HZT4U Sophie s World Review. Chapter 1- The Garden of Eden Note what Sophie considers:

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1 HZT4U Sophie s World Review Chapter 1- The Garden of Eden Note what Sophie considers: 1. death 2. the duration of the world 3. the nature of God's existence 4. the creation myth (and note that J.RR. Tolkien of Beowulf and Lord of the Rings fame and a devout Catholic called the gospels the greatest fairy tales every told. What did he mean?) 5. the fairness of life. Chapter 2- The Top Hat the only thing we require to be good philosophers is the faculty of wonder... man cannot live by bread alone - everybody wants to figure out who we are and why we are here. The letter presents her with the idea that the only thing necessary to be a philosopher is to have a sense of wonder, both about the world and about oneself. The writer states that most people lose this capacity as they grow older. The philosopher compares the universe to a white rabbit pulled out of a top hat by a magician. While we as observers are filled with wonder at the trick, more than anything we wonder, "How did he do that?" We want to know how and why. That is the basis of all philosophy. We as individuals are microscopic insects burrowed deep in the rabbit s fur. A relative few crawl up the hairs. Most are content to remain in the depths of the fur, or else, having climbed to the top, crawl back down into its safety. The true philosopher climbs up the hair to look into the eyes of the magician. A philosopher never gets quite used to the world. To him or her, the world continues to seem a bit unreasonable bewildering, even enigmatic. Philosophers and small children thus have an important faculty in common. You might say that throughout his life a philosopher remains as thin- skinned as a child. Chapter 3- The Myths Sophie finds another packet from the philosopher, this time on the ancient myths. The philosopher states that, in all cultures, people wanted explanations for why nature worked the way it did. Rather than coming up with a scientific explanation, they developed myths, which in turn were either based on religions or gave rise to religions. The myths first wanted to explain natural phenomena, such as why it rains. They invented stories of the gods and goddesses and their fights against evil forces. The philosopher gives examples from Nordic mythology. In the same way, ancient Greeks developed myths to explain the seasons, weather, and so on. Homer and Hesiod were the first to write down the myths around 700 BC, thus enabling people to discuss them. With the coming of slavery, citizens were freed to concentrate more on politics and culture.

2 Eventually, ancient Greek philosophers began to question the myths. They began to think that the gods acted too much like human beings, thus stating that the myths were simply inventions of humans. These early philosophers began to look for explanations not found in cultural myths or religious beliefs. They began to question politics and culture and how man should be governed. Contemplation went from being founded on myths to being established on reason. Sophie is intrigued about the myth- makers. She imagines that she knows nothing about science and creates her own mythological explanation for the changing of the seasons. Chapter 4- The Natural Philosophers In the next lesson, the philosopher asks Sophie questions concerning the basic substance of the natural world. He then introduces her to the natural philosophers. He explains that all philosophers have a "project," a specific question they want answered. The natural philosophers were focused on the processes of the natural world. They believed that something cannot come from nothing. They believed that there was a basic substance from which all things were made. What that substance was is where they disagreed. Thales, the first philosopher, thought that all things come from water. Anaximander believed that there was something called the "boundless" from which all things had their origin. Also believed all things are full of gods. What he meant by that we can only surmise. Perhaps, seeing how the black earth was the source of everything from flowers and crops to insects and cockroaches, he imagined that the earth was filled with tiny invisible life- germs. One thing is certain he was not talking about Homer s gods Anaximenes taught the source of all things to be air. We observe that when it rains, water is pressed from the air. When water is pressed even more, it becomes earth, he thought. He may have seen how earth and sand were pressed out of melting ice. He also thought that fire was rarefied air. According to Anaximenes, air was therefore the origin of earth, water, and fire. Around 500 BC, the Eleatics flourished. Parmenides thought that everything that exists has always existed, and nothing can change. He believed that reason, rather than senses, are more reliable. Parmenides realized, of course, that nature is in a constant state of flux. He perceived with his senses that things changed. But he could not equate this with what his reason told him. When forced to choose between relying either on his senses or his reason, he chose reason. He believed that our senses give us an incorrect picture of the world, a picture that does not tally with our reason. As a philosopher, he saw it as his task to expose all forms of perceptual illusion. This unshakable faith in human reason is called rationalism. A rationalist is someone who believes that human reason is the primary source of our knowledge of the world.

