Dr. Md. Irfan Basha. Confederation of Voluntary Associations (COVA) Hyderabad (A.P.), India

Transcription

1 The Muslims of Anantapur -A Socio Economic Profile Dr. Md. Irfan Basha Confederation of Voluntary Associations (COVA) Hyderabad (A.P.), India 1

2 C o n t e n t s Page No I. INTRODUCTION. Description of Rayalaseema Historical and geographical settings Brief description of Selected Towns and Villages Demographic features of Muslims Survey Design Profile of Anantapur district II. SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE. Occupational patterns Child Labour Muslims in Government jobs III. IV. EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF MUSLIMS. Status of Education: Basic figures Elementary education and Muslims Status of Urdu education in Anantapur district POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF MUSLIMS. Basic figures v. Status of Muslim women VI. MUSLIM WELFARE AND MINORITY INSTITUTIONS. VI. CASE STUDIES. VII. APPENDIX i) Muslim Personalities of Anantapur ii) 15-Point Programme for dealing with the problems of religious minorities iii) Manual on Minority Welfare 2

3 CHAPTER-I. INTRODUCTION India s population is composed of various peoples with different ethnic, racial, and sociocultural backgrounds, most of who arrived in this land from different parts of the world at different points of time. Over thousands of years, there have been degrees of intermingling as some communities underwent sub-divisions and fragmentations and some others retained a distinct identity, maintaining a certain measure of their traditional exclusiveness mainly through cultural institutions. Indian Muslims are widely held to belong to this latter category. India came into contact with Islam nearly 1300 years ago and its adherents are scattered along the length and breadth of the country, from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean and from the Arabian Sea to the nation s eastern frontiers. Indian Muslims have enriched Indian culture and civilization, and in general have played a significant role in the development of the Indian society as a whole, over the years. But what needs to be emphasized is that Islam did not come to the subcontinent within a single time span, but over periods of unequal lengths. As a result, its diffusion and absorption took place along different dimensions from one territory to another and from one class to another. The difference in the phases in which people live through Islam brought with it new dimensions in the nature of challenges facing Muslims in different areas, a potentially rich, hitherto neglected area of study. Muslims in India constitute 13.4% of the country's population, 1 which amounts to about 138 million people. The economic and educational progress of the community is 1 Census of India, 2001, cited in Times of India (7 September 2004), p.1. 3

4 therefore very crucial for India as the country heads towards a transition from a developing to a developed nation. However, a sizeable section of the Muslim community is found to be socially, educationally, politically and economically backward. In such a scenario, no country can boast of development if a sizeable minority of its population remains illiterate and poor, lagging behind in all aspects of life. A positive endeavor of affirmative measures is required in legal and welfare terms in order to improve the status of Muslims and bring the community on par with national figures on literacy and employment. It will also strengthen the Muslim community's integration in the mainstream of India's modernization efforts. On the other hand, there is a pre-conceived notion against Muslims that they constitute a monolithic community. This tendency to view Muslims as a homogeneous community is also visible in earlier studies, both at micro- and macro-levels. Such an inaccurate view is easily dismantled in the face of evidence on the rich linguistic and cultural diversity of the Muslim community. There are numerous variations not only in the social organisation of different Muslim populations of India but also in the degree and nature of influences of local cultures and society. Muslims have established themselves in different streams of thought and interaction. Their social habits, cultural traits and occupational patterns vary from class to class, from area to area and from region to region. They speak numerous dialects and languages and observe wide ranging regional customs and local rituals. 2 2 Syed Abul Hasan Ali Nadvi, The Musalman (Lucknow: Lucknow Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, 1977), p

5 Indian Islam cannot be studied or portrayed as a single social unit whose essential core steadfastly resists any changes through cultural influences. Islam came to India via different routes. Broadly speaking, early Muslims came as traders and merchants in the south and as tribal warriors and rulers in the north. In spite of their regional diffusions, cultural and linguistic segmentation, class stratification and sectarian-doctrinal divisions, they do share a characteristic of a religious minority group for all descriptive sociological purposes relevant to the present study. It is not their regional, cultural, linguistic, class and sectarian homogeneity, but a comparative homogeneity based on the tenets of Muslim faith and creed as well as on tangible rituals related to birth, matrimony, inheritance and death that mark them out from various other communities in India. But while attending to the comparative homogeneity of Indian Muslims as a viable religious minority group amenable to descriptive studies and analysis, the complexity and multi-dimensionality of the Indian Muslim situation with all its regional, cultural and class components has been largely ignored by most thinkers and activists. It is at their own peril that Muslims ignore their regional and class-specific problems. What is needed today is a series of studies of Muslim communities from different parts of the country to investigate the many divergent patterns of organization and ethos. The present enquiry arose in the context of such a felt need for micro-level community studies in contemporary India. Description of Rayalaseema Andhra Pradesh is the fourth largest state in India, in terms of area, and the fifth largest in terms of population. Geographically, Andhra Pradesh has three broad divisions-- Telangana (10 districts), Coastal Andhra (9 districts) and Rayalaseema (4 districts). Each is a distinct area, geographically as also in the socio-economic composition of the 5

