A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TERRORISM IN NIGERIA AND MALI

Transcription

1 A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TERRORISM IN NIGERIA AND MALI BY KOFI DZIDOTOR AVINU ( ) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON JULY 2017

2 DECLARATION With the exception of the quoted references and acknowledged sources, I hereby declare that this dissertation is an outcome of an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Ken Ahorsu and that no part of it has been submitted anywhere for any other purpose KOFI DZIDOTOR AVINU (STUDENT) DR. KEN AHORSU (SUPERVISOR) DATE... DATE... i

3 DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my Parents and my family, especially my father, Mr. Albert Avinu and my Siblings; Esinam, Tepeali and Nyonyo Avinu. I also dedicate this study to loved ones who supported me through my studies at LECIAD. ii

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to God for His love, favour and guidance throughout my period of study at LECIAD. Additionally, I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ken Ahorsu for his time, love, direction and guidance throughout this study. I say thank you, Sir. In the same vein, I express my profound gratitude to Dr. Yao Gebe of LECIAD for helping me have a life changing chance at LECIAD. I also wish to express my appreciation to my father, Mr. Albert Avinu for his support and love he has shown me throughout my life. Daddy, I m grateful for everything. I could not have asked for a better father. Thank you, Father. In addition, I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Enu-Kwesi and his entire family for the love and support they have shown me ever since I met them. Finally, I want to thank my colleague students at LECIAD, especially Mr. Hadi Alhassan for his guidance and words of encouragement. iii

5 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AAD - Ansar Al- Dine AMB - Al-Mulathamun Battalion AQIM - Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb AU - African Union ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States EU - European Union FBI - Federal Bureau of Investigation FIS - Islamic Salvation Front GSPC - Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat. (acronym is in French) ICC - International Criminal Court ICJ - International Court of Justice IEDs - Improvised Explosive Devices IRA - Irish Revolutionary Army IS - Islamic State ISIS - Islamic State of Iraq and Syria MANPADS - Man-Portable Air-Defense System MLF - Macina Liberation Front MNLA - National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad iv

6 MUJAO - Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa MUNISA - United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali OAU - Organisation of African Unity UCLA - University of California, Los Angeles UN - United Nations UNICEF - United Nations International Children s Emergency Fund US - United States USDOD - United States Department of Defense USA - United States of America USNCTC - United States National Counter Terrorism Centre WW1 - First World War v

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION... i DEDICATION... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS... vi ABSTRACT... ix CHAPTER ONE... 1 INTRODUCTION Background to the Research Problem Statement of the Research Problem Research Questions Objectives of the Study Scope of the Study Rationale of the Research Hypothesis Theoretical Framework Literature Review Research Methodology Arrangement of Chapters Endnotes CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF TERRORISM IN WEST AFRICA Introduction Definition of Terrorism Types of Terrorism Rapoport's Four Waves of Terrorism Causes of Terrorism Global terrorism: 9/11 and the War against Terror History of terrorism in West Africa Vulnerabilities of West Africa to terrorism Terrorist groups in West Africa Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb Al-Mourabitoun Ansar Dine Movement for Unity and Jihad in West Africa vi

8 2.7.5 Boko Haram Connections of West African Terrorist groups to other terrorist groups Attacks and Targets of West African Terrorist Groups Overview of terrorism in Nigeria Conclusion Endnotes CHAPTER THREE THE SOURCES AND DYNAMICS OF TERRORISM IN MALI AND NIGERIA Introduction Socio-Economic and Political Dynamics of Mali and Nigeria Mali s Dynamism in Perspective The Case of Nigeria Ideological and Political Islam Trends of Terrorism in Mali and Nigeria Home-Grown vs Global Influence on Terrorism in Mali and Nigeria Conclusion Endnotes CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Summary of Findings Conclusion Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY vii

9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Data and world map on global terrorism, viii

