Department of English and American Studies. Some Significant Symbols in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Transcription

1 Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature Lenka Adámková Some Significant Symbols in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight B.A. Major Thesis Supervisor: PhDr. Lidia Kyzlinková, CSc., M.Litt. 2009

2 I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. (Lenka Adámková) - 2 -

3 Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor PhDr. Lidia Kyzlinková, CSc., M.Litt. for her kind help and valuable advice. I would also like to thank my mother, who is a librarian and brought me most of the sources

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 5 2. Historical and Cultural Background 7 3. The Green Knight The Colour Symbolism History and Folklore The Green Man The Surviving Head Beheading Game Who is the Green Knight? The Pentangle History The Importance of the Pentangle Passage The Knight and His Shield Aspects of the Pentangle Trawþe The Five Pentads The Girdle History and Function The Symbolic Meanings The Gravity of Sir Gawain s Flaw Conclusion Works Used and Cited Appendices The Two Types of the Green Men The Original Version of the Pentangle Passage

5 1. INTRODUCTION Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a classic piece of medieval literature; no other romance from that period is written with such finesse. It is acclaimed for its sophisticated use of symbolism as well as faithful portrayal of various aspects of the medieval court life, such as feasts, love-talk, hunts, or clothing. The poem richly draws on Celtic folklore and cultural traditions, but the combination of the events in the plot has no antecedent. The translation of such a poem involves not only knowledge of Old French, Norse and English, and a wide variety of dialects, but also a correct interpretation of the text. Therefore, from its first publication in 1839, Sir Gawain has attracted constant attention of scholars, who propose various theories and interpretations. In my thesis, I focus on three major symbols the Green Knight, the Pentangle and the Girdle. It is aimed at students as a compact guide to the above symbols, as they might find it difficult to cope with criticism of Sir Gawain, where quotations frequently appear in the original versions without any translation into modern English. The main purpose is thus to compare and contrast different interpretations of the selected symbols, and, at the same time, present my explanation, using the sources to support it. For each sign, I provide historical background to demonstrate the possible sources on which the poet might have drawn. In addition, I also attempt to show the complexity of the signs and their mutual interconnectedness. The body of my work is divided into four chapters. The first one briefly sets the poem into cultural and historical context. The second chapter deals with the character of the Green Knight and his role in the poem. I analyse his features and mainly the colour symbolism. I also examine the three historical elements which are combined in the Green Knight. The theme of the next chapter is the pentangle as a - 5 -

6 symbol of Sir Gawain. The first part is devoted to the history of the symbol and its present usage. Then, I analyse both its geometrical and arithmetical aspects as well as the poet s own description of its symbolism and values which the pentangle represents. The last chapter begins with the history of the girdle. I then proceed with an analysis of the five symbolic senses of the green lace, and a substantial part is devoted to the gravity of Sir Gawain s sin. Before proceeding any further, I must stress the importance of two reading guides, A Reading of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight by J. A. Burrow and The Gawain-Poet: A Critical Study by A. C. Spearing, as they significantly contributed to my understanding of the whole poem

7 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (SGGK) is a poem by an anonymous author. The only copy is stored in the British Museum in a manuscript labelled as Cotton Nero A. x., Art. 3, which contains another three poems Patience, Pearl, and Purity (or Cleanness). These titles have been in common use since they were first printed by Sir Frederick Madden and Richard Morris in the nineteenth century; all the four poems are originally without names. It is believed that the poems are written by one author. The manuscript is generally dated at about 1400, but the language of the poems is probably from the second half of the fourteenth century. The particular dialect is said to belong to the area of North-West Midlands, Cheshire and South Lancashire in particular. The poems are written in alliterative verse, but the particular form of each poem is different; SGGK is in long unrhymed lines divided into sections of irregular length, each concluding with the so-called bob and wheel. The whole poem consists of 2530 lines. (Spearing 1-5) Although the poet came from an area far away from the influence of the court, he displays a sophisticated knowledge of the court life, from detailed descriptions of the fashion and armour to depictions of feasts and hunts. His understanding of the complex system of values, especially the rules of cortaysye is also remarkable. A careful analysis suggests that the poet was well-read in the French and Latin literature. His famous contemporaries were Geoffrey Chaucer, William Langland, or John Gower. (Spearing 6-13) The poem displays a combination of Celtic and pagan elements with Christian morality. The poet shows a particular fondness for patterns, parallels and symmetry; one of the reasons why it is so appreciated. Besides its complex plot and rich language, it is the extensive use of medieval symbolism that constantly draws attention of more and - 7 -

8 more scholars. The plot consists of three major themes the Beheading Game, the Temptation, and the Exchange of Winnings (Gifts). The Beheading Game appears to have originated in the eighth century Irish epic of Bricriu s Feast, but the theme found its way into other medieval romances and folklore. The Temptation theme is a common one: it follows the principal pattern of the wife of the host trying to seduce the guest so that her husband may gain power over him. The last main theme, the Exchange of Winnings, was commonplace in Germanic cultures. While each of the themes has its origin in the past, the combination of the three is unique and could not be found elsewhere in the medieval literature. (Stone 10-13) Apart from being a part of the Arthurian cycle, it belongs to the genre of chivalric (courtly) romance, and the poet draws on the Northern French tradition to a great extent. A courtly romance relates a story of a knight, who sets out on a quest a long and dangerous journey with a task. The hero is supposed to serve a lady, observe the rules of courtly love, and remain pure at the same time. The ideals of chivalry appear as early as the beginning of the eleventh century and may be attributed to the social situation of that period. The society was divided into halves according to the principles of the feudal system, the main one being the lord-vassal relationship. Apart from several obligations to their lords, vassals were quite independent and free to pursue their own power ambitions, which means that they often fought among themselves. In addition, these noblemen were trained warriors, therefore fighting was their main occupation; in time of peace, they were fighting at tournaments. In order to humanize the noblemen, the Church as well as the lords begun to establish the code of chivalry. The essential virtue became prowess (fighting skills), followed by loyalty and courtesy. The former was understood in three ways loyalty to the lord and other nobles, to the Church, and to the lady. The latter basically meant politeness and respect

9 Knights were also expected to fight for glory and worship (the only respectable reason for battles), to be generous, courageous and faithful, and they were forbidden to lie. In connection with the Crusades, the Church introduced the ideal of the Christian knight: one who never hesitates to fight and die for his faith. Another important part of chivalry was the concept of courtly love. It included an absolute love and devotion to the lady, which might have suppressed all the other virtues to which the knight aspired. The rules of courtly love were strict, but they allowed knights and ladies to show their admiration regardless of their marital state. (Fízelová 2-8, 53-54) - 9 -

10 3. THE GREEN KNIGHT 3.1 The Colour Symbolism The Green Knight is a prominent figure in the poem, and his unusual colour attracts attention and astonish the readers. Along with the dreadful game which he proposes, modern readers are likely to overlook the important features which lie behind this frightening knight. He appears at Arthur s court on the New Year to offer a Christmas game which Arthur wanted. Yet, it is clear that the purpose of the game is to question the fame and pride of Arthur s hall, for he says: as your reputation, royal sir, is raised up so high, / And your castle and cavaliers are accounted the best, / / At this time, I tell you, that has attracted me here (258-59, 264) 1. The poet first describes his appearance; the knight is very tall, half a giant on earth in fact, but at the same time he is very handsome and fulfils the court ideal of a man broad chest but small hips (140). However, it is not the proportions of the knight that strikes the court as much as his colour, since he is all a glittering green (150). Green is also the prevailing colour of his apparel and his horse; all is matched with gold embroidery, gold bells and a gold harness. Apart from that, the man is peculiar for his unusually long hair and a bushy beard. From the first moment, the Green Knight is established as a supernatural creature of some sort, mainly because of his greenness. Sadowski counted that the word green occurs 25 times in the passage with the Green Knight, so it is beyond doubt that the poet does not merely want to shock the readers (80). Indeed he might have chosen a different colour, such as blue, to create the desirable effect. After all, knights in the Middle Ages were used to fighting dragons and other dangerous beasts. What is it then, that makes the green colour so exceptional that even the bravest knights stared in amazement and horror? 1 All quotations from SGGK are taken from Brian Stone s translation