6 population. The same can be said about the Muslim community of each area. They have distinctive social, cultural and linguistic characteristics. The Muslim population is higher in terms of percentage in Rayalaseema than in the other two areas. According to estimated figures from the 2011 Census, the Muslim population in Andhra Pradesh is 9.80% of the total population. In Rayalaseema 13.10% (4 Districts) In Telangana 12.90% (10 Districts) In Coastal Andhra 4.84 % (9 Districts) Rayalaseema, nearly one-fifth of the total area of Andhra Pradesh, has a 13.10% concentration of Muslim population (2011Census estimates). A large number of them live in urban areas and are mostly artisans, petty shopkeepers, traders, skilled and unskilled workers and labourers belonging to the working class. A majority of the Muslim masses are illiterate and poor. A Brief History of Rayalaseema The first known important landmark 3 in the history of Rayalaseema, according to traditional historiography, is provided by the edicts of Emperor Ashoka (273 B.C. 232 B.C.), which indicate that this area formed a part of the Mauryan Empire. The next epoch is that of the Sathavahanas, whose empire stretched over this region in the first and second century A.D. The Ikshvakus, Pallavas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas ruled over this region from about 300 to 973 A.D. The next landmark epoch is regarded to be that of the Cholas of the Tamil country. 3 P. Raghavendra Rao, Ancient and Medieval History of Andhra Pradesh (Delhi: Sterling, 1997), pp

7 The Kakatiyas of Warangal expanded their power over this area from 1158 A.D. to 1323 A.D. This period is of particular interest because successive Kakatiya monarchs cleared a number of forests and established a number of settlements, also improving the economic conditions of the Rayalaseema region. It was during the rule of successive Vijayanagara dynasties from 1336 A.D. to about 1700 A.D. that Rayalaseema reached the height of its glory, chiefly during the reign of Sri Krishna Devaraya ( A.D.) of Tuluva Dynasty ( A.D.), when it came to be known as Rathnalaseema. Sri Krishna Devaraya ruled this area with Vijayanagar (near Bellary, in present-day Karnataka) as his capital. Later, the Rayalaseema area formed parts of the empire of the Bijapur sultans and, over time, the Nawabs of Golkonda, the Moghuls, the Mysore Kings, the Nizam and the British Empire until India s independence. At the time of the formation of the state of Andhra Pradesh, the district of Bellary was allotted to the state of Karnataka, which at that time was called the Mysore state. According to the historian, Tara Chand, The Musalmans made their advent in South India on the western coast as early as the eighth century if not earlier, and in the tenth century on the eastern coast; that they soon spread over the whole coast and in a comparatively short time acquired great influence both in politics and in society. On the one side their leaders became ministers, admirals, ambassadors and farmers of revenue and on the other they made many converts, propagated their religious ideas, established mosques and erected tombs which become centres of the activities of their saints and missionaries. It may, therefore, be premised without overstraining facts that if, in the development of the Hindu religions in the south, any foreign elements are found which make their appearance after the seventh century, and which cannot be accounted for by the 7

8 natural development of Hinduism itself, they may with much probability be ascribed to the influence of Islam, provided, of course, they are not alien to its genius. 3 The existence of Muslim settlements in this area dates back to the advent of Allauddin Khilji (also called Garshasp Malik) in south India around 1296 A.D. and in 1303 A.D. Later, the expeditions of his commander Malik Kafur in 1307 and in 1309 A.D. consolidated the presence of Muslim settlements in the Deccan. Permanent settlements in large number are recorded after the change of capital from Delhi to Devagiri by Sultan Mohammed Bin Tughluq in 1327 A.D. During that period, some Muslim communities from south India (especially from Kerala) also moved northwards in search of livelihood and settled around the Deccan permanently. Some lower caste Hindu communities, especially the carder Weaver community (Dudekula), are said to have been converted by the influence of Sufi saints such as Hazrat Baba Faqruddin of Penukonda (Anantapur District) and Hazrath Nathad Shah Vali of Tiruchinapally (Tamilnadu). Thus the Muslim population of the Deccan is held to have been a confluence of influx from the north, the south as well as closer local cultures. The fusion of these gave a new and rich dimension to the culture of Rayalaseema. A Modern History of Rayalaseema Rayalaseema consists of four districts Kurnool, Anantapur, Kadapa and Chittoor. The districts of Anantapur, Kurnool, Kadapa and Bellary were given to the Nizam by the British as the spoils of the Third and Fourth Mysore wars (1792 A.D. and 1799 A.D.) respectively. 3 Tara Chand, Influence of Islam on Indian Culture (Allahabad: Indian Press Ltd., 1946), p

9 In 1800 A.D. the Nizam (Nizam Ali Khan, A.D.) was forced to cede these four districts to the British in lieu of payment for the maintenance of a subsidiary force in Hyderabad. In 1802 A.D. the British took Nellore and Chittoor. This time the excuse was misrule by the local Nawabs, and all these were then included under the Madras Presidency. The Rayalaseema area had one Collectorate in Anantapur and four sub- Collectorates in Adoni (Kurnool District), Hardanahally (Bellary District), Cumbhum (Kurnool District) and Kadapa. In 1808 A.D., the Rayalaseema area was divided into two Collectorates, one in Bellary and the other in Kadapa. Later three new districts were formed. These were Kurnool (1858), Anantapur (1882) and Chittoor (1911). 4 A brief description of some of the selected towns and villages in the districts follows, since it is well known that the socio-economic and political history of a region also influences the conditions and lives of the people. The towns/villages are Anantapur, Dharmavaram, Gooty, Gugudu, Guntakal, Hindupur, Honnur, Kadiri, Lepakshi, Mohammadabad, Rayadrug, Singanamala, Tadipatri and Vajrakarur. Anantapur (Anantapur Mandal, Pop: 3, 08, 485 (2001 census), Muslims nearly 24% (2001 census); Lat ' N; Long ' E). The headquarters of the district is on the Guntakal-Bangalore metre-guage line, 42 miles south of Guntakal. It is the seat of the District Collector with most district and some regional offices located here. It is also the Divisional and Taluk headquarters. Its municipality was established in Of the thirty and odd miles of roads maintained by the Municipality, only about a third are dust proof. The town is connected by regular bus service not only with all Mandal headquarters in the districts but also with Bellary, 4 Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers Records, Anantapur district 1991, pp , and Andhra Pradesh District 9

