A. Is synchronic and thus text-oriented, thus having many parallels to redaction/tradition and structuralist interpretations.

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1 I. CANON AND COMMUNITY CRITICISM deals with the text from the stand point of its meaning in the context of the whole Bible as perceived by a particular religious community. A. Is synchronic and thus text-oriented, thus having many parallels to redaction/tradition and structuralist interpretations. B. Attempts to determine the special interests of that particular community. C. Assumes that interpretations vary depending upon which believing community is doing the reading D. Believes that the canonization process separated the meaning of texts from dependence on their historical use or original use. E. Avoids the atomization and isolated interpretation of text; the text read is considered in the context of the Bible, not as a single, independent unit. F. Is overtly theological in its approach, asking what the meaning of the text is for the canonizing community in the present. G. Asks such questions as: 1. What do these words, phrases, etc., indicate about how the community interpreted this text? 2. Can a history of interpretation be traced from the beginning by various groups? 3. If so, what did their particular perspective contribute to an understanding of the text? II. NARRATIVE EXEGESIS Part of the New Literary Criticism, which, like Canonical Criticism, is concerned with the entirely, completed, biblical corpus. A. Major characteristics include: 1. View all received texts as wholes. 1

2 2. Acceptance of the work as intentional production of single author (some ignore this - not concerned). 3. Bible as literature on synchronic level - for its own sake. 4. Key to meaning in logic intrinsic in form - rather than historical situation. 5. As a result the method is more interested in readers than authors. B. This method is easily used in Sunday School Classes. C. Ask questions such as: 1. Implied Author and Narrator: What concerns, values and theological perspectives of the original author highlight in this particular text? 2. Point of View, Ideology and Narrative World: What points of view are expressed by the various characters and the narrator? Do you see any from the following: a. Psychological Dimension: What inside information (thoughts and feelings) of the various characters occurs? b. Evaluative or Ideological Point of View: What value judgments of right and wrong are made by any of the characters or narrator? c. Spatial Perspective: Does the narrator shift geographical positions in the story? d. Temporal Perspective: Does the narrated event effect past, present, or future? e. Phraseological Point of View: What different points of view are revealed by the various speeches in the narrative? 3. Narrative and Story Time: Are any gaps left in the story? What areas of minimal representation create suspense, etc., in order to construct a picture that is more real than if it were drawn in detail? What purposes do they reveal? 2

3 4. Plot: What plots and mini plots build conflict, etc., so as to develop themes and characterizations which help determine the meaning of the passage? 5. Characterization: How may the various characters be described Physically, Socially, Singularly (i.e., skills or talents that stand out), Moral and ideological, and/ or Psychologically? How do the various characters compare to one another? 6. Setting: How may one describe the Geographical, Temporal, Social, and Historical setting? 7. Implicit Commentary: Does one part of the story comment on another part of the story? What is repeated in the story? Do various Leitwort, Motifs, Themes, or Sequence of Actions occur? Can the scene be related to other scenes and thus be designated a Type-scene? 8. Representation through dialogue: What does the dialogue reveal about the meaning of the passage? How is the recording of the dialogue reveal its importance? How does the contrasting dialogue function? 9. Implied Reader: What does the identification of the modern reader with the implied reader reveal about the intent and meaning of the passage? III. POETIC INTERPRETATION is interested in the emotional situation reflected in the text. A. Introduction 1. We are exegetically unsound when we read poetry like narrative 2. Poetry is the language of emotion a. When emotions come to the forefront and we try to vent them, or describe them, we stretch for words to describe it. 1 1 This can happen even when emotions are not involved as in this sentence where I am attempting to say, "we attempt to find words stored in our vocabulary that adequately describe our emotional state." 3

4 b. For example, I feel like a dog, says more emotionally about our present health than does, I have a high fever, with aches and pains, as well as dizziness, and an upset stomach. c. The latter is reserved for our physician to help him diagnose our problem while the former generates sympathy/empathy (emotions) relative to our state of being accounts of killing of Sisera, Cf. Judges 4:17-21 with 5: Much has been written. We will focus only on parallelism. B. Parallelism of Members 1. Internal parallelism consists of a series of terms that fall into pairs, Ps 24: Scholarship has not developed a nomenclature for parallelism. a. Line--the basic unit of composition which constitutes one half (sometimes one third) of the parallelism. b. stich or stichos--basic unit of the line, also known as hemistich (half line), colon (part, member), or verse number. c. Distich or tristich--two or three stichs; stich when the half-line components are called hemstitches. d. Bicola or tricola (two or three colons), and verse (Latin, versus, "line, row"; composed of two or more verse members)-- alternative terminology for distich or tristich. 3. Types of internal parallelism (parallelism between stichs). a. Synonymous--states the same thought in successive stichs, Ps 24. (1) Complete Synonymous--each term in the first stich is matched by a term in the second, Ps 103:3,

