In the nineteenth-century, developments in Science, philosophy, geology, biology, history and theology challenged many held theological assumptions.

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1 5 Science & The Rise of Liberalism In the nineteenth-century, developments in Science, philosophy, geology, biology, history and theology challenged many held theological assumptions. Shows up in a number of ways: First area of challenge - Geology Charles Lyell ( ) theory of uniformitarianism Lyell was a big influence on Charles Darwin. Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. He argued that we could understand the past by looking at the current processes in operation. He saw the earth as being quite old. Much older than what people have been suggesting. These discoveries stood in contrast to what you would find if you read your Bibles, for, in some of the Bibles of this time, if you were to look at the Book of Genesis, Chapter 1, verse 1, you would sometimes find listed in the margins these words, 4004 BC. Bishop James Ussher ( ) Bishop James Ussher, Irish, prolific scholar, and Primate of all Ireland for a number of years. in the 17th century, calculated the age of the earth as being oct. 23rd 4004 BC, and the time of the fall as Oct. 28th. As Stephen Jay Gould notes he represented the best in scholarship of his time. He canvassed every available source of historical information, took into account the histories of other civilizations, the anachronisms of calendars in ancient times, and stood against centuries of theological tradition which insisted that the fall had occurred on March 25th Ussher comes out of the Protestant scholastic tradition and though his ideas were not universally accepted, they nevertheless reflected common thinking that the earth was around 6000 years old. It was this unspoken assumption that is begin challenged by Lyell. Darwin builds directly on top of Lyell s writings. In fact, it was Lyell that Darwin read on his famous voyage of The Beagle. This trip changed his view of the Bible and his own calling in life. Second area of Challenge: Biology Hugely influenced by Thomas Malthus ( ) population presses on resources. Darwin s theory is Malthus ideas applied to nature. Malthus wrote in 1789, An Essay on Population. Populations always press on the limits of existence, but keep themselves in check through wars, pestilence, and famine. This is a natural law, which allows an optimal ratio between population and resources. Darwin applies these ideas to the organic world.

2 Charles Darwin ( ) The idea of evolution was not novel. Many theories had been presented describing how animals and plants change progressively. Locke (died in 1704, well before Darwin): In all the visible world, we see no chasms or gaps. There are fishes that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy regions; and there are some birds that are inhabitants of the water, whose blood is cold as fishes There are animals so near of kin to both birds and beasts that they are in the middle between both and the animal and vegetable kingdoms are so nearly joined, that, if you will take the lowest of one and the highest of the other, there will scarce be perceived any great difference between them: and so on, till we come to the lowest and most inorganical parts of matter, we shall find everywhere that the several species are linked together, and differ but in almost insensible degrees. This view was common; Aristotle, Aquinas, other Christian philosophers, on down through the ages. This is another part of what is beyond the historically preferred non-literal reading of the early chapters of Genesis. Darwin, the Man Born in England, fifth of six children born to wealthy parents (Father = doctor and financier) Studied to be an Anglican clergyman. Had a desire to pastor in the countryside. Loved nature and thought that this kind of pastorate would be most suitable. Very enigmatic - hard to really pin down what he was thinking and believing about the natural world and about God at various points in his life Four Features of the Natural World that challenged earlier ideas 1 1. The forms of certain living creatures seemed to be adapted to specific needs that appeared. Up until this point, William Paley had argued that these adaptations were designed specifically by God. Darwin didn't agree with this. 2. Some species seemed to have gone extinct (learned this through looking at fossils). Before Darwin, this fact of extinction was explained through natural catastrophe a such as a "universal flood". 3. The distribution of life forms in the world seemed to be uneven (this came out of his experience on the Galápagos Islands). 4. Many creatures seemed to possess what is called "rudimentary structures", that is, parts of their bodies which had no apparent use or function. [Think Ostrich! Has wings but can't fly!] How would this jibe with Paley's view which stressed perfect design of the species. Why would God design redundancies? It didn't make sense. 1 See Alistair McGrath, Science and Religion: A New Introduction (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2010), 34.