11 Above all, the green colour is associated with nature, vegetation, spring, and the resurgent energies of life (Anderson 117). The link is an obvious one, since green is the colour of all plants, foliage and grass. Interestingly, green is actually harmful to plants, as Sawovski points out, because from the spectrum of white light it carries the greatest amount of energy (82). The perception of colours is based on the wavelength which an object reflects, thus it is due to the fact that plants do not assimilate the green band of the spectrum that vegetation appears to be green. Chlorophyll, which is responsible for this phenomenon, is not present in human cells, and therefore a man green overall his body is immediately rejected as nonhuman and therefore supernatural (Sadowski 82). In addition, a dark shade of green is associated with decay, and even a sick or dead human body may appear greenish. All things considered, one of the reasons for choosing green (and for the utter surprise of the court) is the very nature of this colour it is alien to humans, and it is associated with spring and life on the one hand and death or sickness on the other. Besides life and death, green is a traditional colour in British and Irish folklore where it is equally ambiguous. For example in Ireland, green stands for misfortune and at the same time it is a national colour and must be worn particularly by sports teams (Hutchings). It also appears on the Irish national flag along with white and orange. In his study of the green symbolism, Hutchings divides its usage into three main categories: symbolic green, healing green and unlucky green. The healing green belief revolves around the green of vegetation; evergreen plants have long been powerful life symbols. The widespread belief that green brings bad luck is caused by its association with fairies 2. The symbolic green includes both positive and negative qualities. The positive ones, according to Hutchings, are freshness and fertility, resurrection, 2 Hutchings research is focused on the nineteenth and twentieth century, therefore some of the associations are not probably applicable to the period when SGGK was written. This, however, does not apply to the fact that green is associated with fairies (Burrow 14)

12 faithfulness, liberty, or wisdom, while the negative ones are mainly envy and jealousy (Hutchings). The ambiguity which this colour encompasses is also substantiated by the Middle English Dictionary, which lists the following meanings of the adjective grene: 1. of plants: alive, vigorous, also fig.; 2. of the skin or complexion: pale, colourless; 3. as symbolic of inconstancy or envy; 4. of a plant or wood: freshly cut; 5. of a wound: unhealed; 6. of fruit or vegetables: unripe, immature; 7. of a person: immature, young; 8. covered with green grass or foliage. (MED grene ) The positive-negative dichotomy is reflected in different scholars interpretations of the Green Knight. Some of them prefer the connection with life, nature and vegetation, therefore the Green Knight represents the Demon of Vegetation or Vegetation Spirit 3. Stone, on the other hand, argues that the court connects the Knight with death; Krappe even claims that he is the Death itself (Stone 121; Krappe 208). Anderson s interpretation embraces both aspects and asserts that he is the Lord of life and death (117). Speirs considers him to be an image of mythical fertility gods, and Robertson claims that green is the colour of the Devil 4 (Speirs, qtd. in Goldhurst 61; Robertson ). Nevertheless, another attribute must be taken into consideration to determine who the Green Knight is. As mentioned above that the Green Knight is wearing two colours: green and gold. According to Anderson, gold stands for the values of civilization, an idea also supported by other critics in the same or similar form (117). The combination itself, in 3 See Kittredge 195; and Chambers and Cook, qtd. in Krappe, See also Krappe

13 Burrows view, represents the merry, luxurious world of courtly youth (15). It is a plausible explanation, since one of the meanings of green is indeed youth, and gold is undoubtedly associated with wealth. Yet, the relation of green to nature seems more convincing than to youth, considering that birds and flies are embroidered on the Green Knight s clothes and his beard is likened to a bush. The reference to grass could be found even in the poem: As to grow green as grass, and greener yet, it seemed, / More gaudily glowing than green enamel on gold (235-6). These lines also demonstrate that in spite of gold being mentioned only nine times, both colours are equally important. The green and gold thus create another contrast crude Nature versus the refined indoor life of splendour at court. As Goldhurst puts it, the Green Knight is Nature, to be sure, but he is as well a representative of the high civilization, the sophistication, the manmade artificiality of the court (62). The Green Knight is carrying two objects a cluster of holly in one hand and a huge battle-axe in the other. Holly is a traditional Christmas decoration and a sign of life during winter because of its evergreen leaves. It is also a sign of peace: By this branch that I bear, you may be certain / That I proceed in peace, no peril seeking (265-6). Since the Knight is unarmoured, the holly corresponds to his overall appearance more than the axe. The medieval reader, as Burrow states, was certainly confused by this contrast and so is the court, anxiously waiting with all the world s wonder as to what he would do (Burrow 17; SGGK 239). His behaviour is rude in comparison with Sir Gawain s when he enters Bertilak s castle; he gives no one a greeting and asks for the lord of the house. Burrow explains that this does not mean that the Green Knight is uncouth or discourteous as some other critics believe, but rather it reflects the Knight s intention as a hostile challenger (18). The Green Knight is expected to be impolite so that the court can immediately distinguish him from the various other guests who may

14 come to Camelot (Burrow 18-19). Accordingly, his behaviour corresponds to the battle-axe. 3.2 History and Folklore The myth of the Green Knight may be divided into several components, all of which may be traced back into history and could be found either in other romances or folklore. The components are as follows: the Green Man, decapitated creatures with surviving heads, and lastly the beheading game The Green Man In his study of the Green Man, Anderson states that the origins of the Green Man are older than the Christian era, going deep into the old pagan religions (14, 17). The name is of an ancient origin and the great number of pubs with the same name points to its popularity. Interestingly, an older English word for the countryside was greenmans; the link with nature is apparent (20). Generally, it signifies irrepressible life, but the visual representation of the Green Man as a composite of a man s head and foliage symbolizes the union of humanity and the vegetable world (14). Its pictures may be found on secular and religious buildings, and even as a decoration of forged gates. The two main forms are a male head formed out of a leaf with his features made from a single leaf or of many leaves; and a male head with foliage round his head to form hair and beard, and also coming out of his mouth, ears, nose and eyes (14) 5. The head was not only painted in green but gold as well 6. The Green Man was particularly popular in the Gothic period, the era of the Gawain-poet, although SGGK is the only medieval literary work where the Green Man with the similar characteristics to the Gothic Green Man appears (Anderson , 115). The myth of the Green Man carries over to the twentieth century in literature (The Green Man by Kingsley Amis or The 5 See the appendix 8.1 for images of the two types of the Green Man. 6 See for example pictures 47, 48, 84 and 85 in Anderson

