Make sure you are properly registered Course web page : or through Class Notes link from University Page Assignment #1 is due

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2 Make sure you are properly registered Course web page : or through Class Notes link from University Page Assignment #1 is due today Next assignment will be posted soon Today: reasons, ambiguity, vagueness, fallacies

3 Identifying Reasons We know how to identify conclusions and issues. Right? Once you have identified the conclusion ask why? For which reasons should we accept the conclusion? What is the evidence or support? Note: reasons support conclusions and it is from the REASONS that one INFERS a conclusion.

4 Examples: (from web page) Tom is one of the most skilled athletes I know. He plays every sport that the school offers, even football, wrestling, and soccer. He's the captain of the crosscountry team, and last year the swimming team he was on had a winning season.

5 Sexual harassment is a growing problem in the United States. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission reported that, between 1989 and 1993, sexual harassment complaints filed by employees rose from 5,603 to 12,537. The problem is not limited to harassment by males against females, either: other EEOC figures showed a sizable number (968) of male complaints alleging harassment by females. This is a strong indication that stronger action must be taken to both prevent and punish such harassment to provide a safe and comfortable workplace for all.

6 I am sick of people talking about the availability of equal opportunity for all in the United States. Even the most cursory examination of the facts reveals that there is no such thing as an "equal chance" for everyone to make it. Look at life expectancies: the white population of people over 65 is enormously higher than that of blacks: there were 29 million white people over 65 and only 2.6 million equivalent blacks in that age group. If all races are not given an equal lifespan in which to achieve, they can certainly not be said to have an equal opportunity for success.

7 How was the movie I saw? It was terrible I wouldn't recommend that anyone see it. I was so bored that I actually got up and left about halfway through the movie. The computer animations were terrible; I could easily tell where they had used computer graphics instead of real shots. The jokes the actors told weren't funny. Even though it had been advertised as a "thriller," the movie had no action. I suggest you spend your money on something other than a ticket for this movie.

8 I really believe that the legal age for drinking alcohol should be lowered to 18. The evidence is overwhelming that those who reach the age of 18 are responsible adults. For instance, they are allowed to vote and sign legally binding contracts at that age. Surely the adult who granted those rights and responsibilities to those of us who reach 18 know we are responsible enough to handle them. For one thing, we witness all around us the misuse of alcohol by those much older than 18. We can learn from their mistakes and avoid the pain they have experienced from alcohol abuse. We don t want to hurt ourselves or anyone else. We will be careful. Also, I can buy tobacco when I am 18. Studies have shown us that tobacco causes even more deaths than alcohol does. As long as tobacco can be bought at 18, setting the legal age for alcohol at 21 is not going to put a stop to premature death. Let s face it: when we reach 18 we deserve the right to demonstrate that we have learned more in school than just how to read and write. In light of the years and years that we have been in classes where we have been taught responsibility, we are ready to use alcohol in a responsible fashion.

9 Looking at Language argument: involves the attempt of rational persuasion of one claim based on the evidence of other claims. ways in which our uses of language can enhance or degrade the quality of arguments: Part I: types and uses of definitions. Part II: how the improper use of language degrades the "weight" of premises.

10 5 Purposes of Definition: 1. To Increase Vocabulary 2. To eliminate different uses of the same word 3. To clarify meaning 4. To explain theoretically (scientists, engineers, etc.) 5. To influence attitudes.

11 4 Types of Definitions: 1. Reportive or Lexical Definition example: The word "mountain" means a large mass of earth or rock rising to a considerable height above the surrounding country. This definition is true; that is, it is a true report of how English speaking people use the word "mountain."

12 On the other hand, The word "mountain" means a plane figure enclosed by three straight lines. is a false definition, being a false report of how English speaking people use the word "mountain."

13 What to look out for: 1. broadness of definition 2. narrowness of definition 3. obscure language in definiens 4. circularity

14 2. Ostensive Definitions Ostensive - to point out weakness: learner has to guess how far to generalize from the particular object being picked out in a single act of showing or pointing strength: it is the basic way to get outside of language in communicating meaning

15 3. Stipulative Definitions Stipulative definitions lay down the meaning of a new word, often a technical term in a certain branch of inquiry, or a new meaning for an old word. Criticized with reference to the purpose with which the definition was introduced or intended.

16 4. Persuasive or Reforming Definitions Lay down a precise meaning for terms that have favourable or unfavourable connotations but no commonly agreed precise meaning.

17 Outside of Ostensive definitions we see the following: Name Criteria Questions Reportive (Lexical) Reports meaning of a term in a "generally" accepted sense. Does it accurately report the use of the term in that sense? Stipulative Lays down a meaning for a new term or a new meaning for an old one. Are the boundaries of application clear? Are its presuppositions true? Persuasive (Reforming) Gives a precise meaning to a vague term with good or bad connotations. Does it lie within the bounds of usage? Are its normative implications acceptable?