10 ABSTRACT The study conducted a comparative analysis of terrorism in Mali and Nigeria with the objective of assessing whether terrorism in West Africa is a home grown phenomenon or an extension of a global manifestation of the Salafist militarist terrorism issuing from the Middle East. It was based on information collected from both primary and secondary sources. The qualitative research approach was used in analysing the data. The study found that the two countries are hotbeds for breeding terrorist networks owing to the prevalence of criminal networks across porous borders, poverty, unemployment, interethnic tensions, north-south divide, corrupt, and weak states. The study however concluded that contemporary terrorism in West Africa is an extension of militant Salafist Islamist global revivalism; given the origins, values, motivations and mobilisations of the terrorist groups. The study recommends that governments and institutions of Mali and Nigeria must promote good governance and holistic development in areas affected by the extremist action to stop the social and political grievances that promotes Islamic revivalism as an alternative to bad governance. ix

11 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Research Problem Since the end of the Cold War, the world has been faced with terrorism and the various challenges that come with it. Terrorism has been linked to issues of self-determination, armed resistance against foreign occupation and racist or oppressive regimes. Various scholars and institutions define terrorism differently. According to Hoffman, Terrorism is violence or equally important, the threat of violence- used and directed in pursuit of, or in service of a political aim. 1 The U.S Department of Defense (USDOD) defines terrorism as the unlawful use of violence or threat of violence to instil fear and coerce governments or societies. 2 Terrorism is driven by racial, class, political, religious and various ideological beliefs. The word terrorism was first used in 1795 to describe the reign of terror that the French used in their revolution against the French monarchy.3 During this period, revolutionaries employed gruesome tactics to make their case against the ruling class before and after what was a monumental event in the history of the world. Historically, religion and nationalism have been recurring causes of terrorism. From Europe, to the Americas, across Asia and even to Africa, terrorism has left an identifiable trail. Whether it is mere anarchy, nationalism, anticolonialism or the defence of religion, terrorism has grown globally. Terrorism gained a dramatic international attention after the September 11, 2001 (9/11) attack on the United States of America (USA). Terrorism has evolved. Even as it remains the calculated use of unlawful violence it has rapidly become a predominant strategic tool. Today, religious motivated terrorism has emerged an alarming threat. Religion is an important component of human life and it has not 1

12 been without strife. Religious-based terrorism has affected peace and stability in many parts of the world. Religious terrorists and extremists interpret religion as a way of justifying violence. Crusades and Jihads fought in the past marked notable religious intrusions that have laid the foundation for the current religious dispute between Christianity and Islam. Both religions have fundamentalists who demonstrate unrelenting effort in protecting their doctrine against the influence of the other. Towards the beginning of the First World War (WW1), the United States (US) government competed with the Mexican government for political influence in Central America. 4 In 1911 and 1912, the US forcefully intervened in various Latin American countries, notable of which is the Nicaraguan occupation.5 This action by the US violates Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter, which prohibits the use of force as a tool of national policy in international relations. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled the US activities in Nicaragua as an act of terror. 6 The Adolf Hitler led Holocaust from 1933 to 1945 and anti-jewish relations in Russia, Poland, Ukraine and other parts of Europe, persuaded the Jews to establish their own country.7 Israel, the historic land of the Jews had unfortunately been resettled by neighbouring Arabs. Many Arabs regarded the resettlement of Jews as a threat, leading to infighting between the two groups. Overtime, it has become a full blown war claiming casualties on both ends with the major issues now being border control, mutual recognition, access to infrastructure, control of the city of Jerusalem, security, and settlements.8 The dispute has gone beyond a political clamour for space to become a religious struggle between fundamental Zionists and the fundamental Sunni Islamic group, Hamas.9 Both Israel and Palestine have resorted to terrorism at various times to make their case. 2