15 Eyes of the World by Robert Jordan), in film (The Wicker Man), and even in computer games (Dungeons & Dragons) The Surviving Head The Green Knight belongs to a large category of supernatural beings whose heads, after having been decapitated, return back to their bodies. These creatures, as Kittredge states, exist in popular tradition all over the world (20). The origins are in various serpent-monsters and water-demons with serpentine characteristics. The challenger (who is now not ophidian at all) is, according to Kittredges description, a savage creature... inimical to mortals and destroying all men who cross his path (147). He grants the hero with the first stroke, which, as the hero naturally expects, should kill the monster. However, the head quickly returns to its original place (or is replaced) and the challenger immediately decapitates his opponent (147). Similar characters are found in Celtic stories The Sea Maiden, The Son of the Green Spring, or Conall Gulban (147). Again, the myth of a cut-off head which is yet able to speak or roll eyes continues; it is said that King Charles s head opened its eyes and looked at his executioner (Kittredge 193). The main protagonist of the film Curdled is fascinated by a speaking decapitated head and decides to check it in real life. She tape-records anything that the head might say as she is cutting it off from the body Beheading Game The earliest version of the beheading game is found in Bricriu s Feast, also called Fled Bicrend, an Irish saga form the eighth century (Loomis 530). In fact, the saga contains two versions of the Challenge Terror and The Champion s Bargain. The latter is claimed to be the same story as the Challenge in SGGK (Kittredge 13). The plot revolves around a giant churl who comes to challenge three Ulster heroes to exchange blows. Twice the churl leaves with his head decapitated and returns with the head

16 restored back, but the two heroes fails. The third one is Cuchulinn, who offers his neck to the giant without fear. The churl then gives Cuchulinn a faint blow with the blunt side of his axe and pronounces him to be the best warrior in Ireland. Here, as well as in SGGK, the adversary comes to the hall of a great king to test valour of the court and eventually spares the hero, declaring him the best of knights. Kittredge finds other numerous similarities, such as the challenger s size, his great axe, his exit carrying his head, the interval before the return-blow, or his praise of the court (15-16, 24). In addition, it is suggested that the name Bertilak, the other Green Knight s self, was derived from the Irish word for churl, bachlach (Stone 12). As for the former version, Terror, it is much shorter and less elaborate, but several elements in SGGK are probably derived from this story: the three fainted blows, or placing the test away from the court (Loomis 532). The tale of The Champion s Bargain has passed into three French romances 7. The framework of the Beheading Game forms also the plot of a contemporary novel The Green Knight by the Irish writer Iris Murdoch Who Is the Green Knight? When the Green Knight first appears at Camelot and claims his Christmas game, the audience, both internal and external, is left in doubts as to his significance. The Knight has no pentangle like Sir Gawain, which could make his values explicit. The audience does not know whether he is good or bad. The only clue is provided through his unusual appearance and his colour, in particular. Due to his greenness, the court deems him as a phantom from Fairyland (240). Critics of SGGK present various other interpretations, disproving arguments of those who do not fit their schemes. However, my approach is an inclusive one rather than exclusive, for I find the Green Knight as a complex figure with many, mainly contradictory, associations. The first one 7 Le Livre de Caradoc, La Mule sanz Frain, and Perlesvaus (Kittredge 25). 8 For further discussion on SGGK and The Green Knight, see Franková, Milada. The Green Knight and the Myth of the Green Man. Sborník prací filozofické fakulty brněnské university 21.1 (1995):

17 presents the Knight as the Devil, which comes as no surprise, considering Sir Gawain s thoughts of horror when he first sees the Green Chapel: O god, is the Chapel Green This mound? said the noble knight. At such might Satan be seen Saying matins at midnight.. Now I feel in my five wits, it is the Fiend himself That has tricked me into this tryst, to destroy me here. (2185-8, ) Indeed, the Chapel is nothing but a barrow, therefore Sir Gawain, as a Christian who expected a proper religious building, is convinced that the mound is an entrance to hell. The poet s description of the Chapel reminds Stone of an entrance to the Celtic Other World (183). Be it the hell or the Other World, the poet s effort to associate the Knight with death is apparent when Gawain s guide warns him to avoid the meeting, because the Knight kills everyone at sight and knows no mercy 9. As for the image of the Green Knight as a Demon of Vegetation, it owes much to the archetype of the Green Man. Loomis rejects such an explanation because of the lack of associations with spring and birth (532-3). Krappe, too, denies any connection to Nature, arguing that one of Dickens s Christmas ghosts wears a green coat and no one claims him to be a vegetation demon (214). However, these opinions can hardly be regarded as valid, since the Green Man is a composite of a human and vegetation; a combination that is certainly embraced by the duality of the Challenger. The Green Knight appears in two distinct forms in the poem; the first one is the knight overall green with gold, the second one is Lord Bertilak de Hautdesert. The 9 Compare the guide s account of the Green Knight with Kittredge s description of the Challenger above

18 Green Knight s remarkable stature and his excessive hairiness have already been mentioned, but even his true human shape bears these features. The manners of these two are different, though; when the Green Knight first appears he fulfils his role of a hostile challenger and acts rudely, while Sir Bertilak is all courtesy and politeness. During the final encounter with Sir Gawain, however, he plays both his roles, switching from the hostile adversary to the gallant host. It appears as if Bertilak stood for the gold colour and the inner court life with splendour and luxury, while the Green Knight and his Green Chapel represented Nature. Nature which is harsh, as Loomis pointed out, but it is still Nature (533). The contrast between the outside and the inside is thus even greater and more visible, and the Green Knight serves to remind us of this conflict. As Goldhurst puts it: It tells us of man s struggle against tendencies which would draw him back to the state of nature, and of his uncertain efforts to maintain a hold on the comforts and codes of civilization (64). Furthermore, these contradictions are integrated in the pentangle and the girdle

19 4. THE PENTANGLE 4.1 History According to The New Oxford Dictionary of English, the word pentangle comes from a Latin word pentaculum; -aculum was assimilated to a Latin word angulus, meaning an angle, and penta- is a Greek word for five. It has many other names, such as pentagram, pentacle, or pentalpha, although slight distinctions between the particular figures may occur 10. The earliest historical records found in Palestine date back to 4000 BC ( Symbol 27:21 ). Sophistes states that the pentangle also appears in the earliest writings in Mesopotamia, around 3000 BC (par. Historical Background). In Sumer, the pentangle stood for the word UB. In the period of the cuneiform, the symbol probably referred to a Heavenly Quarter and also to the four basic directions (corresponding to the planets Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn), with the fifth being above (Venus, the Queens of Heave, or Schekina). In the era of ancient Greece, the symbol was adopted by Pythagoreans and called Hugieia health (Sophistes: par. Historical Background). It was an emblem of perfection and it also symbolized a human being ( The Pentagram : par. What does the pentagram mean?). As far as SGGK is concerned, the most significant association of the pentangle is with the City Seal of Jerusalem and the Biblical figure of King Solomon. Solomon is said to have been a wise king with a thorough understanding of the universe, and an ability to distinguish between good and evil. According to the legend, which is common to Judaism, Christianity, as well as Islam, he received the seal (a signet ring) from heaven ( King Solomon s Seal ). To refer to Solomon s Seal, the hexagram and the pentagram are sometimes used interchangeably, which may lead to confusion. The hexagram is also known as the Star of David and it is a symbol of Judaism ( King Solomon s Seal ). In 10 Pentacle is a pentangle inside a circle. Pentagram is a pentangle inscribed into a pentagon. The words themselves have probably different origins, not associated with the number five ( The Pentagram : par. What is the pentagram?)