5 (2) Incomplete synonymous parallelism--not every term is matched in the two lines, Jer 17:9-10a b. Antithetic--"balances the stichs through opposition or contrast of thought" Prov 14:28. c. Synthetic or formal parallelism--"balances stichs in which the second element advances the thought of the first, Ps 14:1-2 (1) Emblematic parallelism--simile or metaphor, Jer 17:11a. (2) Stairlike parallelism--repetition and advance of thought in successive stichs, often involving three or more stichs; it is a combination of synonymous and synthetic parallelism in which the thought appears to climb or ascend by recapitulation and extension, Ps 29:1-2; 3:1-2. (3) Inverted or chiastic parallelism--the inversion of words or terms in successive stichs, Isa 11:13b; 59:8a. 4. External parallelism--correspondence between distiches. When external parallelism is added to internal parallelism (correspondence between stichs) the possibilities for parallelism are multiplied. a. Two internal synthetic emblematic parallelisms form an external synonymous, emblematic parallelism in Isa 1:10. Hear the word of the Lord,/ you rulers of Sodom!// Give ear to the teaching of our God,/ you people of Gomorrah!// b. Two internal synonymous parallelism form an external antithetic parallelism in Isa 1:3. The ox knows its owner,/ and the ass its master's crib;// but Israel does not know,/ my people do not understand.// 5

6 C. Kugel on Parallelism 1. Parallelism is varied and ranges from "zero perceivable correspondence" to "near-zero perceivable differentiation" between the lines. D. Alter on Parallelism a. Denies that parallelism is a mere restatement, but rather B goes beyond A in such cases--"a is so, and What's more B is so." b. Thus the pause between the two lines is not an equal sign, as a mere restatement would seem to imply, but rather a double arrow, "for it is the dual nature of B both to come after A and thus add to it, often particularizing, defining, or expanding the meaning, and yet also harken back to A and in an obvious way to connect it. One might say that B has both retrospective (looking back to A) and prospective (looking beyond it) qualities)" (8). c. Thus B has an emphatic character, a going one better, "a kind of progression" (9). d. In wisdom literature A and B take on a didactic function which adds to its "sharpness": "A is so and B is so"; "Just as A, so B also"; etc. 1. "There would seem to be some satisfying feeling of emphasis, for both the speaker and his audience, in stating the same thing twice, with nicely modulated variations. Like rhyme, regular meter, and alliteration in other poetic systems, it is a convention of linguistic `coupling' that contributes to the special unity and to the memorability (literal and figurative) of the utterances, to the sense that they are an emphatic, balanced, and elevated kind of discourse, perhaps ultimately rooted in a magical conception of language as potent performance" (9). 2. They are not "thought-rhymes" as Robinson asserted (9). Rather a movement from the first line to the second, in which the parallel does restate the first but with a different emphasis. Similarly, poetry "abhors complete parallelism" (10). 6

7 3. Component parts for this movement include: synonymity; synonymity with verbatim repetition; complementary; focusing, heightening, intensification, specification; consequentiality; leitwöter, etc. (29). Uses 2 Sam 22 as example (30ff). a. Leitwöter: certain key words or synonyms repeated throughout a poetic piece for the purpose of emphasizing a certain concept, etc. (32). b. Intensification: the introduction in the second verset a term that is stronger than its counterpart in the first (33). c. Specification: usually of place, action, agency in the second verset, accomplishes similar purpose to intensification (22:19) (33). Both accomplished through parallelism of meaning or substitution of a more specific and/or more concrete term in the second verset (33-4). 4. When movement between lines occurs narrativity (metaphor) is the result. a. Movement between lines is speeded up when semantic parallelism is abandoned (36). b. But when semantic parallelism is used, and as "the poet offers an approximate equivalent for an image or idea he has just evoked, he also begins, by the very logic of specification or intensification of the system in which he works, to push the initial image or idea into action, moving from one image to another that is temporally subsequent to and implied by the first" (37). Narrative is the result (37-8). 5. Movement can be of various types a. Chronology may involve two nonsimultaneous actions with the chronologically later action in the second verset, Ps 22:10 b. Cause to Effect is another, Isa 1:31 c. Linked Actions approximate equivalent actions which lead from one to the next (39), Job 16:9-14 to produce "motion" (40). 7