3 Parmenides and Heraclitus both say two things: a) that nothing can change, and b) that our sensory perceptions must therefore be unreliable. Heraclitus, on the other hand, says: c) that everything changes ( all things flow ), and d) that our sensory perceptions are reliable. On the other hand, Heraclitus believed that everything changes, and that our senses are reliable. Empedocles refined the philosophy of both Parmenides and Heraclitus. He taught that things change, but their basic substance does not. He taught that there are four basic substances: air, water, earth, and fire. Different combinations of these made up all of nature. Anaxagora believed that there was an even more basic substance "seeds." From these seeds everything existed, bound together by a force he identified as "love." Chapter 5- Democritus Democritus s premises: Nothing can change Nothing can come from nothing Nothing is ever lost Lego are easy to assemble, though they are all different, they all fit together. They are also unbreakable just like Atoms All life is made of tiny, invisible blocks, called atoms Atom means uncuttable Must be eternal, immutable,indivisible If atoms could eternally be broken down into ever smaller parts, nature would begin to dissolve like constantly diluted soup Are these combinations random? Everything obeys the inevitable laws of necessity. The natural cause of a thing is inherent in the thing itself. Chapter 6- Fate Fatalism is the belief that whatever happens is predestined The ancient Greeks believed that they could consult the famous oracle at Delphi about their fate Today there are still many people who believe that God or some other mysterious power is steering the course of history. Chapter 7- Socrates, wisest is she who knows she does not know - If the philosopher meant that someone who realized that she didn t know everything under the sun was wiser than someone who knew just a little, but who thought she knew a whole lot

4 Sentences on envelope Socrates knew he did not know True insight comes from within Chapter 8 Athens: Is there such a thing as natural modesty? Wisest is she who knows she does not know. True insight comes from within. He who knows what is right will do right. This made him wisest of all. So, in marketplace, he asked questions. He never taught. He always said, Teach me. Insight is not knowledge poured into your head. It is innate, waiting to be discovered. First democracy; oral culture news & entertainment transmitted orally; lots of political debate; art of persuasion was paramount. Sophist Wise and informed person. Paid teachers, critical of traditional mythology (!) Socrates hated Sophists Protagoras (Sophist) Are there any absolute norms Socrates Thought they taught rhetoric to make a person more convincing; they did not teach truth. A good learner could be more convincing and effectively argue for falsehood. The Sophists had one characteristic in common with the natural philosophers: they were critical of the traditional mythology. Man is the measure of all things. The question of right and wrong can only be considered in relation to a person s needs. for what is right or wrong? How do we determine what is right or wrong? Since Plato is putting his own philosophy in Socrates mouth, we cannot be sure that the words he speaks in the dialogues were ever actually uttered by him. So it is no easy matter to distinguish between the teachings of Socrates and the philosophy of Plato The essential nature of Socrates art lay in the fact that he did not appear to want to instruct people. On the contrary he gave the impression of one desiring to learn from those he spoke with. So instead of lecturing like a traditional schoolmaster, he discussed. Both Jesus and Socrates were enigmatic personalities, also to their contemporaries. Neither of them wrote down their teachings, so we are forced to rely on the picture we have of them from their disciples. But we do know that they were both masters of the art of discourse. They both spoke with a characteristic self- assuredness that could fascinate as well as exasperate. And not least, they both believed that they spoke on behalf of something greater than themselves. They challenged the power of the community by criticizing all forms of injustice and corruption. And finally their activities cost them their lives. The trials of Jesus and Socrates also exhibit clear parallels. They could certainly both have saved themselves by appealing for mercy, but they both felt they had a mission that would have been betrayed unless they kept faith to the bitter end. And by meeting their death so bravely they commanded an enormous following, also after they had died.

5 Socrates called himself a philosopher in the true sense of the word. A philosopher really means one who loves wisdom. Chapter 9: Plato Plato s Project Plato s Academy If someone knows what the right thing to do is in a situation she will do it, because it will make her happy. Socrates did not believe that people would deliberately act in a way to make themselves unhappy How can a baker bake 50 identical cookies? Why are horses the same? Does a human have an immortal soul? Are men and women equally sensible? 29 when Socrates died. Named Academy after legendary Greek hero, Academus. Taught philosophy, mathematics, gymnastics. Classes were all discussion. Eternally True, Eternally Beautiful, Eternally Good He believed there as the eternal, immutable and that which flows as did Socrates, but related it to human morals and society s ideals or virtues. World of Ideas Plato agreed with Empedocles, Democritus & NatPhils that everything in nature flows, or changes. Everything material changes, but there is a timeless mold that does not change. These molds or forms These forms he called Reason Two regions of human are categories, not individuals. Molds for man, woman, frog, wombat, etc., a set of characteristics, not something material. idea, as in Idea horse, Idea human, Idea kumquat. Therefore, must be a reality behind material world. This reality he called World of Ideas. is eternal and universal, expressing eternal and universal states, like mathematics: 360 degrees in circle; 180 in triangle, etc. 1) Senses which give us incomplete knowledge b/c everything flows, nothing is permanent, and 2) World of Ideas which give us true knowledge if we use our reason. World of Ideas cannot be perceived by our senses (Why??) But forms (ideas) can be perceived by reason as they are eternal and immutable. Recollection occurs as we grow more conscious we see a wombat, we sense it is imperfect (Why?? B/c it is always changing), but that sight spurs a vague recollection of the Idea wombat. Myth of the Cave Plato s Allegory of the Cave People underground in long cave, shackled by chains so they only see back wall of cave. Behind them, creatures hold 2- dimensional figures, light from fire casts flickering shadows on back of cave, which people assume is Real. One person frees himself, asks himself Where do these figures come from? then turns around. He is dazzled by the light, then clarity and beauty of the