3 On the Origin of the Species (1859) Natural Selection what it was Begins with the rejection of the idea that each species having been individually created. All organisms are remarkably fertile and have the capacity to reproduce themselves many times over Not all those who are born thrive and survive Those which survive have something in them that adapts to the environment Darwin s theory of natural selection had as much to do with population change than anything else. It suggested that small modifications give species selective advantage over other species. Add these up over time and species change. Natural Selection what it was not Not a theory of progress upwards the emphasis was on change, not necessarily progress (for this would imply purpose and destiny - two characteristics that Darwin rejected). In fact, change could also go backwards (if it helped give a species an advantage) Not a survival of the fittest, but survival of the fitter it is relative. Those species which were more fit to an environment than other species, had an advantage and would come out ahead Key Metaphors Struggle Darwin grabs onto to Thomas Malthus notion of struggle as it applied to population changes. Here we have an example of a social theory being adopted and applied to a natural theory (not the other way around) Nature is a Breeder the influence of Darwin s study of pigeon breeding affected his theories. What if nature were like a pigeon breeder? Nature takes the place of God often we find Darwin personifying Nature in language that was used for God before Old Earth: Age of the earth was very important o Darwin s theory depended on huge amounts of time, more than people were used to (100 s of millions of years). o Influenced greatly by Charles Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism T.H. Huxley ( ) What Darwin had that other key thinkers of the period did not have is a great protagonist. Darwin s greatest supporter was none other than the one known as Darwin s Bulldog - T.H. Huxley - takes complex science and makes it plain. Publishes Darwin s ideas. Heralds Darwin as a modern Galileo and coined the phrase agnosticism. He uses this term to describe thinkers for whom the evidence available was seen as insufficient to affirm or deny the truth of Christianity. Darwin was reluctant to apply this label to himself but may have, in the end, become an atheist.

4 The Descent of Man (1871) Applies his theory now to human species Really began with The Descent of Man in which Darwin asserts Man s relation to animals. Christians and many others did not like the thought of men being little more than animals. Also, the details of Darwin s theory were still largely in question Nothing on ultimate origins In Germany, biologist, Ernst Haeckel ( ) - along with T.H. Huxley take Darwin s ideas and do something with them (something that Darwin never does) and that is: he takes Darwin s ideas and links them to a materialist worldview (what you see is all there is). As you can imagine, there was some backlash over this shift from the evangelicals of the day. In particular, you have the famous debate between Samuel Wilberforce and T.H. Huxley over the idea of evolution in Popular Interpretation: I was happy enough to be present on the memorable occasion at Oxford when Mr Huxley bearded Bishop Wilberforce. There were so many of us that were eager to hear that we had to adjourn to the great library of the Museum. I can still hear the American accents of Dr Draper's opening address, when he asked `Air we a fortuitous concourse of atoms?' and his discourse I seem to remember somewhat dry. Then the Bishop rose, and in a light scoffing tone, florid and he assured us there was nothing in the idea of evolution; rock-pigeons were what rock-pigeons had always been. Then, turning to his antagonist with a smiling insolence, he begged to know, was it through his grandfather or his grandmother that he claimed his descent from a monkey? On this Mr Huxley slowly and deliberately arose. A slight tall figure stern and pale, very quiet and very grave, he stood before us, and spoke those tremendous words - words which no one seems sure of now, nor I think, could remember just after they were spoken, for their meaning took away our breath, though it left us in no doubt as to what it was. He was not ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor; but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used great gifts to obscure the truth. Account from 1898.

5 Seen as symptomatic of the deep divide between men of faith and men of science [though its historical reliability is highly suspect] These Ideas offered Four Challenges to the Christian Faith 1. By emphasizing that species change, the theory destroyed the ancient Christian notion of the great chain of being. This assumed that all living organisms had their place in a fixed and immutable order. 2. Challenged the idea of a 6000 year old earth. 3. By placing human beings into a large spectrum of time, man s place in the world was challenged. Creation, fall, sin and salvation come under new scrutiny. If man was not specifically created then why need Christ redemption. 4. Natural Selection (random and cruel) argued against a moral Divinity over the universe. Challenges the credibility of Natural Theology. Key Idea: Throughout the century, there is a transfer of authority/power from religion to science. Where does intellectual authority lie? The shift at this point takes place between faith to science. What and who are you going to trust? Discuss: What has authority in our society today? Why? Third area of Challenge - Theology England These are churchmen who see the changes of science and begin to welcome these changes into how they see Christianity. The challenge would be for Christianity to adapt to these new worldviews that are emerging. Guys like Lyell and Kelvin see that science and faith have no contradiction and along with a number of evangelicals assert that the new scientific discoveries were consistent with what the Bible said. There is the contention though that faith, to be recognized as authoritative, had to pass the test of reason and experience as well. Will it fit with these new discoveries? If so, what needs to be changed? Germany Liberal theology begins in Germany - theology is being done in reaction to the Enlightenment and yet it nevertheless shares a number of its presuppositions. For example, the starting point in this theological speculation is the SELF, not God. What is new is that the arguments made for the existence of God is not rooted on revelation, nor even on reason, but on the appeal to human consciousness.