13 Since 9/11, terrorism has gained greater media attention. Beirut, Nice, Paris, Brussels, Istanbul, Ankara, Brussels, Baghdad, Lahore and Orlando are just a few of the cities worldwide that have been at the receiving end of violent extremist attacks. All of these attacks are linked to Islamist extremists groups such as Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS).10 Africa has not been unscathed by terrorism. Islamist groups such as Al-Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Al-Mourabitoun, Movement of Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO), Al-Shabaab, Ansar Al-Dine (AAD), Boko Haram and ISIS are constantly engaged in deadly and violent forms of terrorist activities on the continent.11 In recent times, there has been attacks on Abuja, Nairobi and Tunis by Boko Haram in 2011, Al-Shabaab in 2013 and AlQaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) in 2014 respectively.12 Terrorism has emerged a bigger threat in Africa now than it ever was in the past. Compared to Europe, the number of casualties terror has claimed in Africa is alarming.13 In West Africa, Nigeria and Mali are the main countries with religious militancy. Nigeria has been a major terrorist hub since the late 2000s mainly due to growing religious extremism in Northern Nigeria.14 Most recent is the growing strength of Boko Haram that has made terrorism a major concern in the region. In July 2009, the Nigerian government engaged in a conflict with Boko Haram rising from existing tensions between the two parties.15 Since then, the activities of Boko Haram have targeted law enforcement agents and agencies, civilians, state infrastructure, places of worship, religious leaders, markets and public spaces among others.16 Boko Haram bombed the United Nations (UN) headquarters in Nigeria in August 2011, suggesting its interest to attack broader transnational targets although they are regarded 3

14 as a home-grown terror group.17 In the last eight (8) years, Boko Haram has taken twenty thousand (20,000) lives, displaced two million, six hundred thousand (2,600,000) people, created seventy-five thousand (75,000) orphans and caused property damage.18 The Nigerian army s counter terrorism campaign might have reduced Boko Haram s violence in the country but the group has managed to expand its operations to neighbours, Cameroon, Niger and Chad.19 Across the Sahel region, Al-Qaeda affiliates AQIM, Ansar Dine, Al-Mourabitoun and the Macina Liberation Front (MLF) continue to wreak havoc and have even recently decided to combine forces under the name Jama at Nusrat al-islam wal Muslimeen (Group for Support of Islam and Muslims).20 The inability of the Malian government to control remote parts of the country has emboldened terrorist groups some of which have come into the country from neighbouring countries.21 The overthrow of President Amadou Toumani Toure coupled with the fall of the Muammar Gaddafi regime made the issue of terrorism worse in Mali.22 However, the Tuareg fighters who fought for Gaddafi in Libya came back home with sophisticated weapons, which are now used to perpetrate acts of terrorism in Mali.23 Also, the overthrow of Toure s government in 2012 created a political vacuum enabling Islamic forces like AQIM, MUJAO and Ansar Dine to take control of parts of the country with most of these Islamic groups launching attacks.24 Terrorist groups in this region have also launched successful attacks into neighbouring countries like Niger in May Looking at the case of terrorism in Africa, it is important to ascertain if it is caused by local or international factors. Martha Crenshaw in her volumes Terrorism in Africa noted that terrorism has been a global nightmare for a long time and Africa has not escaped its reach 26 According to her, terrorism is one of several incidents of political violence that countries have 4

15 had to contend with.27 Gunaratna also relates to the global influence by noting that groups in the Sahel-Saharan region as well as those in West Africa influenced by radicalism in the Middle East, will pose a threat to their states, Europe and beyond.28 He indicated that all the North African groups to some extent are either operationally linked or influencing other groups in the Sahel.29 In effect, it will be appropriate to understand that terrorism is a global situation and Africa cannot opt out as the tentacles of terror spread far and wide. On the other hand, some scholars have argued that terrorist groups like Boko Haram, AntiBalaka and the Niger Delta Militants have sprung up on the continent without any global influence. In 1994, Robert Kaplan in The Coming Anarchy explains West Africa s perennial instability from the region s internal structural weaknesses such as porous border, vulnerability to infectious epidemics, ungoverned territories and poverty. And he warned that we ignore this ding region at our own risk. Douglas Farah and Richard Shultz continue the apocalyptic theory of Kaplan that the weak and corrupt governments, vast, virtually stateless stretches awash with weapons, and impoverished, largely Muslim populations make the region an ideal sanctuary. The now identifiable presence of al Qaeda in other countries shows that these once-marginal wars and regions matter. We ignore the warning at our peril. Thus, separating transnational, Salafist inspired terrorists from local politically marginal insurgencies. The rise of terrorism in West Africa has been enabled by regional instability, among other social factors. To provide viable solutions to the problem of terrorism, it will be necessary to understand the various dynamics of terrorism in West Africa. This paper therefore seeks to analyse the concept of terrorism and the nature of operations of terrorist groups in Nigeria and Mali. 5