6 figures themselves. This ecstasy causes him to search for more. He walks to cave opening and is overcome by light, color, 3- dimensional figures. More beautiful than anything he has ever seen!! Returns to back of cave to tell others, but they don t believe him and kill him. Chapter 10- The Major s Cabin Chapter 11- Aristotle a meticulous organizer who wanted to clarify our concepts He was the great organizer who founded and classified the various sciences Aristotle decided that reality consisted of various separate things that constitute a unity of form and substance. The substance is what things are made of, while the form is each thing s specific characteristics. THE ANALOGY OF THE SCULPTOR AND THE GRANITE V. ARISTOTLE S LAWS OF CAUSALITY: (Construct an example...) A. MATERIAL- - the block of wood. B. FORMAL- - the idea of the table. C. EFFICIENT- - the carpenter. D. FINAL- - the reason for the table being made. LOGIC: A. THE SYLLOGISM B. DEDUCTION VS. INDUCTION Chapter 12- Hellenism Hellenism Rome Characterized by: New religions from East Philosophy Hellenistic philosophy Cynics Time and thought from Socrates to 0 A.D. Rose to power around 50 A.D., ushered in time period called Late Antiquity religious doubts / cultural dissolution / pessimism professed salvation from death followed suite: It is its own reward and Philosophy should free humans from pessimism and fear of death. mainly concerned with ethics (still exploring topics raised by Plato and Socrates) Antisthenes (pupil of Socrates) True happiness not found in anything external, such as material luxury, political power or good health

7 Stoics Zeno (taught under a STOA, or portico) Natural Law based on timeless reason governs all of life. No duality between matter and spirit = monist Epicureans Epicurus Highest good is pleasure / Greatest evil is pain. Must strive for the greatest pleasure, longer lasting, intense Pleasure not necessarily sensual pleasure (friendship, appreciation of art, philosophy are the highest pleasures) Added Democritus atom theory, which was useful to cure religious superstitions Neoplatonism Plotinus World of ideas and matter are separate / body and soul are two separate and distinct realities Two poles span universe: God or One, from which light emerges other, which is complete darkness. Light of God / One covers all but other pole. All that exists is God (soul illuminated by God s light), exists means living. Inanimate things, rocks, water, etc., have no real existence (complete darkness) Evil has no existence, only the absence of light Chapter 13- The Postcards Gaarder suggests that although we learn many things in school, the use of our common sense is not necessarily one of them. Sophie has not done her homework for her Religious Knowledge test, but she managed to answer each of the questions very well using her reason. The philosophy course has taught her that she can think a question through and come up with a good answer to with nothing more than common sense. Furthermore, there is nothing more important to us than the ability to use that reason. Unlike factual knowledge, our reason can be applied to anything. The implication seems to be that learning how to think is much more critical to success than learning any specific set of facts Chapter 14- Two Cultures Chapter 15- The Middle Ages Middle Ages also called Dark Ages because great civilizations crumbled, reverted back to feudalism and bartering after glory of Rome. From Late 400s: sack of Rome, Western civ collapsed In 529 two things occured: 1) church closed down Plato s Academy 2) Benedict began the first Christian monasteries Kept Greek Philosophy and Learning alive Christianity spread through Europe MA lasted 1000 years, under Constantine, Christianity became official religion of Rome, became unifying force in Europe. During the Middle Ages, Christianity spread throughout Europe

8 Medieval Alexandria Greek culture Meanwhile, Muslims Two dominant philosophers: means anything authoritarian and inflexible Fount of Greek culture, conquered by Muslims, Aristotle s thought flourished, Muslims excelled in sciences, math, chemistry, astronomy, and medicine divided into 3 streams: Neoplatonism west Plato east Aristotle Africa kept Aristotle s philosophy alive. Italian nobles invited Muslim scholars to discuss their truth. Aquinas heard them St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas History is important to Augustine. Why? Do you see any evidence that may support his thought? Augustine ( ) preoccupied with problem of evil, used neoplatonism: evil is absence of good, it has no existence of its own. No real break from Greek thought. Christianity is a divine mystery God illuminates our souls to give us direct knowledge: Platonic ideas placed in Mind of God ( married Platonic thought with Christianity). Linear view of history: (semitic) human history is struggle between good & evil. We get better through time, until we ALL are good, then Kingdom of God will manifest. In history, we find the destruction of evil and enlightenment of humanity. St. Thomas Aquinas ( ) called dumb ox ; very fat; walked from U of Paris to Rome every year. Enamored with Aristotle s philosophy. He saw no conflict between faith and reason. Both will lead us to enlightenment. Natural truths: theological truths accessible by both faith and reason. Aristotle s scientific discoveries compatible with Christian doctrine, the rest of truth is revealed in the Bible. Aristotle s First Mover is Aquinas God, who set everything in motion. There are two paths to goodness: 1. What the Bible says, and 2. Our natural conscience in which we inherently know what is good and evil.