18 Ambiguity and Vagueness Ambiguity: a word, term, phrase is ambiguous if it has 2 or more well-defined meaning and it is not clear which of these meanings is to be used. Vagueness: a word, term, phrase is vague if it has more than one possible and not well-defined meaning and it is not clear which of these meanings is to be used.

19 Determine whether the following are meaningless, vague, or ambiguous. If they are vague or ambiguous, restate them in a clear fashion. 1. Al is bigger. 2. Save soap and waste paper. 3. Your term papers must be finished by Friday afternoon. 4. Clean Up brand soap gets you cleaner than you ever thought possible. 5. We stand behind every bathtub we install. 6. Come to the Main Street Health Center for unwanted pregnancies. 7. I have never read a student paper like yours. 8. Nothing is too good for my friends.

20 1. vague 2. ambiguous 3. vague and ambiguous 4. ambiguous ( and maybe meaningless) 5. ambiguous 6. ambiguous 7. ambiguous 8. ambiguous

21 1. Ambiguity A term is ambiguous when it has 2 or more distinct meanings in use. example: When you get up in the morning, do you make coffee in the coffee pot or in your pyjamas? Always point out alternative possible interpretations and resolve the ambiguity or indicate how one might resolve it.

22 Consider: We know the carpenter went to Montréal with most of her tools, but we don't know whether she took the plane. Syntactic ambiguity -- arises out of structure Semantic ambiguity -- arises out of meaning

23 equivocation occurs when a speaker or writer tries to shift the meaning of a word or phrase in an objectionable way in an argument. eg. Defenders of civil disobedience hold that conscience is the ultimate guide about whether to obey the law, but they are clearly wrong. Law has to be the ultimate guide, because without law there could be no conscience: law is what conscience appeals to. law1 laws of the state i.e, civil law law2 fundamental principles of morality i.e., the moral law

24 2. Objectionable Vagueness Words, expressions, and sentences are vague to the extent that the boundaries of their application are unclear. example: The afternoon of December 11 is a very risky time for a Taurus to make major decisions.

25 Conditions for objectionable Vagueness: a. There is a grey area between situations to which the term (expression, sentence) applies and situations to which it does not apply. b. It is important for assessing the passage in which the term (expression, sentence) occurs to settle to how much of the grey area it applies. That is, a statement or expression is objectionably vague in relation to a given audience on a given occasion, if it is not precise enough to tell that audience what it wants to know on that occasion.

26 SPECIES OF VAGUENESS A. the term or expression is too general to supply the information required or wanted for that purpose at hand. This situation requires something more specific than what is actually said. "Where did you go?" "Out." "Where is Tuktoyaktuk?" "Up North." "How old are you?" "Over 21." "To the market." "On the Mackenzie River Delta." "None of your business."

27 B. Many words or expressions depend for their applicability on likeness to a paradigm. Examples include "democratic," "socialistic," "religious," and "freedom" to name a few. Or even genres of music pose certain problems for information gathering: there is no definition of, say, "jazz" that would help in settling the question of whether a given piece of music is jazz or not. SUFFICIENTLY SIMILAR TO A CLEAR CUT CASE Avoid by stipulating what is to count as, for example, democratic, religious, socialistic, or jazz.

28 3. Emotionally Charged or Loaded Language and Euphemism Language with strong emotional tone (either positive or negative) Questions about tone: 1. What emotional reactions and impressions are being created by the choice of language and the format? 2. Are these reactions and impressions warranted by the information in the passage and its context?

29 Consider the example: Background: Suppose Adams has presented a carefully reasoned case for increased government funding of day care centres, and Wong opens his response to her remarks by saying: I'm tired of listening to these man-hating, hairy-legged feminists whining and spouting their radical socialist ideas..." This use of value laden language is called vituperative obfuscation. (vituperative: violent denunciation or condemnation. to obfuscate: to confuse or bewilder, or to make obscure) This use of language discourages reasoned argument and rational consideration of issues.

30 Examples: Putting people in prison without trial is oppression. Making people fearful of the government is oppression. Taxing people is oppression. Making children go to school is oppression. Having parents care for children is oppression. Every human society is based on some or all these practices. Therefore, every human society is based on oppression. Essentially the argument turns on the precise definition of "oppression." Unfortunately this definition is not made clear to the audience and, therefore, "oppression" occurs as a vague term in the passage.

31 No legal system is sound if it ignores the facts of life. Sexual relations are facts of life we all must come to discover and regulate. Thus, our legal system is not sound unless it provides laws to regulate the sexual relations between people. The problem involved in this argument is the use of "facts of life." The author makes use of this term ambiguously:

32 facts of life1: "No legal system is sound if it ignores the facts of life." In this sense, the author takes the term to refer to the socio-politico reality. facts of life2: "Sexual relations are facts of life..." In this instance the term is used to refer to facts regarding human reproduction. There is obviously a shift of meaning with respect to "facts of life" and, consequently, the author is guilty of equivocation.