20 Christianity, the pentangle symbolizes five senses and five wounds of Christ, to medieval Christians in particular. The pentangle is often adopted by various other religions and cults. It appears in Freemasonry in decorative illustrations, although its significance is controversial ( The Pentagram : par. Is the pentagram a Masonic figure?). The pentangle with two points ascendant has wrongly been associated with devil or evil, a claim made by Éliphas Lévi. However, the connection between the pentagram and the Satanic baphomet does not appear until the twentieth century and Anthon LaVey s Satanic Bible ( The Pentagram : par. Is the pentagram with two points ascendant a symbol for Satan?). Some of the so-called new-age religions, based on Celtic and pagan tradition, such as Wicca, has adopted the pentagram as a symbol for the five classical elements. 4.2 The Importance of the Pentangle Passage The pentangle is one of the most important symbols in SGGK and demands a detailed analysis; not only because so much has already been written on this topic. The poet himself gives us several clues to highlight the special importance of the symbol. Firstly, the pentangle section is marked with a small coloured initial; from the total of nine coloured initials, four are assigned to every single fit and five are the smaller ones. Secondly, it is noteworthy that the poet interrupts the flow of the narrative and explains the meaning of the pentangle in no less than fifty lines 11. The poet is well aware of the pause: And I intend to tell you, though I tarry therefore, / Why the Pentangle is proper to this prince of knights (623-24). As Tuttleton points out, the poet rarely digresses and therefore the passage must be crucial to the understanding of the poem (307). The explanation itself is yet another and probably the most decisive proof. The poet describes in great depth both the pentangle s emblematic significance and its physical 11 For the full original version of the Pentangle passage, see appendix

21 appearance. In addition, by the description of the latter, the poet acknowledges his audience s probable ignorance of it and attests its historical importance (Stone 147). Despite the poet s claim that... the English call it / In all the land, I hear, the Endless Knot, the first English record of a pentagram comes from this legend (SGGK ; Stone 147). According to Stone, the poet is merely using a common medieval method of authenticating new material, i.e. pretending that the new material is traditional (147). However, with the exception of the reference to Solomon, the poet does not draw from history; he does not hesitate to use the pentangle as a signum ad placitum 12, and attaches new values significant to the context of the poem, as the following lines demonstrate: Thus this Pentangle new / He carried on coat and shield (636-37). The pentangle passage includes many words, which are difficult to translate, because their original concepts are no longer valid in the modern society. The problem is not merely to know the meaning of a large number of unusual words, Bloomfield explains, but also to understand properly their connotations (8). It is therefore necessary to read the pentangle passage attentively and thoroughly. 4.3 The Knight and His Shield Arthur writes that the medieval sign theory was more flexible than modern notions about meaning and so the signification of a symbol may have varied depending on its bearer (47). According to his interpretation, as a pure sign the pentangle relates to a transcendent and timeless truth; as a mark on Gawain s shield it is more like a label for a particular man (48). This connection is furthermore extended to include the knight s moral properties. Green explains: 12 For a detailed explanation between a natural sign and signum ad placitum, see Arthur

22 The heraldic charge which appears on the outside of the shield literally identifies the knight who bears it, but it is also, as the poet elaborately makes clear, the symbolic means of identifying his characteristic virtues and aspirations. (127) Moreover, such a connection, as Burrow claims, was once well-recognised in the Middle Ages (39). Thus the shield with the pentangle on it is a means of identification; it tells us all about Sir Gawain s character, his virtues and aspirations. Interestingly, Gawain is usually said in the texts to have different devices on his shield a lion, a gryphon, or a golden eagle (Sadowski 114). In fact, SGGK is the only poem where the pentangle is ascribed to Gawain, which may also be the reason why the symbol is called new (Stone 147). 4.4 Aspects of the Pentangle The Gawain-poet uses two different names to refer to the symbol the pentangle (pentaungel) and the endless knot (endeles knot). Both these names are associated with the physical appearance of this symbol, but each of them in a different way. Arthur argues that through a detailed analysis of the properties of the object on which the sign is imposed, it is possible to learn much about its qualities, character and meaning (27). Therefore, the visible and concrete features should be examined first, in order to learn about the invisible ones. The first important aspect is the number of points and also sides of the pentangle five. Indeed, this number reoccurs frequently in the passage. In the Pythagorean times, numbers were connected with personalities the feminine aspect was assigned to figure two while the masculine one to three. Five, being the sum of two and three, represented marriage (Sadowski 116). For this reason, Stone calls it a perfect number, although in mathematics perfect numbers have a clear definition and the smallest perfect number is six (Stone 148). Moreover, it is believed that no odd perfect

23 numbers exist (O Connor and Robertson). The description of five as a perfect number seems therefore inaccurate; a more plausible explanation, in my opinion, may be unity. On the other hand, the pentangle as a whole may be called a perfect figure, because its geometrical features are indeed unique. In each regular pentangle, the golden ratio and the golden triangle are found. The golden ratio is denoted by the Greek letter Phi, which approximately equals In terms of geometry, the golden ratio is the ratio between two line segments a and b, where In the next figure, the golden ratio is the ratio of yellow to green, black to red and red to green. Fig. 1. The Pentangle and the Golden Ratio The golden triangle is a triangle where the ratio of the long to the short side equals the golden ratio. Each regular pentangle consists of ten golden triangles, as seen in the following figure

24 Fig. 2. Golden triangles in the Pentangle The first two qualities derived from the appearance of the symbol are therefore unity and perfection. As for the other name, the endless knot, the endless property is also related to the geometrical features. First and foremost, a pentangle has no clear beginning or end and could be drawn in one line. However, a circle or a rectangle share the same quality; the circle having even a prominent place because of its roundedness. The uniqueness of the pentangle, as opposed to a circle, lies in its ability to self-replicate: each regular pentangle contains a smaller regular pentagon, in which a new pentangle may be inscribed. Fig. 3. The Self-replication of a Pentangle

25 Besides that, Arthur points out that according to the medieval number theory, five falls under the category of circular numbers, because it reproduces itself in its last digit when raised to its powers (34). The pentangle is therefore an endless figure from the geometrical as well as arithmetical point of view. Arthur states that in the medieval times, endless objects signified various forms of divinity, and therefore it is very likely that the pentangle is no exception (43). Yet, the pentangle is rather an exceptional symbol, since endless circular objects were much more common a pearl, a wedding ring, or a crown. The poet then must have chosen the pentangle deliberately, because unlike a straightforward pearl, a sign so complex as the pentangle may convey complex meanings. 4.5 Trawþe The notion of trawþe is introduced by the poet early in the pentangle part: It is a symbol which Solomon conceived once To betoken holy truth, by its intrinsic right Hit is a syngne þat salamon set sumquyle In bytoknyng of trawþe, bi tytle þat hit habbez (625-6) It plays a key role in the whole poem, because every Gawain s conduct is governed by his trawþe. In the medieval literature and language trawþe expressed a complex of ideas; Burrow assumes that nowadays truth as a moral quality has lost its powers, and to understand the concept of truth, other less adequate terms are employed good faith, trustworthiness, or fidelity to contract (24). Generally, trawþe was a term denoting moral qualities, but what these qualities were depended on the context. According to The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, the term truth probably comes from the Old English word treowþe and at the time when the poem was composed, it had four distinct meanings:

26 1. the character of being, or disposition to be, true to a person, principle, cause, etc.; faithfulness, fidelity, loyalty; 2. ones faith or loyalty as pledged in a promise or agreement; 3. faith, trust, confidence (also in God); 4. disposition to speak or act truly or without deceit; truthfulness, veracity, sincerity; in a wider sense honesty, uprightness. (OED) Each of these meanings is emphasized at some point in the poem Sir Gawain refuses to flee when advised to do so and keeps the promise which he gave to the Green Knight to meet him at the Chapel; his faith in God is made plain throughout the story; his virtues and righteousness were proved in the temptation scenes. On the other hand, after he accepted the girdle, he is compelled to act differently; he conceals the lace, lies to Lord Bertilak and therefore breaks the rules of the Exchange of Winnings game. It may now be useful to examine why the pentangle was assigned to trawþe in the first place. Arthur claims that the names pentangle and endless knot are related to their referent in a manner parallel to the way in which the pentangle itself is related to its referent, trawþ.... which means, in this context, that it is chosen as a sign for trawþ because it relates to some essential quality or qualities of trawþ itself. (31) He then comes to a conclusion that both the pentangle and the word trawþe signify Absolute Truth (46). However, Absolute Truth may only be ascribed to the Trinity or Christ, therefore, what it actually means is that Sir Gawain is in accordance with truth, but only as long as his actions stay true (Arthur 60, 87). This additional meaning of trawþe and the four previous ones do not exclude each other; in fact, the connection of all five meanings explains why it is conceivable that Sir Gawain is not always true. As