9 Males dominated the time, but significant women thinkers existed at this time as well, most notably Hildegard of Bingen who had mystical visions of Sophia or divine wisdom. Chapter 16- The Renaissance Why did the scientific method develop in the Renaissance and not in the Middle Ages? When medieval philosophers said we could not know God because God is unknowable, philosophy and science broke away from the Church. This opened the door to Renaissance ( rebirth, specifically of the art and culture of ancient Greece & Rome) and the Reformation. In Greece In Middle Ages In Renaissance cultural emphasis was on the human cultural emphasis was on God cultural emphasis shifted back to the human Three Inventions Compass to navigate Rifle Printing Press Telescope to subjugate to spread ideas rapidly. The Church was no longer the sole disseminator of knowledge, began to lose its central position. also, let to astronomical advances Economy All of this produced moved from subsistence to money, gave rise to middle class, and leisure, free time to think a new view of humankind: Middle Ages: human considered sinful, Renaissance: human considered beautiful, so society promoted joyful celebration of everything human thought, music, literature, art, science, etc. The advance of all things human (which is humanism) erupted like a super volcano! This led to Individualism, or the celebration of genius. Everything human, including the body, was good. Church was angry at this humanism. Burned Giordano Bruno in the Campo dei fiore in Rome

10 Good and Evil are two threads intertwined throughout history, as knowledge increases, the potential for evil increases. As wisdom increases, though, the evil thread is converted into the good thread. Scientific Method Which gave rise to Galileo s Newton s investigated nature with senses and observation (just like natphils, no?), but with a difference: a systematic experimentation, Empirical Method: observation, experience, experiment. Knowledge is now based on experience! Law of Inertia (huge scientific achievement!) Law of Universal Gravitation Geocentric world replaced by heliocentric worldview by Copernicus, Keppler, and Galileo. This created confusion, removed Earth from the center of the universe, removed the Church from the center of faith, led to Individual relationship with Godwhich created the Reformation, led by Martin Luther: we don t need the intervention of priests to receive God s forgiveness. Newton s theory of gravitation Mathematics forces are at work in all of nature, just as Empedocles said. flourished to describe nature and natural events. Such as weather temperature, wind speed, barometric pressure, humidity, precipitation are all numbers Everything started moving away from God and toward the individual. Chapter 17- The Baroque Baroque described a pearl of irregular shape. Irregularity was prominent feature of the Baroque era. 17 th century characterized by irreconcilable contrasts: palaces & monasteries frilly, lacy, vain clothes and affectations (powdered wigs, etc.) and religious seclusion and self denial time of great class differences, the very, very rich and the very, very poor In Baroque Art both sublime nature of God, and everyday messiness of life portrayed side- by- side Two Latin Phrases carpe diem seize the day memento mori remember you must die Theater the metaphor for life in Baroque period: stage is an illusion, but we get caught up in the drama, cry when the heroine dies, laugh when clowns fall, then, at end, when actors take their bows, we realize it was all illusion

11 Dreams Great philosophical battles Idealists Materialists Materialism too, were considered as important symbols for life: Chauang- tzu and his dream of being a butterfly were fought between Idealists and Materialists from idea : everything springs from a spiritual root (Berkeley) everything springs from a material root (Democritus); famous materialist was Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher who said all phenomena consists exclusively of particles of matter, even consciousness arises from movements of tiny particles in the brain fueled by the new sciences. Newton: forces exist throughout the entire universe that act with mechanical precision, so we can predict and calculate changes in nature. This is called a MECHANISTIC WORLDVIEW. This worldview was carried over to humans as well. La Mettrie (l homme machine) and Laplace, a mathematician who said if we know the position of all particles in the universe, we would know EVERYTHING, which expresses DETERMINISM (no free will?) Two greatest 17 th century philosophers Descartes & Spinoza Chapter 18- Descartes I think, therefore I am How can we be sure that anything is true? Baroque era: All is illusory Descartes proved (at least to himself and many others 1. that he existed 2. that God existed 3.that the world existed Like Socrates Descartes was convinced of his own ignorance. Maintained that the only certain knowledge is attainable through REASON. Therefore, Descartes was a RATIONALIST Father of Modern Philosophy in Renaissance first to develop a philosophical system after the explosion of thought A philosophical system Great mathematician is constructed from the ground up. D searched for answers to all central questions of philosophy, starting from the simple, then moving to the complex. developed analytical geometry

12 D s main concerns: 1. What do we know for certain, We can t trust our senses. They might be deceiving us. When we dream, we feel we are experiencing reality, and 2. What is the relationship between the body and the mind (how can something spiritual start a mechanical process?) The Soul Aristotle said the soul is life principle, inseparable from body. Descartes would change that. What is TRUE, or REAL knowledge? whatsoever. That which can be perceived clearly and distinctly, with no doubt Senses can deceive us (as Parmenides already said). Descartes Method A 1. Doubt the truth of everything When I consider this carefully, I find not a single property which with certainty separates the waking state from the dream How can you be certain that your whole life is not a dream? (Gaarder 235). Mind reason rationality give us certainty. Mind perceives mathematics, numbers (all of which give us certainty). 2. That I doubt is true 3. Doubting is thinking 4. I am a thinking being, therefore 5. Cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am), is more real, clear, distinct than anything from the material world. Descartes Method B What can I perceive with equal clarity? Is the material world a phantasm? 1. I know that I exist. 2. I am thinking of a perfect entity 3. We all possess the idea of a perfect entity 4. I am imperfect, therefore 5. That idea originates from the perfect entity, not me, because I cannot conceive perfection. 6. Inherent in the idea of perfection is existence, therefore, this perfect entity does exist (it wouldn t be perfect if it didn t exist),