6 Preeminent Philosophers and theologians Immanuel Kant ( ) Tries to answer this question: How far can reason establish religion? Makes a case for experience over reason Sees two realms of reality on either side of a brick wall Phenomenal world (seen & perceived world) Noumenal world (world of the unseen - spiritual) Idea of God breaking through that unseen world, through that brick wall is an impossibility. God cannot communicate across this divide God does not transcend the divide and reveal Himself No Natural Theology Should we do away with God? NO! Wants to defend God s existence - Critique of Pure Reason But if these ways don t lead us to God, then do we all have to become atheists? NO! Wrote Critique of Practical Reason Argues for the existence of God in order to establish ethical standards We can get there NOT through reason but through human consciousness. God does not transcend the barrier, but we experience God welling up in our own beings. We intuitively have a sense of God s existence. How? We have a moral sense Categorical imperative - an appeal to conscience. Moral consciousness tells us that there is something beyond the wall Friedrich Schleiermacher ( ) Proposes a different approach - theologian, not a philosopher (unlike Kant) from the home of a Lutheran pastor who is influenced by Moravians. Founder of Protestant Liberalism - huge impact even to today Desires to free people from the constraints of reason. Projects himself as the great defender of Christianity. Renders all the old versions as passé. On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers, 1799 Schleiermacher emphasizes experience. We come to this knowledge through intuitive selfconsciousness. Sense of there being something out there, which is an indicator that God exists. God, however, does not need to be a personal God. God becomes an it. Religion of feeling, an awareness of one s own creatureliness. Sense of frailty and that god must exist. Religion is withdrawn from ethics - it is all about the existence of God not how we should live.

7 Couched in orthodox language - very difficult to unpack and discern at times. Attitude to Jesus Jesus is the one person who experienced this God-consciousness more than anyone else Jesus was divine in that he was supremely open to God Theology is the language of Christian experience. Bible Record of experience of revelation, but revelation is occurring all the time Inspires us to greater dependence Sin Living in a state where you are not living in dependence on God Atonement Jesus death gives us an example of total abandonment to God Example of the greatest love we can have for one another We are to live lives abandoned to God Holy Spirit Spirit of Christian community. We share this spirit of dependence on God Church Only thing objective in the theology Eschatology Denial of judgment No eternal punishment, no sin to start with No eschatological fulfilment Immortality is a quality of life here in the present In this schema, a muffled God is the philosophical starting point. He is a god that cannot speak. It cannot break through the wall. G.W.F. Hegel ( ) - theologian-philosopher Influenced by Schleiermacher and Kant, but for Hegel, he believes that we are coming to know ultimate reality as we pass through various stages of history. Dialectic in history, under God s direction that is moving all things towards a point of completion and realization. For Hegel, the perfect expression of this movement of the Spirit (God) is realized in the rise of the German State. Huge influence on Karl Marx, who takes Hegel s understanding of dialectic and applies it to the material world of economic classes. Dialectical Materialism. Stages of human history moving towards heaven on earth in a communist society.