10 Kurnool, Chittoor, Hyderabad and Bangalore. Its present area is about sq. km. The villages of Anantasagaram and Bukkaraya Samudram were established on either side of the Anantasagaram tank. The tank is one of the biggest in the district with an ayacut of 2511 acres, half of which lies within Anantapur limits and the rest within Bukkaraya Samudram. It is fed by the Pandameru, and paddy is extensively cultivated under it. The waterworks for the supply of drinking water to the town are located on the bank of the Pandameru near the village of Raptadu. Anantapur, locally known as Hande Anantapuram after the Hande chiefs of the Vijayanagar period, and a few other areas were gifted by the Vijayanagar rulers to Hanumappa Naidu of the Hande family in return for his help. The place subsequently came under the Qutubshahis, Moghuls and the Nawabs of Cuddapah, although the Hande Chiefs continued to rule as their subordinates during the time of Ramappa of the Hande line, and Anantapur was occupied by the Palegar of Bellary. But it was eventually won back when Ramappa's son Siddappa was installed in 1753 as the Palegar with the help of the troops supplied by Murari Rao of Gooty. It was attacked by Murari Rao Ghorpade in 1757, when it resisted for sometime but ultimately bought off the enemy for Rs. 50, 000. The place then came into the possession of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. After Tipu's death, it was Siddappa who took back Anantapur in His submission to the Nizam, who acquired control over the area by the treaty of 1799, brought him Siddarampuram as a Jagir. He was later pensioned off when the British occupied the territory in Anantapur was selected by Sir Thomas Munro, the first principal Collector of the ceded district, as his headquarters. Gazetteers Records, Anantapur district, 1981, pp

11 The town falls distinctly into two areas, the old town and the extensions separated by the Marava Vanka. The old town is congested and does not admit of further extension owing the existence of the tank s bund on its east and paddy fields all around. An industrial area has fast sprung up along the Gooty road. The independence memorial clock tower opposite the Municipal bus stand in extensions stands sentinel over the town. Around it are clustered the Arts College, the Taluk office the bus stand and the trunk road leading from the old town which is the busiest marketing center. A railway over-bridge was constructed in 1966 across the Guntakal-Bangalore line on the road from the clock tower to the sports stadium. 5 A part from being the district headquarters, Anantapur has also been a historically important educational center with a number of secondary schools as well as professional and technical training institutions. The Government Basic Training School (1882), Government Multipurpose High School (1886), Government Arts College (1916), Police Recruit School (1917), Industrial Training Institute (1942), Sri Sai Baba National Higher Secondary School (1945), Engineering College (1946), Rajendra Municipal Higher Secondary School (1950), Sarada Municipal High School for Girls (1951), Oil Technological Institute (1952), Police Training (1955), Government High School (1959), Government Secondary and Training School for Women and Government Polytechnic (1960), Potti Sri Ramulu Municipal High School (1963), and Kasturba Municipal Girls High School (1964) have provided a strong educational foundation in the district. Climate and Rainfall: It is very warm from March to May and cooler from November to January. Madakasira and Hindupur Mandals being on higher elevation are cooler than the rest of the Mandals 5 Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers Records, Anantapur district, 1991, pp

12 in the districts. Anantapur has the lowest rainfall in the state with an annual rainfall of 546 millimeters against the average normal rainfall of 890 mm. in the state. Monsoons dodge these parts due to its peculiar geographical location. Far away from the east coast, it does not enjoy the full benefit of the North East monsoon and the high Western Ghats cut off the South West monsoons. Thus the district is deprived of adequate rainfall during both the monsoon seasons. The area receives its rain largely through the South West Monsoon and partly through the North East monsoon, between August and October. Soils: 6 The district can be roughly divided into three natural regions: Northern, Central and Southern Anantapur. The northern region of Gooty and Tadipatri taluks has large areas of black cotton soil; Anantapur, Kalyandurg, Dharmavaram and Penukonda taluks constitute the central region while Medakasira and Hindupur taluks constitute the Southern region. The southern parts are connected with the Mysore plateau and have a higher elevation than the rest of the district. The district has six different soils, namely, black clay, black loam, black sand, red clay, red loam and red sand. Black soil is valuable as cotton and groundnut are cultivated extensively. Minerals: The district has a gold field situated near Ramagiri and diamonds are known to occur near Vajrakarur. Deposits of barytes occur in the region south-west of Mutsukota on either side of the Tadpatri-Anantapur road and north-east and east of Venkatapalli. High- 6 Ibid., pp

13 grade limestone suitable for the manufacture of chemical lime is also found in Tadipatri taluk. Forests: Forests occupy 1.95 lakh hectares of area constituting about 2% of the total geographical area. This is the second smallest district in respect of forest area in the region of Andhra Pradesh. Several places termed forests in the district are completely devoid of vegetation. The denser types of forests occur only in Kadiri and Penukonda taluks. Agriculture: Land utilization pattern: (all in lakh ha.) Forest--1.95; Barren and uncultivable land--1.90; Land put to non-agricultural use--1.57; Cultivable waste--0.95; Permanent pastures and other grazing land--0.26; Under miscellaneous trees, crops and groves--0.23; Other fallows ; Current fallows--2.30; Net area sown--8.77; Sown more than once Gross cropped area Groundnut is the most important non-food crop. Millets dominate food crops. The area under food crop cultivation is 5.08 lakh ha. and under non-food crops 4.11 lakh ha. Total food grain production is 3.13 lakh tones and the productivity of groundnut 745 kg per hectare. 7 Places of Worship: Among areas of religious 8 interest are the Chennakesava Temple near Old Hospital, the Eswara and Kanyaka Parameshwari temples in main bazaar, and the Kasi Vishveshwara and Satyanarayanaswamy temple at first road in the extensions. Hindus celebrate festivals 7 Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers Records, Anantapur district, 1981, pp Ibid. 13