13 7. Therefore, God exists. The idea of God is innate just like a circle with equidistant points. What can we know for certain about the material world? Certain: Uncertain: Quantitative properties: length, width, height, weight because they use numbers, they express external reality Qualitative properties: color, taste, smell, etc. are NOT CERTAIN because they reflect our own personal senses, not the object as it is. But, how do we know that God is not deceiving us into thinking the material world exists? God would not deceive us, for if God did, God would not be a perfect entity. Two different forms of reality: Thought (mind): pure consciousness, takes up no space, cannot be divided Extension (matter): pure extension, takes up space, can be divided Both forms originate from God but have no contact with each other separated Mind from Body; he was a dualist- Human has both mind (thought) and a body (extension), therefore, mind can be influenced by body and its cravings, but mind can also act independently of body. With this separation we can act morally, justly, nobly, in spite of our base desires (for base desires originate in the bodily functions). When we act terribly we are being swayed by our bodily functions, and can be ignoble. Even when we are old and decrepit, our mind still knows that 2+2=4. Our mind still knows truth and certainty. Since we have this knowledge at all times, we can choose to act either morally, with nobility, or cruelly. Chapter 19- Spinoza Are we free? Do we have free will? Descartes Spinoza God exists independently of nature God exists in nature God is infinite cannot be divided into realms or substances, but can be divided into modes of expression. Flower is one mode of expression. Poem about the flower is a different mode of expression But both modes are God. Because all is in God, everything is subject to the natural law. We have limited freedom. We must obey our nature (lions hunt, killer whales eat seals, students procrastinate). We can decide how to cut our hair, whether or not to brush our teeth, what to wear, but we cannot decide to disobey our nature. To be the most free that a human can be, we must control our passions ambition and lust, e.g. These passions keep us unhappy and chained (The chains in Plato s cave?). When we deny those passions, we will arrive at an intuitive realization that there is only ONE, not many.

14 To under this system of nature we must first understand the whole then the part. Chapter 20- Locke One fish in the ocean it sees only the immediate vicinity, the others in its school. The reality is that the fish is a part of a school in the Atlantic, which is a part of the whole ocean, which is a part of the earth, which is a part of the solar system, which is a part of the Milky Way, which is a part of the universe, which is a part of. Until we can know the whole, we can t really know our part. Descartes & Spinoza rationalists: true knowledge comes from reason Locke & Hume empiricists: true knowledge comes from experience Locke We only know what we have experienced first Words like God, Eternity, Substance, are fallacies. Reason is being misused, b/c we have not experienced any of these 2 questions: 1. Where do we get our ideas? 2. Can we rely on what our senses tell us? Mind is blank We only perceive tabula rasa, which means blank slate. We sense things, which leaves impressions. But mind doesn t simply collect. It processes these impressions, thinking, reasoning, believing, doubting. Which gives rise to reflection, thinking, etc. Mind is NOT a passive receiver. It classifies and processes all sensations simple sensations, then we reflect upon these sensations to form complex ideas Simple sensations: cool, crisp, juicy, sweet Complex idea: apple 2 things happening: sensing and reflecting Any knowledge that cannot be traced back to a simple sensation is false and must be rejected. World divided into 2 categories: primary qualities (extension, weight, motion, number), and secondary qualities (color, smell, taste, etc.) Everyone can agree on primary qualities b/c they are inherent in the object itself No one can agree on secondary qualities b/c they reproduce only the effect the object has on our senses, which vary from person to person Locke also promoted that ethical principles applied to everyone there is a natural right insisted on the equality of sexes: subjugation of women by men is man made, so it can be changed

