hoti. Yci SCI vaca nela kannasiikha pemanjya hadayangama pon hahiijanakanta hahujanamanapa, tathcirupim vacam hhasita hoti. Sec also MN at MN I ; AN atAN V267. "^ MN at MN 1 288: Samphappalapaiii pahaya, saniphappa/apa palivirato hoti kalavadl bhiitavadi atthavadl dhammavadl vinayavadi; iiidhanavatim vacam hhasita hoti kaleria sapadesam pariyantavatiiii atthasamhitam. Evam kho. ciinda, catuhhidham vacaya soceyyam hoti. See also MN at MN I 180; AN at AN V 267. SN.45.8 at SN V 9: Katamo ca, hhikkhave, sammdkammanto? Panatipcita veramanl adinnadana veramanl kamesiimicchacdi-c'i veiximanj. uvam viiccati. hhikl<have. sammakammanto. y<s^^ed9e^^^^ ~Yn 1 ^ 100