14 such as Dasara, Dipawali and Sankranti with high veneration and gaiety. The Jama Masjid located between two temples (one of which is also a Kalyana Mantapam or marriage hall) is an example of communal harmony. The Eidgah Masjid is located near the Saptagiri circle and is well-attended, more so than any other masjid. The Markaz Masjid in Gulzarpet, the strong-hold of the Tableeghi Jamaat, is also regularly attended. The Junglepalli Masjid is constructed in the 18th century, is located near the Neelam Talkies. Other Masjids to be mentioned are the Sherkhan Masjid and the Jama Masjid in Penukonda. The latter was constructed during the Adilshahi period. Memon Sait Masjid in Hindupur boasts of a tall minaret that can be seen from any part of Hindupur and is also very famous. There are also certain famous Dargahs or shrines and people of all communities attend on specific occasions like Urs, certain other rituals, etc. The more famous ones include the Dargah of Hazrat Baba Fakruddin in Penukonda, the Dargah of Hazrat Masud Salar in Singanamala and the Dargah of Hazrath Sufi Sarmast in Honor. There are also two Dargahs in Mohammed Diwan Katta area in Anantapur, where the annual Urs celebration is observed with great pomp and splendor. The Islamic month of Muharram (which is the first month of the year), mourned traditionally and ritually, is observed by all communities participating in Tazia processions. Gugudu, a small village near Anantapur where Muharram is observed enthusiastically by all communities near the Kullayappa Swamy temple. All rites and rituals are observed by the devotees with marked religious fervour, as lakhs of devotees from different districts throng the place. The high number of people forces the government to extend additional bus services for the devotees. 9 9 Ibid. 14

15 There is a Roman Catholic Church in Ramachandra Nagar constructed during the 17th century. There are other churches in Jesu Nagar. Good Friday, Christmas, Easter and New Years day are ritually celebrated by the Christians. Dharmavaram -Dharmavaram taluk, Pop: 1, 47, 242 (2001census estimate); Muslims about 15.5% (2001census estimates); Dharmavaram, 21 miles from Anantapur, is the headquarters of the Deputy Collector s division. It became a Municipality in Dharmavaram is a railway junction on the Bangalore-Guntakal line and is the terminus of the Pakala-Dharmavaram section. The place derives its name from Dharmamba, the mother of Sri Kriyasakthi Odeyar who constructed the local Dharmavaram tank. The tank is fed by the Chitravathi and Pangaperur and has an ayacut of 1747 acres. Dharmavaram was one of the four villages given by Aliyaramaraja to Hande Hanumappa as a reward. Thus it came into the hands of the Hande chiefs of Vijayanagar. After 1573, it came under the Palegar of Rayadrug. Dharmavaram subsequently came under the Golconda kings, followed by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, and was later occupied by the British. Of the local temples, the most important is the Lakshmi Chennakesava Swamy Shrine built by Kriyasakthi Odeyar. A car festival of the deity is held annually in the month of Visakam of the Telugu calendar (April-May) and is well-attended. The local Jamia Masjid is reported to contain a hair of the Prophet Mohammed (P.B.U.H.) that is exhibited once a year. About a third of the population belongs to the weaver community, engaged in cotton- and silk-weaving. Dharmavaram silks are well known almost all over the country and particularly among the women folk in the south. 15

16 Gooty 10 -Gooty taluk, population 78, 136 (2001 census), Muslims nearly 17% (2001census estimates); Gooty, the headquarters of the taluk and of a Block, has a railway station on the Madras- Bombay line and is 33 miles from Anantapur on the Kurnool-Bangalore trunk road. The town is of considerable historical antiquity and is said to have derived its name from Gowtamipuri, the town of sage Gowtama, who is believed to have lived and performed penance here. As the gateway to the south, Gooty fort was coveted by all rulers from the days of the later Vijayanagara kings till its occupation by the British. It has not yet been exactly established as to who constructed this fort. There are a few temples in the town but not of any architectural or antiquarian interest. Of the three mosques, two are situated in the town and one in the station area. The Hazrat Syed Basha Vali Urs is celebrated on the 8th day as Milad-un-Nabi during the third month of the Muslim calendar for two days and attracts a large number of devotees. Gooty is the headquarters of the Rayalaseema diocese (of Christians) with jurisdiction over the Rayalaseema districts of Cuddapah, Kurnool, Anantapur and Chittoor. Gooty tank, constructed in 1619 A.D. by Ramaraya, one of the expatriated princes of Vijayanagara, commands an ayacut of 1, 037 acres. Another large stone-riveted tank was built by one Narasimhayya, near the present taluk office to ensure water supply to the town. Gugudu -Anantapur taluk. Pop. 5,200 (Approx); 10 Ibid. 16