27 Arthur puts it: The endless bliss of a permanent state of grace is the endless possession only of those who are free from the possibility of sin (93). 4.6 The Five Pentads The concept of trawþe is closely linked to the five pentads of virtues, all of which the poet lists. In fact, it is an elaboration on trawþe for the poet writes that Sir Gawain is ever faithful [true] in five things, each in fivefold manner (232). The virtues are as follows: five wits; five fingers; five wounds of Christ; five pure Joys; and the last pentad includes fraunchyse, felaȝschyp, clannes, cortaysye, and pité 13. The five fives stand for Sir Gawain s characteristics., but not all the pentads are easy to explain. For example, the religious virtuous of faith leave little room for misinterpretation, for the five wounds of Christ are those he suffered during crucifixion, and the five pure Joys are those Mary had of her son the Annunciation, Nativity, Resurrection, Ascension and Assumption (Stone 172). As for the five wits, Burrow does not favour the popular opinion that Gawain s senses were vivid and acute (45); I cannot but agree that such an explanation is too flat for a poem otherwise full of complex ideas. Ackerman, on the other hand, explains the term through medieval penitential writings, which frequently contain references to the sins of the five senses; consequently, the five wits mean that Gawain is without sin in the five senses (qtd. in Burrow 46). In view of this explanation, Green provides a somewhat vaguer interpretation Sir Gawain is found faultless, because he achieved natural control over the senses, interior as well as exterior (133). With regard to the five fingers, John of San Geminiano sees them as five virtues that are necessary for man in order that his works should be perfect (qtd. in Green 134). In the Middle Ages, Green asserts, five fingers were conventionally used to symbolize the following five virtues: the thumb stood for justice, the index finger for 13 The meanings of the words are explained below

28 prudence, the third finger was temperance, the ring finger meant fortitude and the little finger obedience (134). The last pentad is an array of virtues which are, apart from being religious virtues, more or less secular and social in nature, for the perfection is also religious as well as social. The explanation, or rather translation of these five virtues is very tricky though, because each of them represents a set of characteristics of a society very different from the modern world. Stone suggests the following synonyms: fraunchyse (liberality, magnanimity, free-hearted generosity appropriate to a noble), felaȝschyp (love of gellow men, lovingkindness), clannes (purity of mind and spirit, chastity, continence), cortaysye (courtesy), and pité (piety, compassion) (172). As there is no need to clarify the terms any further, I will focus on one aspect the poet is quite insistent about the interdependence of these five virtues. The poet stresses this aspect several times, but it is not a mere repetition as Spearing explains: [the poet] uses the rhetorical device of expolitio: dwelling on the same topic and yet seeming to say something ever new (198). Generally, the main point, according to Spearing, is that the virtues support each other, as long as the pentangle remains endless; failing at one point though, brings corruption of all, because the knot is no longer endless. With respect to the plot, it implies that Gawain is tested not only in one of the qualities (such as chastity in the temptation scenes), but in all of them, and if he fails one, it will also be a failure in a number of qualities (Spearing 198). Burrow is working on the assumption that the idea of interdependency of virtues was common among medieval writers, and quotes Gregory, who said that one virtue without others is either entirely null, or imperfect (qtd. in Burrow 50). Burrow suggests the following interpretation of the passage:... each of the virtues making up the five fives or Gawain s moral pentangle is entirely null, or imperfect without the others. The virtues, therefore, stand and

29 fall together, and there can be no question, for the hero, of sacrificing one in order to preserve another.... (50) Spearing s and Burrow s explanations complement each other, which is best portrayed in the temptation scenes, where Sir Gawain struggles to be courteous and not to lose his chastity at the same time. It is not possible to decline the Ladie s offers in a rude way; after all, these are the rules of courtly love. Gawain himself is also aware of the unity of the virtues, as shown in the extract from his speech to the Green Knight: I was craven about our encounter, and cowardice taught me / To accord with covetousness and corrupt my nature / And the liberality and loyalty belonging to chivalry ( ). Although the pentangle may appear as a perfect sign for a perfect knight, the interdependence of the virtues and the fragile balance of the symbol suggest that failure is possible. As mentioned earlier, the pentangle represented a token of truth to Solomon. At the beginning, Solomon was the very best of all men, a figure of Christ, Green writes, but ended up worshiping demons, due to his weakness for women that turned him away from God (130). Gawain, too, is considered the best of knights; however, he has to prove his qualities in a test, which he can either pass or fail, just like any other man; as shown in the analysis of trawþe, he is not without sins. The pentangle, therefore, stands not only as a symbol of greatness, but a potential failure as well, and Sir Gawain has do his best to prove that he is worthy of such a symbol

30 5. THE GIRDLE 5.1 History and Function The Middle English Dictionary states that a girdle is a belt worn around the waist, used for fastening clothes or for carrying a sword, purse, etc. ( Girdel ). This definition gives a true picture of what the original purpose of a girdle was. References in the Bible suggest that a girdle was worn by both men and women, had several possible functions, and was made from various materials. Its purpose was not only functional but symbolic as well, as it is demonstrated in the following excerpt from Isaiah: And righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins, and faithfulness the girdle of his reins (Easton s Bible Dictionary, Isaiah 11.5). Girdles were also associated with power and strength: And I will clothe him with thy robe, and strengthen him with thy girdle... (EBD, Isaiah 22.21). God uses a girdle figuratively to demonstrate that as the girdle cleaveth to the loins of a man, so have I caused to cleave unto me the whole house of Israel and the whole house of Judah (EBD, Jeremiah 13.11) 14. Girdles were worn as protective amulets, magical bindings and also as a sign of the individual s mystical incorporation into a social group, which, Wundt believes, stems from the cultic use of rings, necklaces, bracelets or crowns for binding and encircling (qtd. in Friedman and Osberg 303). Girdles, male ones in particular, were associated with power. They were fastened over clothes to ensure freedom of movement and also supported swords or daggers. Thor s girdle combined the elements of magic and power; when he put it on, his strength doubled. The power of women s girdles was of a different nature; it rather represented cosmic sovereignty. For example, Ishtar s girdle was responsible for fertility; when she unfastened it in the underworld, reproduction ceased on earth (Friedman and Osberg 304). 14 For other Biblical references, see the individual entries in Easton s Bible Dictionary

31 During the Middle Ages, noblemen s girdles were usually made of leather and ornamented. As mentioned earlier, their main function was to support swords and daggers, but also knives, keys and purses. The upper-class women s girdles were made of silk and heavily embroidered with golden or silver threads, which suggests that their purpose was not functional, but decorative (Friedman and Osberg 306). Women s girdles were, of course, associated with virginity of their wearers; the untying of a virgin s girdle was a part of the marriage ceremony and the husband s trophy (Friedman and Osberg 305). Interestingly, Sumner believes that covering of the umbilicus was anterior to covering of the genitals, due to the connection of the umbilicus with life, birth, and ancestry. Such an assumption is further supported by cases, where the girdle, if it is used as concealment, covers only the umbilicus (366). 5.2 The Symbolic Meanings Throughout the poem, the girdle represents a different sign than the pentangle. While the pentangle represents a combination of a natural sign and signum ad placitum, the girdle is only signum ad placitum from its very first appearance; its meaning is established gradually and changes to the last moment. Besides, the poet does not allow his readership to enter the mind of his hero this time and the little which is provided should not be taken at face value. As Spearing believes, from the point of Gawain s acceptance of the girdle, he becomes a highly fallible interpreter of the moral nature of his position (224). These facts make it more difficult and confusing for critics who strive to unravel the true nature of the girdle s symbolic meaning. Gawain happens to obtain the girdle during his stay at Bertilak s castle. On the first day of his sojourn, the lord makes an agreement with him; for three days they will exchange anything they happen to win or achieve. While Bertilak, having been on a hunt three times, gives Gawain a deer, a boar, and a fox, Gawain returns kisses, which