15 called for division of powers (executive, legislative, judiciary) to fight tyranny All men are granted the rights of life, liberty, and property Chapter 21- Hume Hume most important of the empiricists 2 perceptions: Impressions: immediate sensation of external reality / very strong experience Ideas: recollection of such impressions / pale reflection of strong experience The impression causes the idea Angel (complex idea) As for heaven, We often form complex ideas from no corresponding object in physical world. We cut and paste ideas from simple impressions to form complex ideas. formed by cutting and pasting ideas of human, white robes, and wings. We have not experienced an angel, we have created the angel from other simple impressions. Nothing is actually invented by the mind. If we have not seen gold, we cannot possibly think of streets of gold. we have seen pearls, gates, streets, and gold before. We have cut and pasted these ideas into a complex idea of heaven. otherwise, we could not imagine streets of gold. If we cannot trace a thought or idea back to simple impressions, we must reject it as false. Hume was an agnostic, one who believes that God can be neither proved nor disproved, therefore, his only true answer was, I don t know. Faith may be considered that which I want to believe (my definition, not Hume s). Reason is knowledge. Faith is not reason. Therefore, Faith is not knowledge. Cause and Effect We have not does not exist in the object or processes of nature. It exists only in our minds. I have seen a stone fall many times. But I have never experienced that it will always fall. experienced the law of gravitation. The law is a theory that attempts to explain our experience of something falling. We experience the stone falling. We do not experience the law of gravity. To say something will fall before experiencing it is jumping to conclusions, therefore not knowledge....the expectation of one thing following another does not lie in the things themselves, but in our mind (273). Billiard ball does not cause the other billiard ball to roll. Lightning and Thunder just because we see lightning then hear thunder, we think lightning causes thunder. This is not true. Bertrand Russell s chicken story I see someone walk under a ladder, then get hit with a sloppy cabbage tossed from a 2 nd floor window. I conclude that walking under a ladder will cause bad things to happen. Is this necessarily true?

16 One of the main concerns of philosophy is to warn people against jumping to conclusions It can in fact lead to many different forms of superstition (274). I witness several people getting cured after taking a particular drug, so I conclude that the drug cures that disease. Is this necessarily true? Chapter 22- Berkeley George Berkeley (Irish bishop) Worldly things Locke said Locke / Descartes / Spinoza Berkeley questioned Thought current philosophies of materialism presented a threat to The Christian faith are as we perceive them only they are not things. We cannot make statements about secondary qualities, but Primary qualities do have material substance. said material world is a reality. this statement using the logic of empiricism. 1. The only things that exist are those we perceive. 2. But, we do not perceive matter. We do not perceive things as tangible objects. 3. To think so is jumping to conclusions! 4. What we perceive are perceptions only! Hit the table. I have a perception of something hard, but I don t actually feel the matter of the table. I feel a perception. 5. Just as in a dream, I dream I hit something hard, but actually, there s nothing hard in a dream. All of our ideas have a cause beyond our consciousness, a spiritual cause, not material one. My soul is the cause of my ideas, but another spirit is the cause of all ideas about external things. That spirit is God. The existence of God is more clearly perceived than the existence of man. God is intimately present in our consciousness causing our perceptions of the material world. We only exist in the mind of God. The only thing Berkeley knows is that we are made of spirit. Two arguments A. physical objects are simply collections of sensible ideas. B. every sensible quality is an idea C. No idea can exist unperceived D. Therefore, no physical object can exist unperceived.

17 A. I cannot conceive of a sensible object existing unperceived, because if I attempt to do so, I must conceive of that very object. B. No sensible object can exist without the mind. C. Any sensible quality is an idea, therefore it exists only in the mind, not in the object itself. Chapter 24- The Enlightenment Are Sophie and Alberto actually thinking or are they thoughts themselves thinking they are thinking? French Enlightenment: last portion of the 18 th century; philosophers were influenced by Locke (esp.), and his life, liberty, property. Was the time of the French revolution: the haves had an awful lot, and the have nots had an awful lot of nothing. Deplorable conditions everywhere Seven points: 1. opposition to authority: each person must find his or her own answers. Oppose the clergy, king, and nobility b/c they are now corrupt. 2. rationalism: according to both Descartes and Locke, belief in God and immortality of soul is a function of reason, not faith. The world is far too rational for there not to be a God (a self evident / obvious truth.) Enlightenment called the Age of Reason. 3. enlightenment movement: the philosophers duty was to lay a foundation of ethics, morals, and religion based on humankind s immutable reason. Poverty and oppression were the result of ignorance and superstition. 4. cultural optimism: enlighten the masses, educate them, and ignorance and superstition will be eradicated we will make great progress toward a better society. 5. return to nature: nature is the same as reason to these French philosophers. Reason is a gift of nature, a natural gift, inherent in every human being (Aristotle thought that) (more rationalist thinking) *. 6. natural religion: must bring religion into harmony with natural reason, remove all unnatural things, such as irrational (unnatural) dogmas or doctrines. God created the world and its natural law, and has not interfered ever since. God reveals itself through nature and natural laws, not in a supernatural way. Modeled after Aristotle s first mover. This belief is called Deism. Jefferson and the majority of Founding Fathers were Deists, not Christians. Jefferson rewrote the Gospels, removing all unnatural events, such as miracles. 7. human rights: very important! French philosophers believed in natural rights (Locke again) of all humans. Individual right to freedom of thought is supreme. Promoted the abolition of slavery