17 This village, lying among the low range of Muchukota hills, is about 18 miles east of Anantapur. It is well known for its observance of the festival of Moharram, conducted with Sri Kullaiswamy as the venerated Pir or saint. The Peerla Makan with its gold-plated minarets is in the centre of the village. The month of Moharram attracts a large number of devotees who come to fulfill vows on the occasion. Children born as a result of the saint s blessings are named after him. A fire-walking ceremony is also conducted. Temples at the place are those dedicated to Anjaneyaswamy and Chennakesavaswamy. It is widely believed that some ill luck visits an official who halts at the village for the night. Guntakal 11 -Pop. 1, 59, 820 (2001Census); Muslims nearly 21% (2001 census estimates); Guntakal is an important railway junction on the Madras-Bombay line. The railway lines from Hubli to Masulipatam and Bangalore to Secunderabad also pass through it. Guntakal is a notified, regulated market area dealing in groundnut, cotton, jaggery and onions with a regulatory District Market Committee. On account of its easy accessibility, it is an important centre in the district for trade in cotton, cottonseed and groundnut. Its commercial importance has ensured a good network of bus and lorry transport. Iron ore mined in Bellary district is also trans-shipped from this junction. The Kanyaka Parameshwari temple was built by the local Arya Vysya Sangham in Hindupur- Pop.1, 70, 702 (2001census); Muslims nearly 27% (2001 census estimates); Hindupur is an important commercial centre in the district. It lies close to the confluence of the Penneru and the Jayamangali and is about 65 miles from Anantapur on the Kurnool-Bangalore road. It has a railway station on the Guntakal-Bangalore line. It is also the Taluk headquarters and a municipality since 1920, having been a union prior to 11 Ibid. 17

18 it. The town derives its name from Hindu Rao, the father of Morari Rao, the Maharatta ruler of Gooty, although it is not quite certain as to whom among the two had built it. The town is served by protected water supply. It is well covered both by bus transport and the railways. Honnur (Pop. 4, 050 (approximately); It is 22 miles northeast of Rayadurg. Cotton, betel vines and groundnut are extensively grown here. There is a Samadhi or grave of Honnurswamy, a saint after whom the village is presumed to have been named. The Syed Shah Sufi Sarmasth Hussain Chisti Vali Allah Urs is conducted annually in the month of Jamadi-ul-Avval and is well-attended both by Hindus and Muslims. Kadiri -(Kadiri taluk, Pop. 1, 08, 226 (2001 census); Muslims 35% It is headquarters of the taluk and of two Blocks, Kadiri East and Kadiri West and was constituted into a municipality in It is situated about 56 miles from Anantapur on the Bombay-Madras trunk road and is a railway station on the Dharmavaram-Pakala section. Till 1910 it formed part of the Cuddapah district, when it was transferred to Anantapur. The temple of Lord Narasimha to the west of the town is a popular pilgrimage centre, attracting devotees even from neighboring districts. The Brahmotsavam of Narasimha together with the annual car festival is held during February-March every year, and attracts devotees even from Mysore across the state border. Innumerable Muslim tombs and mosques are scattered all over the place, testifying to the long presence of Muslim influence. A mosque constructed by Mecca Alam Khan Wali lies opposite the Kadiri 18

19 Narasimha temple. The Mohiar tomb is situated opposite the Government Hospital. 12 Of the four mosques at the place, the Alam Khan mosque is the oldest. The rest, the Jamia, the Shahmia and the Akbari mosques are recent. A Ceylon and Indian General Mission Church was built in As the headquarters of a taluk where groundnut is extensively grown, Kadiri has seven decorticating factories and an oil-crushing factory. There are also a few flour and rice mills. Manufacturers as well as workers have formed unions. A local entrepreneur has also started the manufacture of matches. Though some tanning of hides is also carried out, the hides and skins locally purchased are largely exported to Madras and even to places far south. Lepakshi -Pop. 6, 800 (approximately); Muslims %( 2001 census estimates); Lepakshi, literally the village of the blinded eye (Lepa--blindness, Akshi--eye), is associated with a popular legend according to which Virupanna, the treasurer of Krishna Devaraya of Vijayanagar constructed a temple using the treasure of the king at Lepakshi while the king was away at Vijayanagar. On his return, seeing his treasury empty, the king ordered Virupanna to be blinded. The latter, being a loyal servant, carried out the order on the spot with his own hands and to this day two dark stains are shown upon the wall near the Kalyana Mantapa, which are said to be the marks made by his eyes when he dashed himself against the wall. Lepakshi, from the historical as well as the archaeological point of view, is the most important place in the district. It is situated about 9 miles east of Hindupur on the Kodikonda-Amarapuram road. On one of the hillocks known as Kurma Saila (Tortoise-shaped hill) are located the temples of Papanatheswara, 12 The tomb is said to contain the remains of Chandravadana, the beautiful daughter of Ranga Nayudu, the Palegar of Patnam, and of Mohiar, a Muslim traveller who fell in love with her. He died pining for her and it is believed his dead body could not be lifted till Chandravadana intervened. This convinced her that the 19