32 he received from Lady Bertilak. During the three days, the Lady tries to seduce Sir Gawain and straightforwardly offers him her body for pleasure, but the knight skilfully resists without breaking the rules of courtly love he is expected to observe. On the first day, the lady kisses Gawain once, twice on the second day and three times on the third. However, on the third day the pattern changes, because besides the three kisses, the Lady insists that he should have something of her own a gift. She offers him a precious ring, but Gawain, having nothing to offer in return, declines. Here comes a less valuable, yet still a precious gift. It is a green silk girdle, embroidered with golden threat at the ends. Again, Gawain refuses to take any gift at all, but accepts it later when he is told of its true value magical powers:... the man that binds his body with this belt of green, As long as he laps it closely about him, No hero under heaven can hack him to pieces, For he cannot be killed by any cunning on earth. ( ) In view of his faith on the next day, Gawain believes the lady s gift to save him from the Green Knight s axe. I would like to highlight this point, as it is the sole reason for taking the belt; the poet makes it very clear that Gawain is not covetous, and he emphasizes this idea several times further on 15. In addition, Burrow also thinks that the valuable ring introduces the passage to point out that Sir Gawain desires no treasure (102). The magic lace should be the counterpart to the Green Knight s supernatural abilities and thus the reader may be little surprised by the reoccurrence of the Green Knight s colours, the green and the gold. It is clear that the two colours strengthen the connection between the Lady and the Green Knight, and the Exchange of Gifts and the 15 Lines and

33 Beheading Game. Despite the fact that it may be understood as a hint of warning to Gawain, he does not notice the parallel at all. When Gawain agrees to take the girdle, the Lady beseeches him to conceal it from her husband and the Knight readily swears. It has been suggested that the girdle represents a sexual trophy, because Bertilak would surely draw damaging inferences... from Gawain s possessing it (Friedman 266) 16. Gawain then swears in order to protect the Lady, although it implies being disloyal to her husband at the same time. While it is true that the poet refers to the girdle as a love-lace or a love-token several times, I am of the opinion that this meaning is of minor importance in comparison with the other ones. Firstly, when the Green Knight reveals the whole essence of Gawain s test, he solely concentrates on the matter of faithfulness concerning the broken promise, disregarding the possibility of its being a love-token. Consider the following part of the Green Knight s judgement: Yet it was not for a well-wrought thing, not for wooing either, / But for love of your life, which is less blameworthy ( ). Secondly, the Lady s purpose (as it is defined in the rules of Temptation Theme) is to seduce Sir Gawain and make him break the agreement with her husband so that the latter may gain power over the former. Having been unsuccessful at tempting the Knight, she appeals to his love of his own life by offering him a magic token. Although the Lady s request implies the necessity for her protection and appeals to his sense of courtesy, the unspoken intention is to make sure that Gawain will not present it to Bertilak and consequently will not fulfil the bargain. All in all, despite the slight sexual connotations, it is vital to realize that the girdle does not play the role of a sexual trophy. Other commentators, such as Stevens, are also reluctant to ascribe any sexual implications to the girdle; on doing so modern readers may overlook the primary motive for accepting 16 See also Friedman and Osberg

34 the girdle and their reading of the subsequent interpretations of the girdle may be biased. With the motives of covetousness and a sexual trophy excluded, it may be assumed then that the first symbolic meaning of the girdle is magic. The next meaning is proposed by the Green Knight; when he tells Gawain what the test was really about. He offers him the girdle as a reminder of his adventure, but Gawain is very angry at himself and rejects the idea in favour of a different one the girdle as a reminder of his sin. Yet, when he returns to Camelot and relates the story, he refers to it as a mark of his untruth 17. The court do not approve of this and invert the meaning into a badge of honour. The overall number of the various meanings is then five, and while it presents little difficultly to identify each of them, it is hard to understand the author s intention how the girdle should be finally interpreted, and how serious Gawain s flaw is. 5.3 The Gravity of Sir Gawain s Flaw After Gawain has accepted the green lace, he hides it in his chamber and hurries into the chapel to confess. The subject of the confession and the outcome are the bone of contention among SGGK s critics. One group claims that Gawain s act is only a venial sin, thus it could have been excluded from the confession and the priest s absolution is correct; the other one advocates that Gawain must have confessed the girdle to the priest and accordingly, the priest was not right to absolve Gawain. The relevant passage goes as follows: Then, confessing his faults, he fairly shove himself, Begging mercy for both major and minor sins. He asked the holy man for absolution And was absolved with certainty and sent out so pure 17 Although Stone translates this as faithlessness, the original word is vntrawþe (Syr Gawayn & þe Grene Kny3t 2509)

35 That Doomsday could have been declared the day after. ( ) The text suggests that the girdle, be it a major or a minor sin, was confessed, because Gawain confides all his sins. Yet, if it is so, the priest would have instructed Gawain to return the lace to its rightful owner. Burrow points out that a right and valid confession depended, not only on the fulfilment of the necessary external forms, but also on the presence in the penitent of a proper disposition : first, the penitent must be sorry for his sins; second, he must make restitution; and third, he must promise to sin no more (107). Since Gawain makes no restitution (his intentions are quite the contrary), and the priest gives the absolution, it must therefore be concluded that he did not include the girdle in his confession. That being established, other questions arise. The first one is whether concealing the girdle was a sin grave enough that it should have been confessed; the second question is why Gawain went to confess in the first place. One possible motive has already been excluded, that is to confess accepting the green belt. Burrow suggests another possible explanation which has nothing in common with the girdle; Gawain simply takes a convenient opportunity to do what any Christian should do when in peril of death (105). Yet, Burrow himself rejects such an explanation due to serious objections; he favours the first one and consequently claims that the confession is invalid (106-9). Another answer might be that Gawain s original reason was to confess the girdle, but during the confession thought better of it, having realised that it would result in losing the magical token of protection. Such interpretation consequently infers the answer to the first question of how serious Gawain s misdemeanour actually was. If Gawain himself wanted to confess it, then it is a serious sin and he was wrong not to do it. Burrow argues extensively that Gawain s flaw is very serious and the invalid confession is a symptom of his fall from grace (109). Stevens, on the other hand,

36 claims that Burrow is wrong; he sees it as a mere venial sin and doubts whether the girdle was mentioned in the confession at all (77). Yet, he contradicts himself later on when he writes that all sins, grave and petty, are subject to confession, which evidently implies and supports the idea of a wrong conduct on Gawain s side (Stevens 77). Unfortunately, the poet leaves the interpretation on his readers, because he provides only few hints and the insight into Gawain s mind is missing this time. This lack of insight, which suggests an equal lack of bad conscience, plays into the hands of Spearing, whose interpretation I find the most valid. Spearing also concludes that the girdle is concealed during the confession, but then, unlike the previous critics who present their own view on what is right or wrong, Spearing discusses what Gawain himself is thinking and presents the Knight s view on the situation. He infers that if Sir Gawain concealed the lace deliberately, the poet would have provided some insight into his consciousness, so as not to leave room for misinterpretation; since it is missing, it is not the sin itself which should be considered his fault. Spearing explains: A simpler and perhaps more plausible view is that it is precisely his consciousness, his self-awareness or concience, that is at fault. He does not include his intended retention of the girdle among his sins because he wrongly fails to recognize that it is a sin.... The guilt he might have felt and ought to have felt is drowned in thankfulness at the chance of saving himself from what seemed certain death. (225-6) Still, Gawain is aware of the dual commitment, and it may be the fear of being revealed which leads him to break the pattern of the gift-exchange; this time it is Sir Gawain who first approaches and offers Bertilak his winnings. Besides, it is evident that he tries to bring the exchange to its end as quickly as possible. In addition, he wears a tunic of a blue colour, which stands for faithfulness; it is the sole occurrence of this colour in the