8 E. Poetic interpretation asks questions like the following: 1. What kinds of parallelism occur? a. Internal parallelism? (That is, synonymous, synonymous complete, synonymous incomplete, antithetic, synthetic or formal, synthetic emblematic, emblematic stairlike, inverted or chiastic?) b. External parallelism? (That is, synonymous, synonymous complete, synonymous incomplete, antithetic, synthetic or formal, synthetic emblematic, emblematic stairlike, inverted or chiastic?) 2. How do the various lines of poetry define and relate to each other? (Kugel/Alter) 3. What does this say about the emotions revealed in the text? 4. What emotions are revealed in the text? IV. HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION--is interested in the socio-political-religious situation when the event occurred. A. Better understanding of the times in which the event(s) occurred Old Testament [in fact all biblical] texts confront us today as a collection of the faith transmission of Ancient Israel. This collection belongs to the unity of holy scripture which becomes current again in each generation. In their origin, however,... texts were all rooted in a particular historical situation. They are promulgated in a specific geographical realm. They have authors of various social stations and various intellectual theological shaping. They speak to specific addressees, each with their own particular experiential horizon and world view. They presuppose particular political and social realities, incisive social changes, and formative historical events. Understanding these texts is impossible without a historical view of the conditions and components which these texts include. The procedure of the historical setting therefore has the task of comprehending the given text s roots in a specific historical setting for every stage of its development (Steck, 151). B. Objective point of control allows to keep: 8

9 1. the intended meaning 2. Guards against harmonizing and apologetic tendencies 3. Respect for the diversity of scripture C. Bible History Writing 1. Historical events are not like laboratory evidence a. Past cannot be recreated b. Unverifiable: (1) event out of reach (2) limited evidence (3) dealing in probabilities c. Multidimensional: (1) meanings on different levels (2) continue to restudy d. Ambiguous: (1) open to various interpretations (2) those of the people as well as revelation e. Inherently meaningful: (1) no meaningless facts (events) (2) those who do not learn from history are destined to repeat it (3) Greidanus, (p. 86): The Bible presents many interpretations of historical events; it even presents different interpretations of one and the same event in, say, the Synoptic Gospels. Although these interpretations may 9

10 come many years after the events, they draw out of the events what was present in their initial happening. In other words, biblical interpretations of historical events can be seen as revelation of meanings already present, but perhaps not perceived, when the events occurred. f. This is part of the difference between the history in the text and the history of the text. 2. History writing a. Interpretation of events (1) Does not report everything (2) Report only what is necessary for their purpose--the significant things (3) The authors revealed deeper meanings that were not as obvious b. Prophetic interpretations (1) Such is primarily prophetic (2) Many of the day had interpretations, but (3) Such prophetic interpretations revealed the mind and will of God (4) As such they should guide the questions the exegete asks c. Authoritative interpretations: (1) The reason that all recognize its authority (2) Places the burden on the modern exegete to disclose and apply those same meanings d. Ancient standards: wrote according to the standards of the day 10

11 e. The purpose of the author: 3. Historical reliability (1) Why did the author write what he wrote? (2) What message was he trying to transmit? (3) What was the itch? (4) Were they wrote to provoke a response, hence, not dry history. a. Historical accuracy (1) Should not force the Bible into 20th century standards of literature (2) Can t have your cake and eat it too. (3) Can t always argue that the Bible was written in its own socio-political context, and yet is the same for the 20th century, scientific mind b. Historical foundations (1) Important thing is that the event occurred (2) Without belief in that, interpretation is worthless (3) Our faith is vain, 1 Cor 15:17 c. History writing and parable vs. story (1) Parables and some kinds of Bible literature makes little difference whether the event actually occurred--they were told/written to reveal a truth 11