20 Raghunatha, Srirama, Veerabhadra and Durga of which the Veerabhadra temple is the most important. The place itself is renowned as the repository of some of the best mural paintings of the Vijayanagar kings. Mohammadabad-Pop. 4, 800(approximately); Muslims 80%; It is located about 18 miles southwest of Kadiri. There are ruins of a fort, still visible, but it is not known as to who constructed it. A weekly market is held at the village every Thursday. Rayadrug -(Pop. 92, 402 (2001 census); Muslims 13% (2001 census estimates); Rayadrug, literally King s Hill Fortress, is the headquarters of the taluk and also of a Block. It is situated at a distance of 56 miles from Anantapur via Kalyandrug on the Anantapur-Bellary (via Rayadrug) road. Prior to 1953, this entire taluk was in the Bellary district and was added to Anantapur district after the formation of Andhra Pradesh. The entire revenue village of Rayadrug was constituted into a municipality in Rayadrug was originally a stronghold of Bedars (Boya Palegars) who were very active during the Vijayanagar rule. The Emperor deputed an officer, Bhupatiraya, to subjugate them. He succeeded in driving them out and ruled the place himself and the hill was thus called Bhupatirayani Konda (or Rayadrug) after him. After the battle of Rakshasa Tangadi, the Bedars regained the place, but were again driven out after sometime by Koneti Nayak. His son Venkatapathi Nayak who had differences with the Palegar of Chittaldrug greatly strengthened the fortifications. Tipu captured the fort and made it part of his Gooty province. After Tipu s fall in 1799, one Rajagopalanayak was installed Lord had ordained that she should be Mohiar s partner even in death and so permitted herself to be buried alive by his side. 20

21 as a Palegar. Later in 1800, the British transferred him out of Gooty and his family was pensioned off. The ruins of the fort can still be seen on the hill at the foot of which the town is built. Some open water reservoirs, once used by the residents, can still be seen on the hill. A jathra or religious fair for Ellamma is held annually in the month of Chaitra (March- April) when a fire-walking ceremony is also organized. Below the hill, the fort area contains most of the temples of the village including those of Prasanna Venkateswara, Venugopala, Jambukeswara, Veerabadra, Anjaneya and Kanyaka Parameshwari. There is a Jamia mosque, frequented by followers for the Friday noon prayers. There are other mosques also. This town is famous for the Jamia Mohammedia Arabic College, a very old institution belonging to the sect of the Ahl-e-Hadith. The college is said to have started in the 1920s and prepares students for oriental-title examinations in Persian and Arabic finally leading to a degree, Munshi-Fazil, after 6 years of study. The college offers courses in Hafiz, Maulvi, Alim and other higher courses. Students belonging to Ahl-e- Hadith come from far-off places not only within Rayalaseema but also from other states. The library attached to this institution contains rare Arabic and Persian manuscripts. A hostel is also attached where free board and lodging is provided for poor students. Tamarind and groundnut are the chief commercial crops of the area and there are quite a number of tamarind topes in Rayadrug and the surrounding villages. The weekly market at the town is held every Thursday. Weavers constitute about one-fourth of the population of the place. It is one of the most important centres in the district for the weaving of coarse sarees of low counts. The sarees are mostly exported to a number of places in other states. The government Khadi and Village Industries Commission was established in Rayadrug in

22 Singanamala -Pop. 41, 176(2001 census); 5.5% Muslims (2001 census estimates); This village, headquarters of a Block, is at the foot of a hill 10 miles east of Anantapur, off the Tadipatri road. It is believed that the sage Rishya Sringa performed penance in a cave on the top of the hill where an idol is installed. The Urs of Khwaja Syed Masood Salar who lies buried here falls on the 26th day of Rajab (the seventh month of the Islamic calendar) and is attended in large numbers. The Sri Ranga Rayala Cheruvu of the village, commonly known as Singanamala tank fed by the Thadakaleru and with an ayacut of 2,524 acres, is one of the biggest in the district. It is believed to have been constructed by the Vijayanagar kings. One filling of the tank is enough to irrigate two crops. Tadipatri -Pop. 1, 37, 746 (2001census); Muslims 20% (2001 census estimates); Tadipatri or Tatipathri is the headquarters of the Taluk and a Block. It has a railway station on the Raichur-Madras line, 47 miles from Guntakal. The town is situated on the banks of the Penneru, which flows from west to east and turns southwards, almost encircling the town. The area was formerly known as Bhaskara Kshetra and to its south was a thick forest full of palm trees; it was, therefore, called Tamlapalli (Tativanam) and was named Tadipatri during the time of Pemmasani Ramalinga Nayudu, a local chieftain under Proudha Devaraya of the Vijayanagara King. After the fall of Vijayanagar, it came into the possession of the Moghuls under Zulfikar Khan, the Moghul Subedar who constructed the Jamia Masjid. The place came to be ruled by Murari Rao, the Maratha chief of Gooty, and subsequently by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. Later it was taken over by the British in Apart from the Jamia Masjid, there are number of other mosques in the area. 22

23 The Bugga Ramalinga Swamy temple on the southern bank of the Pennar and the Chintala Rayaswamy temple are important temples of the town. There is also a Kanyaka Parameshwari temple, a huge one, which is very elegant and beautiful. Tadipatri was constituted a municipality in Since 1934, the town has been provided with protected water supply, thereby minimizing the frequent outbreaks of cholera. The over-bridge on the Pennar constructed during has linked the place with an allweather road to the cotton-growing areas of Kurnool and Koilkuntla. A stretch of 2 miles of the Anantapur-Tadipatri road within the municipal limits has been cementconcreted. Tadipatri has been an important commercial centre in the district for a long time. It is a good market for the cotton grown in the adjoining Cuddapah and Kurnool districts, its importance attested by the establishment of a cotton press as early as in the nineteenth century. Trade has been in existence almost from the time the British took possession of the territory. Vajrakarur 13 (Pop. 48, 285 (2001 census); Muslims 7% (2001 census estimates); The village, a major panchayat, is on the road from Guntakal to Urvakonda. As the name indicates (Vajra--diamond), it is associated with diamonds. An epigraph at Gadekallu in Gooty taluk of the Vijayanagara king Achyuta, dated S.1453, mentions that there was a diamond treasury (Vajra Bhandara) at Vajrakarur in Uravakonda Sima. It is stated that Tipu once worked the diamond mines at the place. Even after the district was ceded to the British, the mines appear to have been worked till 1813 when the leases gradually expired and were not renewed. 23