8 Albrecht Ritschl ( ) Most important theologian of the latter half of the nineteenth-century Influenced by Kant Accepts the rejection of supernatural revelation. Accepts the rejection of Natural theology Swings pendulum back towards morality (away from Schleiermacher back to Kant) Recaptures the high moral ground Christ-focused theology - but Jesus is understood in ethical terms. Jesus is a person with a calling to introduce a moral kingdom to the world. Shows us God s love and mercy in his actions. Such a congruity between Jesus and God that he even is seen to be God (but not really). Jesus as Reconciler; Jesus as Justifier Inaugurates this moral kingdom Shows us how to live the Kingdom of God - ethical living shown in the Sermon on the Mount Jesus is the justifier - no sense of divine wrath or atonement for sin. Justification means to see that God loves mankind and calls us into this moral kingdom. How to we come to know God? John 7:17 - whoever does the Father s will. Obedience is key here. God is remote and impersonal - Jesus is our moral example (not our friend) and who challenges us to moral living Church holds a central role. A group of people who have accepted the task given to them, namely building the Kingdom of God. Communal focus. Influences the idea of nation-building in Germany. Two pupils Adolf von Harnack ( ) What is Christianity? (1901) Jesus brings in the Kingdom of God - message about morality 3 Themes Universal Fatherhood of God Universal brotherhood of man The infinite value of the human soul NT is the product of the Greek mindset and we need to get behind this mindset and realize that Jesus of Galilee is who he is. What does he look like? He looks remarkably like a nineteenth-century Protestant liberal! Walter Rauschenbusch ( ) American Protestant who went back to Germany to do his doctorate Social Gospel Movement - most influential in America and Canada Influenced by Ritschl and Rauschenbusch Ethical emphasis - ecumenical movement. Takes off in the 1870s and 1880s.

9 The Gospel of the Social Gospel Outworking of Ritschl s principles Focus on the immanence of God - made know through our Kingdom work Based on the intrinsic goodness and worth of man - rejection of the Fall Optimism of post-millennialism Keys to the kingdom have been recovered and through our hard work, the kingdom will come and there will be social harmony and justice. Through education, we will all choose the social good. Sin is about selfishness. Critical of capitalism and its impact on society (for good reason!). Socialist in orientation. Missions For missions, the impact is great. What is the task of mission? To promote the gospel of social improvement Strengths: Powerful Christian vision - Christianize the social order Strong ethical concern - serious about the Kingdom Important place for the church Weaknesses: Strongly man-centred Wrath of God and judgment discarded Impact on missions Fourth area of Challenge - History Begin to doubt anything that happened in history unless one had clear evidence that the event took place The Rise of Biblical Criticism Lower Criticism - problems with the text - weight the benefit of the manuscripts JEPD theory - there were 4 original authors who stitched together the Pentateuch and so part of reading the Bible requires figuring out which author wrote which part. Julius Wellhausen ( ) A God without wrath brought men without sin into a Kingdom without judgment through the ministrations of a Christ without a Cross. H. Richard Neihbur Higher Criticism - meaning of words and understanding the Bible in human terms starting with reason. Bible is being studied historically and is subject to the same scrutiny as any other historical book. Rooted in the University of Tubingen in south Germany Adapt enlightenment thinking regarding miracles, namely - they do not occur. Reinterpretation of Scripture with an anti-supernaturalist presupposition F.C. Bauer - key figure

10 NT documents are discarded because they have miracles in them. Much of the NT is rejected. Only four of Paul s letters are recognized (Romans, Galatians, 1 & 2 Corinthians) David Strauss, Life of Jesus - reinterpretation of Jesus removing miracles. Peasant who made no claims, said nothing offensive to Germans, but developed a religion where he was deeply misunderstood. 1860s - these ideas become popular in the English speaking world. Christians back in England tried to dissuade students at universities from learning how to read German. Why? If they read German, they would read these writers. Theology, History and the Bible - all under attack. Results: What we are beginning to see is the disconnection between heart and mind in Christian theology. Mind is to do with a different sphere than Christianity and heart is where Christian sentiment and ideas are located. Spreading around the globe of new ideas also has an intellectual effect. Look at civilizations around the world. Do they not believe in the transcendent just like Christians? Could they all be the same thing? Doubt takes on a new social role in society. New moral discourse which transcend Christianity. Language of morality. Sounds like Christianity, but the faith has been hollowed out Faith becomes increasingly privatized. Most of these trends were ignored by Christians! Discuss: How should theology operate in one s education? How should we reintegrate heart and mind in the church today?