18 and humane treatment of criminals, women s rights (kind of) among other things. An individual s rights are natural, God given, therefore inalienable (incapable of being alienated, surrendered imprescriptible). They practiced what they preached, and inspired the citizens to rebel against the oppressive power structure of the day, hence, the French Revolution. Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789: these were the basic human rights entitled to every person from the simple fact that he or she was born. Rousseau: French philosopher: said back to nature, meaning 1. nature is good 2. man is by nature good 3. civilization ruins man Those living in and with nature seemed to be happier and healthier than those living in cities. Enlightenment thinking still prevalent today, as evidenced by these sayings and bumper stickers: 1. Question Authority. 2. A mind is a terrible thing to waste. 3. If you think education is expensive, try ignorance. 4. Knowledge is Power. 5. Jesus saves, Buddha recycles. 6. Save Tibet. Chapter 25- Kant Philosophic project:what can we know about the world? (since Descartes) Both sensing and reason play part in how we perceive the world (red sunglasses). Need both for true knowledge. Rationalists Empiricists We don t know We do know forgot the importance of experience forgot that our mind influences the way we see the world (both partly right / wrong) What we will see 1) things we see will occur in time and space 2) the law of cause and effect will apply b/c these reside in our consciousness We innately look for cause. We always ask Why? or How? The Law of Causality belongs to the mind, not external reality (huh?). Mind cannot be a tabula rasa, just as a tub of silicon chips can t be a computer. Processing must occur, and this filters, or structures, knowledge. Kant s greatest contribution to philosophy dividing line between things in themselves and things as they appear to me.

19 We cannot know things in themselves. We can know things as they appear to me. External to us Internal to us Material of knowledge Form of knowledge Big questions Experience Reason material of knowledge all of our sensory perceptions form of knowledge the limits of reason comes from senses, but these must conform to the the attributes or limits of reason immortal soul, god, infinite universe, cannot be answered by reason. Why? gives us facts of the world transforms those facts into knowledge Certainty requires both reason & sensory experience. When we speak of God, etc., we exceed sensory experience, because we speak of a thing of which we are only a tiny part. We do not know the whole. That is why there are equally valid arguments both for and against the existence of God. Therefore, we have equally satisfying answers for each side of the big questions. Ethics A Postulate K s practical postulates something we know is true but can t prove 1) immortal soul 2) god exists 3) free will If we don t have these three, we don t have any morality We all have practical reason, innate knowledge to discern right & wrong, accessible to everyone (conscience). Categorical imperative categorical = applies to every situation imperative = absolute authority Applies to everyone at all times in every circumstance 1 st formulation Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a Universal Law of Nature. 2 nd formulation. Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or the person of another, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end. We only act freely when we obey this moral law. Why? Since this law arises from our innate reason, whenever we decide to obey, we create the law. Also, we decide from our own free will when we decide, we are free. If I smile at someone

20 Chapter 26- Romanticism hoping he or she will like me that is not moral. What if they sneer? What will be my reaction? I want something from that smile, a return that is positive. If I smile because it s the right thing to do, I ve acted morally b/c I do not care what the reaction will be. The person may sneer. The intent, not the result, determines if an action is moral or not. Late 1700s 1850s Started in Germany Catch words Like Renaissance Art very important German poet Schiller Only art last great epoch of European culture that encompassed poetry, art, music, science, philosophy, and literature as reaction to Enlightenment s emphasis on reason feeling, imagination, experience, yearning Romanticism exalted artistic genius, i.e., Beethoven Kant: When we are overwhelmed by beauty, we come closer to an experience of nature in itself. activity of an artist is like play / we are free / make our own rules can bring us closer to the inexpressible, blurs distinction between dream & reality Romantics German college students of early 1800s / we must be free to dream, to create. The day- to- day business will be taken care of by the philistines. yearned for something distant and unattainable Yearned for nature & nature s mysteries in opposition to Enlightenment s mechanistic universe Were pantheists nature, everything, 1 world spirit, one huge I Leading Romantic philosopher Schelling / wanted to unite mind and matter / both are experssions of 1 world spirit / matter is slumbering intelligence Nature is Organism a unity in process, always developing its potentialities, like a flower unfolding its petals / key word organism, both plant and nation were living organisms Fairy tale In Literature absolute literary ideal of Romantics, just as theater was for Baroque in fantasy of plot, or the escapism of plot, writer would insert some hint that this is just a story, a bagatelle. This called romantic irony. Seems to me like self- centeredness.

21 Chapter 27- Hegel Romantics view of world spirit was vague, foggy concept with little truth to support it. Hegel s world spirit This world spirit Humanity sum of human achievement: human life, human thought, human culture is constantly growing, improving is always moving toward greater rationality and freedom. How? Hegel s dialectic Strong statement Opposing view Reconciliation of both views (a term he never used) Each thought is most often based on a previous thought thesis antithesis synthesis. Synthesis becomes the next thesis, waiting for an antithesis Ex. thesis: Parmenides nothing changes antithesis: Heraclitus everything changes synthesis: Empedocles 4 elements change, not actual thing thesis: antithesis: synthesis: Descartes rationalism Hume s empiricism Kant s both are partly right In this way That which is right human activity is constantly growing to greater rationality and freedom survives The hope for humanity is a strong statement will always generate a strong negation, which will lead to a higher truth Philosophy is the highest form of knowledge b/c the world spirit us reflects upon its (philosophy s) impact on history. Relativism issue Thoughts must be considered in their context of history. Everyone, even Aristotle, thought slavery was acceptable, even natural. Hegel says we can t say Aristotle was wrong b/c in ancient Greece, this was the prevailing thought. This is the trap! In his time, perhaps Aristotle was right, says Hegel. But knowing what we know now the world spirit has grown and improved, we can say he was misguided. We need to remember that so we don t repeat