24 Demographic Features of Muslims 14 Population by Religion in India 15 (in Percentage) 13 Andhra Pradesh District Gazetteers Records, Anantapur district, 1981, p Note: Though the provisional data of census 2011 has been declared on 31st March 2011, but religion wise data will be made public in 3-4 years. For this reason the data is based on 2001 census. 15 Census of India,

25 CENSUS HINDU MUSLIM CHRISTIAN YEAR Note: * The above data makes it clear that in a span of 70 years (from 1921to 2001), the population of Muslims has increased by 3.83%. * The data from 1951 to 2001 reveals that in a span of 50 years (since independence), Muslim population has increased by 4.31%. 25

26 Distribution of Muslim Population in Andhra Pradesh District / State / Union Territory Muslims population as % of total district population Rural Muslim population as % of rural population Urban Muslim population as % of urban population Adilabad Nizamabad Karimnagar Medak Hyderabad Ranga Reddy Mahboob Nagar Nalgonda Warangal Khammam Srikakulam Vizianagaram East Godavari West Godavari Krishna Guntur Prakasham Nellore Cuddapah Kurnool Anantapur Chittoor

27 Growth of Hindu and Muslim Population in Rayalaseema ( ) HINDUS MUSLIMS Population % To % Population % To % District Census Year total Populatio Increase total Populati Increase n on 1 ANANTAPUR ,809, , ,242, , CHITTOOR ,945, , ,471, , KADAPA ,892, , ,586, , KURNOOL ,435, , ,928, , Growth of Hindu and Muslim Population in Rayalaseema ( ) HINDUS MUSLIMS Population % To % Population % To % District Census Year total Populatio Increase total Populatio Increase n n ,225, , ,809, , ,368, , ,945, ,

28 3 KADAPA ,181, , ,892, , ,910, , ,435, , Source: Census Reports, 1991and Note: It is interesting to note that the rate of percentage increase among the Hindu community is more than that of the Muslim community over a decade in Rayalaseema. Survey design 1. Sample area Anantapur was selected for this study for the following factors: i) As the Muslim population of the state is approximately 10% (2001 census figures), this district proportionately represents nearly the same percentage of Muslims (12%) as in the state as a whole. ii) Though not as highly urbanized as Hyderabad, the district of Anantapur represents an average district of Andhra Pradesh, and can therefore be taken as a model for study. The towns selected for the study are those where the concentration of Muslims is more. The towns of Hindupur, Guntakal, and Kadiri apart from Anantapur were selected and the villages of Singanamala, Lepakshi and Mohammadabad were chosen. Some villages were also selected on the basis of the population figures furnished by the knowledgeable sources. Further, villages adjacent to the selected towns were included. 28

29 For gathering authentic data regarding the social, economic, educational and political conditions of Muslims, it was deemed useful to include information provided by leading figures of the Muslim community. Some Ulema (spiritual leaders) were also interviewed on issues concerning the community. On information about Muslim households in the district, officials concerned were contacted to record data. For the data regarding employment among Muslims, a format consisting of different grades and rankings of positions was composed and data collated from the concerned departments and offices. Secondary sources such as government Gazetteers, census reports, administrative reports and personal interviews with the individuals experienced in the area were also used though this last source, of course, has its own limitations. Anantapur Muslims An Introduction The present survey attempts a modest study of the socio-economic conditions of Muslims in Anantapur district. As noted earlier, Muslims cannot be regarded as a homogenous community throughout the length and breadth of India. Muslims settled in different parts of India have differing cultural ethos and regional studies on Muslims should reflect this varied outlook. Community studies that can take this critical factor into account can claim priority in research in the socio-political context of contemporary India. The presence of the Muslim community in Anantapur district is felt throughout all walks of life as it contributes to the general welfare of the society and at the same time attempts to nurture its age-old traditions and cultural ethos, to maintain a distinct identity. The origins of the community can be traced back to the days of Allauddin Khilji s advent in 29

30 the Deccan in 1296 A.D. and in 1303 A.D. Later, his Commander Malik Kafur's expeditions in 1307 and1309 A.D. consolidated the presence of Muslim settlements in the area. The shift of capital from Delhi to Devagiri by Sultan Mohammed Bin Tughluq in 1327 A.D. saw an increase in the number of Muslims in the area. Around the same period, some of the Muslim trading communities from South India (especially from Kerala) also moved north in search of greener pastures and settled in the Deccan. Since then, the Muslim community in Rayalaseema has been a very vibrant presence and has played a vital role in its economic and political development. By and large, there has been a history of peaceful and harmonious co-existence among all the communities of the region. 30

31 Muslim Population in Anantapur district (Mandal-wise) ANANTAPUR DISTRICT Sl.No Total/rural Total Total Percentage /urban population Muslims ANANTAPUR DISTRICT T 3,183, , R 2,435, , U 748, , D.Hirehal Mandal T/R 32, Bommanahal Mandal T/R 42,749 1, Vidapanakal Mandal T/R 45,328 2, Vajrakarur Mandal T/R 47,062 3, Guntakal Mandal T 146,687 30, R 39,095 2, U 107,592 27, Guntakal (M) U 107,592 27, Gooty Mandal T 69,174 11, R 31,360 1, U 37,814 9, Gooty(P) U 37,814 9, Peddavadugur Mandal T/R 39,505 2, Yadiki Mandal T/R 42,440 3, Tadpatri Mandal T 111,135 22, R 40,067 1, U 71,068 20, Tadpatri (M) U 71,068 20,