12 (2) Most of the narratives must have occurred if their authenticity and integrity are to remain intact (3) Greidanus (94) underscores the importance of these facts: On the one hand, therefore, the issue of historical reliability is a crucial concern. On the other, in interpreting narratives, one ought not to pay undue attention to this question of historicity, for ironically it may result in a distorted interpretation as when one views the text as a clear window through which to look at what actually happened. For the text is much more like a stained glass window, and the preacher ought to focus on the author s prophetic interpretation of the event rather than on the (bare) event. The question of historicity, it must be remembered, was placed on the agenda by the Enlightenment and the historical-critical method; although the rationalistic mindset needs to be answered in a prolegomena, one must be careful not to adopt this mind-set and allow it to guide subsequent interpretation. The preacher s responsibility is to hear the message of a passage as intended by its author. Sometimes, as we can see in Job, for example, that intention has little or nothing to do with giving a historical account. Frequently, however, the intention is precisely to proclaim the significance of the event narrated. It will not do, therefore, simply to bracket out the historical referent. In holistic historical interpretation one must also do justice to the historical referent and the way it functions in the text. D. The History of God's Kingdom: (context of the passage [pericope]; context of the book; context of the Bible, past present and future) 1. Creation to new creation a. The biblical vision: from creation to the end of the world b. The vision lost: HCM as currently practiced by many results in a destroyed faith c. Recovery of the vision 12

13 (1) But can be practiced holistically (2) Whatever presuppositions are taken to the text must be risked 2. The biblical view of history a. The Old Testament: theologically incomplete b. The New Testament: completes the incomplete c. Kingdom history: kingdom is here!; yet creation to consummation is the giant parentheses inserted into eternity 3. Christ-fall-redemption: summarizes all of this 4. Kingdom history and interpretation a. Every biblical passage must be understood in this grand context b. Historical exposition and application are a way for the exegete to bridge the gap between then and now E. Secondary sources and the historical context practically used We have emphasized the need to focus on the text rather than the secondary sources. a. This is necessary if we are to read critically b. If we do not read critically we will view the secondary literature as authoritative. 2 Osborne, 19ff. 13

14 c. But to look adequately at the historical context of a passage one must almost always use the secondary literature from the beginning. 2. All of what was said above gives emphasis to the authority of scripture a. But that scripture was written in a historical context. b. We must go to these secondary sources to understand the historical context. c. This is not placing their interpretation over the divine meaning, but an attempt to understand the background out of which the text was created. 3. Sources of information for understanding the historical background. a. Commentaries (1) The most recent contain up-to-date summaries of the issues (2) The older will not have these issues (3) Remember also that many commentaries are written on each other, i.e., in dialogue with each other relative to theoretical/theological/philosophical issues rather than what the text has to say, as e.g., It would be nice if this commentator would come down out of the stratosphere of the theology of J and deal with the text once-in-a-while. (4) The same could be said for many of the conservative and theological commentaries. b. Introductions to the Old and New Testaments (1) Interact more broadly than a commentary (2) Point out themes, messages, etc. of books (3) These can be compared to the context of the passage. 14

15 c. Encyclopedias and Dictionaries (1) Separate articles not only under book titles, (2) But also authors, themes, backgrounds, etc., more broadly then either of the above. d. Archaeological works and Atlases give good historical and geographical information e. Specialized works and journal articles provide further, specific information 4. Osborne shows how this secondary material can be used critically, and thus not skew your judgment against what is found in the text itself. At this stage we are using secondary sources to learn preliminary data for interpreting the text (we will use them later when we begin the exegetical study). The information we gather from them is not final truth but rather a blue print, a basic plan that we can alter later when the edifice of interpretation is actually being erected. These ideas are held by someone else, and our later detailed study may lead us to change many of the ideas. The value of this preliminary reading is that it draws us out of our twentieth-century perspective and makes us aware of the ancient situation behind the text Four major areas need to be addressed: authorship, date, group addressed, purpose/theme 6. The information gathered interacts with the exegetical process as follows: The information we glean from the sources becomes a filter through which the individual passages may be passed. This preliminary material is open to later correction during the detailed exegesis or study of the passage. Its purpose is to narrow down the interpretative laws so that we might ask the proper questions, forcing us back to the times and culture 3 Osborne,

16 of the original writer and the situation behind the text. We will therefore have a control against reading twentieth-century meaning back into the first-century language. Such an approach leads to the proper type of preunderstanding, linked as it is to the text and its background. At the same time, this information too must be placed in front of the text rather than behind it; that is, it must be open to correction as we study individual passages in detail. This data must never be allowed to force the text in its own direction, for it is secondary rather than primary knowledge until we have studied the ext itself Questions to be asked include, but are not limited to: a. Who wrote the text? b. To whom was this text written? c. When was this text written? d. Where was this text written? e. Why was this text written? What was the itch? What was the author s intention? f. What was the socio-political-religious situation of the day? g. What do the secondary sources (encyclopedias, dictionaries, commentaries, introductions, histories, and journals) say about this situation? h. How does all of this contribute to our understanding of the meaning of the passage? 4 Osborne,