22 the growing pains of humanity. Since few willingly become slaves, subjecting into slavery is wrong. others Romantics Hegel emphasized individuals as separate from society emphasized society as necessary foundation of individuals. One who separates himself from society will be ridiculed. Chapter 28- Kierkegaard Kierkegaard railed against Hegel s view of the individual as being not important Father of Hegel Existentialism, or philosophy of existence. That which is most important to me is that which is most important. Poisoned arrow example. obscured the individual s responsibility for his or her own life. Taking responsibility for one s own life is central to existentialism. Three stages of life Aesthetic: lives for moment, grasps every enjoyment, every moment of beauty, pleasure, etc. Lives in world of senses only, is slave to desires and moods. Reflective attitude to sorrow, which appears noble but is all vanity. Sense of dread, or emptiness = angst, very unpleasant, but can be springboard to leap to next stage Ethical stage: serious about moral choices. This, too, after a while, becomes boring, odiously dutiful Religious stage: jump into the abyss of Faith (Christianity). Either Jesus rose from the dead or he didn t. If he did, we cannot take that lightly. That would be inauthentic. Chapter 29- Marx tremendous class struggles of the mid-nineteenth century Marx became what is known as a historical materialist He was not a philosophical materialist like the atomists of antiquity nor did he advocate the mechanical materialism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But he thought that, to a great extent, it was the material factors in society which determined the way we think. Material factors of that nature have certainly been decisive for historical development Hegel called the force that drives history forward world spirit or world reason. This, Marx claimed, is upside down. He wished to show that material changes are the ones that affect history. Spiritual relations do not create material change, it is the other way about. Material change creates new spiritual relations. Marx particularly emphasized that it was the economic forces in society that created change and thus drove history forward. Marx called these material, economic, and social relations the basis of society. The way a society thinks, what kind of political institutions there are, which laws it has and, not least, what there is of religion, morals, art, philosophy, and science, Marx called society s superstructure. In the same manner we will identify three levels in the bases of society. The most basic level is what we may call society s conditions of production. In other words, the natural conditions or resources that are available to society. These are the foundation of any society, and this foundation clearly determines the

23 type of production in the society, and by the same token, the nature of that society and its culture in general. Chapter 30- Darwin Chapter 31- Freud Developed Constant tension We are not We store all memories psychoanalysis / description of human mind and therapy for mental disorders b/t internal, human drives and demands of society the completely rational being that many thought. There are subconscious, human drives affecting the way we think and what we do. deep inside us. Many of these memories hide from the light of our consciousness, but they still determine our behavior / can cause neurotic behavior later. Archaeology of the soul digging deeply into the psyche to unearth these memories. Conscious Subconscious Unconscious Id Ego that which we are aware of hidden just beneath the surface, but can be retrieved at any time buried so deeply, we are not aware of its memories pleasure principle. From infancy we crave comfort and pleasure. Natural Soon, we realize we cannot have all that we want, so we adjust our desires for pleasure because of the reality principle, or ego. We push these desires down, repress them, b/c we cannot achieve them. Superego Parents, society, clergy, etc., teach us what we should do. This moral component acts as a part of our conscience. Since sexual desires arise naturally and at a young age, the Id and Superego are constantly in conflict. Tension exists b/t desire and guilt. So far But, for some, very normal. this tension is excessive, creating a neurosis, or psychic disturbance that alters normal functioning. Dreams are wish fulfillments. B/c psychic censorship (superego) is constant, wish fulfillments are often seen as a should not and so are filtered into symbols. Unpack the symbols and we can understand the interior of the psyche. Creativity interplay b/t imagination and reason. Imagination places images on the table. Reason selects the best images.

24 Chapter 32- Our Own Time Sartre 20 th century French existentialist. Man is the only living creature that is conscious of its own existence. Existence takes priority over essence. No innate nature. Meaning in life must be created. When a human realizes he or she will die, then also realizes life has no meaning (why am I suffering so much for no reason?), he or she experiences angst. Just as for Kierkegaard, this angst can propel one to create his or her own meaning in life. We must create meaning for ourselves. (Why am I here?) w/o meaning in life, man is alienated: alone and isolated, filled with despair, boredom, nausea, absurdity Absurd is Latin for deaf to the meaning. This arises from our freedom to choose. Sartre saw freedom as a negative thing. Why? We are responsible for everything we do. Life must have meaning. We must create it. Theater of Absurd highly improbable and surrealistic plots. Actors don t react to the absurdity of the play, which causes audience to howl. We must examine the symbolism and be sparked to create our own meaning. p. 456 The very questions we started our course are still unanswered. A philosophical question is by definition something that each generation, each individual even, must ask over and over again. To do so is to know that we are alive. Chapter 33- The Garden Party