37 whole poem (Burrow 112). However, it is not until the climax, that Gawain brings himself to admit any guilt. Nevertheless, the reader might already be aware of the Knight s true moral condition on his departure for the Green Chapel Sir Gawain wears the green belt round his waist over 18 the surcoat with the pentangle depicted on it. It is a sign that the girdle has taken place of the pentangle, a sign of the untruth superseding the truth, or as Malarkey and Toelken put it: Gawain... has externalized his moral condition (qtd. in Friedman and Osberg 312). When Gawain, having received a small wound in his neck, is told what the true nature of the test was, he feels humiliated and reproaches himself for his cowardice and covetousness. It is rather puzzling why these two particular qualities are highlighted, as they sometimes seem to be in direct contradiction with the text. With respect to the cowardice, I believe that Gawain proved to be courageous when he accepted the Green Knight s bargain back in Camelot, and furthermore when he insisted on meeting his adversary and declined the guide s offer to flee. It may be argued that Gawain declined to flee, because he had the girdle to protect him, but, as Friedman and Osberg assert, the medieval audience would find it no more cowardly than relying on his armour or the pentangle (312). Since Gawain is the most severe critic, I therefore interpret it as a fear to face the Green Knight s axe without the offered magic lace. As far as his alleged covetousness is concerned, it seems even more problematic, taking into consideration Gawain s motive for accepting the girdle. As stated above, it is not for the material value, but for its magical powers that Gawain keeps the girdle. If the two statements exclude each other, then the explanation must lie in the meaning of the word covetous; as Hanna assumes, the meaning in the poem cannot be the same as in Middle English, although Spearing understands it in its original sense, which is 18 Friedman and Osberg stress this fact, as it is a common error among the readers to believe that the girdle is hidden under the Knight s armour (312)

38 attraction to material value (Hanna 294; Spearing 227). Stone provides the following explanation: in his view, covetousness is not avarice but desire to keep possession of life, which is a plausible interpretation fitting well into the context and complementing the interpretation of cowardice (136). The extent of Gawain s outburst and his subsequent attitude are also questionable, since it may appear rather exaggerated to modern readers. Indeed, it seems as if those commentators who regard Gawain s sin as a grave one also find his condemnation appropriate; similarly those who do not approve of the Knight s outburst think mildly of his flaw. For example, Burrow warns that sinners should not be lenient with themselves 19, and heroes in particular, who should, in fact, display a certain degree of exaggeration; Gawain therefore reacts just as he is expected (144). Spearing, on the other side, thinks that Gawain is overreacting due to his misunderstanding of the true nature of his test and, fearing to lose respect (227). As for the Green Knight, his judgment is much less severe than Sir Gawain s; he tries to comfort him and diminish his lapse, because in his view, Gawain s motive is less blameworthy (2368). The dialogue resembles a confession and Bertilak s phrasing is indeed similar to the priest Gawain visited at Hautdesert: In my view you have made amends for your misdemeanour; You have confessed your faults fully with fair acknowledgement, And plainly done penance at the point of my axe. Your are absolved or your sin and as stainless now As if you had never fallen in fault since first you were born. ( ) 19 When he discusses this point, Burrow uses vague and unconvincing phrases such as everyone agrees or most readers (144). He does not support his claims with any sources, either

39 Moreover, Bertilak mentions some of the necessary dispositions of the penitent, discussed above. Both Burrow and Arthur 20 support this interpretation, with Arthur adding that even if the absolution cannot be valid (Bertilak is not a real priest), it is valid at least poetically (116). Despite Gawain s adversary being satisfied with his performance, Gawain is not so easily soothed and rejects the suggested and rather flat meaning of the girdle. Now, in a calmer manner, he gladly accepts the lace to remind him of his sin and relates the stories of several biblical figures who were deceived by women like him to show that he should be pardoned: If I am snared, it seems / I ought to be excused (2427-8). This attitude and this symbolic meaning of the girdle are, in my opinion, the most convincing Gawain realizes his lapse but does not regard it as an irreversible state; he is still the knight who aspires to achieve the qualities of the pentangle and the green belt should remind him how simple it may be to be led astray. By the time Gawain reaches Camelot, the wound on his neck is completely healed, which confirms that his sin is forgiven and the penance completed. Arthur affirms that the use of wounds as metaphors for sin and the idea that Christ is the healer are widespread in medieval religious writings (118). Yet, on his arrival Gawain wears the baldric across his chest to display its ceremony; he employs it in a nonfunctional way to distinguish it from its original practical use (Friedman and Osberg 313). Spearing considers Gawain s treatment of his misdemeanour ostentatious, as if he were the only person who sinned, as if he were such a special person that in him human imperfection was especially remarkable (230). Spearing believes that it is his pride and honour which Gawain has in mind in the first place. The court, by deciding to adopt the girdle, prevent Gawain from being such an outstanding figure and remind him that his imperfection is nothing out of the ordinary (Spearing 230-1). Burrow, on the 20 See Burrow , and Arthur

40 other hand, sees nothing unusual in the way Sir Gawain behaves. He wears it, because the memory of his sin is still with him and will be until he dies. The court s task is to cheer up and comfort the Knight just as Bertilak did; they have no right to pass a judgment over Gawain and his conduct. As a result, the court decides that each man shall wear a green baldric as an honourable emblem. Since the girdle, as a signum ad placitum, is always open to new meanings, the last one, according to Burrow, is just as legitimate as the old one... [and] does not in this case entirely supersede [it] (158). What Burrow seems to miss, and Arthur points out, is the shift between the girdle as a sign of one particular mistake, and the girdle as a sign for permanent untruth, i.e. the opposite of the pentangle (111). Arthur does not approve of this change, because the state of permanent untruth, he claims, belongs only to certain creatures, such as Satan (112). It is the reason why the court reject such symbolism in order to invent a new one, the very opposite the badge of honour. In Arthur s view, Gawain s belief that his sin will never be forgiven tends towards the sin of wanhope, which is the refusal to believe in the possibility of repentance and forgiveness (115). The girdle, if it is to be taken as a sign, thus signifies wanhope, while the proper sign for Gawain s cowardice should be the wound (Arthur 127). Although Arthur, Burrow and Spearing offer three distinct interpretation of the last passage of SGGK, I cannot fully agree with any of them. Like Spearing, I also find Gawain s manners somewhat ostentatious; his pride is hurt and no wonder that the girdle comes last in the account of his adventure. His attempt to make the girdle a sign for untruth must necessarily fail. All the three writers propose various reasons why the court changed the symbolic meaning of the lace. While I agree with Burrow that the knights and ladies should not judge Gawain s performance, I believe that they were not right to change the meaning of the symbol either. I find their lighthearted reaction striking; the court should at least learn a serious lesson from Gawain s

41 adventure. After all, it was the girdle in the first place that brought Gawain into mortal danger. Burrow thinks that Gawain does not tell about the girdle until the end to make it prominent (153). This, however, supports my claim, because it implies that Gawain did indeed want the court to learn a lesson from it. To sum up, the girdle was first introduced as a magic token, then represented a memory of Gawain s adventure, next it stood as a sing for his sin, then changed its symbolic meaning again to signify permanent untruth, and ended as a symbol of honour. On the one hand, if the Gawain-poet wanted to establish the girdle as a symbol, I must conclude that he failed in his effort, for the suggested meanings do not have sufficient support in the text, they are raised hastily, and immediately superseded. On the other hand, the poet may use the girdle as a means of passing a judgement on Gawain s performance, which, in that case, may be as follows: No human being is without flaws