32 10 Peddapappur Mandal T/R 30,685 1, Singanamala Mandal T/R 38,490 2, Pamidi Mandal T/R 43,790 6, Garladinne Mandal T/R 42,425 3, Kudair Mandal T/R 32, Uravakonda Mandal T 67,390 8, R 39,711 1, U 27,679 5, Uravakonda (P) U 27,679 5, Beluguppa Mandal T/R 37,690 1, Kanekal Mandal T/R 50,404 6, Rayadrug Mandal T 71,820 9, R 30, U 40,845 8, Rayadrug(M) U 40,845 8, Gummaghatta Mandal T/R 36,037 1, Brahmasamudram Mandal T/R 32, Settur Mandal T/R 31,418 1, Kundurpi Mandal T/R 39,392 1, Kalyandrug Mandal T 67,362 5, T 44,256 1, U 23,106 3, Kalyandrug (P) U 23,106 3, Atmakur Mandal T/R 31, Anantapur Mandal T 226,031 45,

33 R 51,107 3, U 174,924 42, Anantapur (M) U 174,924 42, Bukkarayasamudram T/R 43,729 1, Mandal 27 Narpala Mandal T/R 44,698 2, Putlur Mandal T/R 36, Yellanur Mandal T/R 33,582 3, Tadimarri Mandal T/R 33,219 1, Bathalapalle Mandal T/R 33,190 1, Raptadu Mandal T/R 30, Kanaganapalle Mandal T/R 33, Kambadur Mandal T/R 38,672 1, Ramagiri Mandal T/R 28, Chennekothapalle Mandal T/R 41,651 1, Dharmavaram Mandal T 117,748 13, R 38, U 78,961 12, Dharmavaram Mandal U 78,961 12, Mudigubba Mandal T/R 54,712 4, Talupula Mandal T/R 39,866 5, Nambulipulikunta Mandal T/R 29,623 3, Tanakal Mandal T/R 46,766 4, Nallacheruvu Mandal T/R 28,983 4, Gandlapenta Mandal T/R 23,291 5,

34 44 Kadiri Mandal T 92,005 32, R 28,627 2, U 63,378 29, Kadiri (M) U 63,378 29, Amadagur Mandal T/R 26,941 2, Obuladevaracheruvu T/R 43,888 4, Mandal 47 Nallamada Mandal T/R 37,651 3, Gorantla Mandal T/R 63,475 6, Puttaparthi Mandal T 39,365 2, R 38,360 2, U 1,005 Prasanthinilayam Township U 1, Bukkapatnam Mandal T/R 38,856 3, Kothacheruvu Mandal T/R 35,604 2, Penukonda Mandal T 47,147 7, R 30,117 1, U 17,030 5, Penukonda (P) U 17,030 5, Roddam Mandal T/R 42,587 1, Somandepalle Mandal T/R 33,772 2, Chilamathru Mandal T/R 43,784 4, Lepakshi Mandal T/R 36,865 3, Hindupur Mandal T 143,690 38, R 39,039 3,

35 U 104,651 35, Hindupur (M) U 104,651 35, Parigi Mandal T/R 46,014 5, Madakasira Mandal T/R 65,984 3, Gudibanda Mandal T/R 43,867 1, Amarapuram Mandal T/R 46,698 1, Agali Mandal T/R 29, Rolla Mandal T/R 32,

36 Profile of Anantapur district 16 Population Density 4,083,315 (2011 census) 213 / sq. km Growth rate % Rural Population 27, 19, 225 Urban Population 9, 20, 079 Sex Ratio 977: 1000 Literacy rate 64.28% Area Total Area Fertile Land 19, 130 sq km 1, 96, 797 hectares lakh hectares Mandals 63 Villages 866 Gram Panchayats 933 Assembly Constituencies 14 Parliament Constituencies 2 Small Scale Industries 3520 Medium & Heavy Industries 32 Hospitals 56 Post Offices 944 Banks 195 Engineering Divisions 5 *700 villages are connected under Satya Sai Drinking Water Project. 16 Source: Anantapur Municipality. 36

37 CHAPTER-II. SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE A study of the socio-economic conditions of the Muslim community helps in understanding their participation in social as well as in general life. It cannot be denied that as a community, Muslims 17 are an integral part of Indian society. It is true at the same time that the community is confronted with certain peculiar problems resulting from its historical role and the product of its own social stratification. According to the 2001 census, the Muslim population in India constitutes 13.40% of the total population. Muslim communities are spread over all the districts in the subcontinent. More than 35% of the total Muslim population lives in urban areas. It is also clear that Muslims are much more urbanized in regions where the process of urbanization is relatively more recent and also more rapid. It would appear that south Indian urban Muslims are marking their presence, both in businesses and in white-collar professions, and also desirous of participating in public life. 18 The district of Anantapur is inhabited by people of almost all religious denominations. Hindus are numerically the largest, and Muslims the second largest, community. Over centuries, Anantapur town has acquired the reputation of a composite society, with little or no history of communal tensions or riots. However, the Muslim communities living within this region constitute a significant section of society and tend to share certain distinct traits that contribute to the making of a discrete identity. What prevails in Anantapur district as a whole can be true of 17 Zafar Imam, Some Aspects of the Social Structure of the Muslim Community in India: Muslims in India (Delhi: Orient Longman, 1975) p Imam, Some Aspects, p