42 6. CONCLUSION Among the many themes and symbols found in SGGK, The Green Knight, the Girdle and the Pentangle belong to the most prominent ones. Their meanings are not apparent at first sight, but a detailed analysis shows how highly complex the signs are; they are skilfully integrated into the plot, interacting with other figures and among themselves. Although the poet makes use of historical sources (mainly the Celtic folklore and Christian traditions), he employs them as it suits him and does not hesitate to put various elements together. The explanations of these signs are thus very problematic and even scholars who deal with SGGK for a long time, such as Burrow or Spearing, arrive at different conclusions. In the thesis, I provided the main existing interpretations presented by these critics and it is not my intention to repeat them again. Instead, I summarize the most significant observations I arrived at. The Green Knight is portrayed as an ambiguous character in every possible way. He has two forms the Green Knight and Lord Bertilak. The former is, above all, peculiar because of the colour of his skin. The green immediately classifies him as a supernatural creature, although his appearance suggests that he is human as well. The green, as the predominant colour of Nature, and the human features form a perfect union which is found in the archetype of the Green Man. The green itself presents an equivocal element, since it may stand for both life and death. Another contrast is embodied in the juxtaposition of the green and the gold, where the latter stands for the artificially created life of the mankind, taking place inside, with feasts and joy. At the same time, the symbolic meaning of gold is identical to that of Bertilak. The character encompasses both the coalescence of human and natural worlds, and the struggle of humans with Nature, the contrast between life and death and their union in the life cycle

43 SGGK is a poem about testing and the understanding of the Pentangle section is the key to Sir Gawain s conduct and consequently essential for the understanding of the whole poem. The Pentangle appears in gold on Sir Gawain s shield and coat, and it represents a unique device of identifying its bearer and the values to which he aspires. Thus the readers know that Gawain is always in accordance with trawþe and that he is a good Christian. He also appears to be faultless like the Pentangle, which is a perfect symbol from both the geometrical and arithmetical points of view. The symbol also stands for divinity, unity and endlessness. One of the main qualities, however, is the interdependence, which the poet highlights in relation with the five virtues. It means that if one side of the Pentangle, one virtue, is broken, the sign is no longer endless or united, and that the hero failed to observe the four remaining virtues as well. As I demonstrated above, the possibility of such a failure is integrated into the symbol itself. The failure of Sir Gawain proved that it is not in man s power to observe the strict rules at all times, and that the code of chivalry cannot prevail forever. The Girdle as a symbol is a confusing one if the readers are to understand it as a conventional symbol at all. As I attempted to show, the meanings which are raised by the poet openly in the plot can hardly convince the readers to accept them at face value. Rather, the girdle serves as a hint for the audience to help them pass a correct judgment on Sir Gawain s flaw. Apart from that, the green and the gold of the girdle remind one of the Green Knight and the conflict between Nature and civilization. Since the green is prevailing, it stands for Nature; just like Lady Bertilak, it tempts Sir Gawain to reject the values of the Pentangle. It is now apparent that the three symbols are interconnected; each of them depends on the other two, and complements them. The green and the gold as the two predominant colours struggle against each other; the Green Knight, in whom both

44 colours are equally depicted, is the one who sets things in motion. It is upon Sir Gawain to choose between the gold Pentangle and the green girdle. Sir Gawain may appear to be faultless, but the balance of the Pentangle is fragile and the girdle is to test it

45 9. WORKES USED AND CITED Anderson, William. Green Man: The Archetype of our Oneness with the Earth. London: Harper Collins, Arthur, Ross G. Medieval Sign Theory and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, Jan 2009 < Bloomfield, Morton W. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: An Appraisal. PMLA 76 (1961): Burrow, J. A. A Reading of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary: Vol. II, P-Z: Supplement and Bibliography. New York: Oxford UP, Easton s Bible Dictionary. Ed. John Bruno Hare April 2009 < Evans, W. O. Gawain s New Pentangle. Trivium 3 (1968): Fízelová, Gabriela. The Concept of Chivalry and Chivalric Ideals in the Arthurian Legends. MA Thesis. Masaryk U, Friedman, Albert B. Morgan le Fay in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Speculum 35 (1960): JSTOR. 19 Dec < Friedman, Albert B., and Richard H Osberg. Gawain s Girdle as Traditional Symbol. The Journal of American Folklore 90 (1977): JSTOR. 15 Jan 2009 < Goldhurst, William. The Green and the Gold: The Major Theme of Gawain and the Green Knigth.College English 20 (1958):

46 Green, Richard Hamilton. Gawain s Shield and the Quest for Perfection. ELH 29 (1962): JSTOR. 19 Dec < Hanna, Ralph. Unlocking What s Locked: Gawain s Green Girdle. Viator 14 (1983): Brepols Publishers. Hutchings, John. Folklore and Symbolism of Green. Folklore BNET Today. 9 Dec < mi_m2386/is_v108/ai_ ?tag=rbxcra.2.a.2>. King Solomon s Seal. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 16 Feb April 2009 < Kittredge, Lyman. A study of Gawain and the Green Knight. Cambridge: Harvard UP, Questia. 20 April 2009 < Loomis, Roger Sherman, ed. Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A Collaborative History. Oxford: Clarendon P, Middle English Dictionary. Girdel. Ed. Frances McSparran. 22 Feb April 2009 < Middle English Dictionary. Grene. Ed. Frances McSparran. 22 Feb April 2009 < O Connor, J. J., E. F. Robertson. Perfect Numbers. U of St Andrews. Dec April 2009 < HistTopics/Perfect_numbers.html>. The Pentagram. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon April 2009 < The New Oxford Dictionary of English. Ed. Judy Pearsall. Oxford: Clarendon P,

47 Robertson, D. W., Jr. Why the Devil Wears Green. Modern Language Notes 69 (1954): JSTOR. 19 Dec < Sadowski, Piotr. The Knight on his Quest: Symbolic Patterns of Transitions in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Newark: U of Delaware P, Sophistes, Apollonios. The Pythagorean Pentacle. The U of Tennessee April 2009 < Spearing, A. C. The Gawain-Poet: A Critical Study. London: Cambridge UP, Stevens, Martin. Laughter and Game in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Speculum 47 (1972): JSTOR. 19 Dec < Stone, Brian, trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. 2 nd ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin, Sumner, William Graham. Folkways. New York: Mentor Book, Symbol 27:21. Symbols.com. Online Encyclopedia of Western Signs and Ideograms. 13 April 2009 < >. Syr Gawayn & þe Grene Kny3t. Everything2. 2 Jan 2009 < 520Knight%2520IX>. Tuttleton, James W. The Manuscript Divisions of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Speculum 41 (1966): JSTOR. 19 Dec <

48 8. APPENDICES 8.1 Appendix 1: The Two Types of the Green Men. Fig. 4. The Green Man made of foliage. Fig. 5. The Green Man disgorging vegetation 8.2 Appendix 2: The Original Version of the Pentangle Passage Then þay schewed hym þe schelde, þat was of schyr goulez Wyth þe pentangel depaynt of pure golde hwez. He braydez hit by þe bauderyk, aboute þe hals kestes, þat bisemed þe segge semlyly fayre. And quy þe pentangel apendez to þat prynce noble I am in tent yow to telle, þof tary hyt me schulde: Hit is a syngne þat salamon set sumquyle In bytoknyng of trawþe, bi tytle þat hit habbez,