16 1.1 Statement of the Research Problem Terrorism is one of the threats to the stability of the West African sub-region. The realistic analysis of terrorism is sine qua non to designing effective counter terrorism measures to manage the crisis. There are two (2) varying schools of thought on terrorism in West Africa. As stated above, some scholars believe that terrorism in West Africa is a home grown phenomenon. 30 Others too argue that terrorism in West Africa is an extension of a global phenomenon issuing from the clash of civilizations between Western and Islamic philosophies of organizing society.31 Scholars like Ejiogu and Mosley examine terrorism in Africa as affected by local factors.32 They believe that the existing economic and political structures have activated latent ideologies calling for socio-economic liberation.33 Worsening socio-economic conditions in Africa has been reasons for radicals to emerge from the shadows. Davis also asserts that corruption, poverty, oppression, marginalization and religious extremism in West Africa has led to radicalization particularly among young people.34 Scholars such as Warren, Onuoha, Ezirim and Gunaratna have all made arguments suggesting global factors and global terrorism as influences on terrorism in Africa. Warren argues that, global terrorism has grown and fed itself into the local actors of extremism.35 With Al-Qaeda looking to gain influence in developing countries with large Muslim populations, subsaharan Africa became an area of focus.36 Salafist inspired terrorism began spreading across sub-saharan countries as a way of recruiting disillusioned young Muslims into the jihadist agenda. Now, local and regional groups in North Africa affiliated themselves with Al-Qaeda and its global jihad.37 Studies by Onuoha and Ezirim also point to how global terrorism has 6

17 adapted to the region and emerged as a threat.38 That is the mix of economic and state weaknesses, demographics and social inadequacies have provided global terrorism an ample breeding ground for terror-related activity in Africa.39 This relates to the claim by Gunaratna that Sub-Saharan Africa will not be immune to Jihadist propaganda and advocacy.40 AlQaeda s anti-western ideology has spread and influenced existing jihad groups in Africa.41 It is necessary to focus on the sources and dynamics of terrorism in the West African region to analyse whether it is influenced locally, internationally or both. It is important to understand the sources of terrorism because it will largely influence the resolution of terrorism in West Africa. With this varied nature of the factors at play in the issue of terrorism, it is useful to briefly review how the history of terrorism in West Africa has had many prominent domestic and transnational dimensions. Given the above background, this study seeks to examine and analyze terrorism in Mali and Nigeria as case study to critique the above schools of thought on Terrorism in West Africa. 1.2 Research Questions The questions the research seeks to answer are: What are the major sources, trends and dynamics of terrorism in Mali? What are the major sources, trends and dynamics of terrorism in Nigeria? 7

18 How does the counter terrorism measures employed in Mali and Nigeria influence the dynamics of terrorism in West Africa? 1.3 Objectives of the Study The overall objective of the research is to do a comparative analysis on Mali and Nigeria specifically: Review the social structure and political economy of Mali and Nigeria to find out if they have any bearing on terrorism in these countries. Examine the internal and regional sources or influences of terrorism in Mali and Nigeria. Examine if counter terrorism measures or management of terrorism have any influence on the dynamics of terrorism in Mali and Nigeria. 1.4 Scope of the Study The study focuses on terrorism in West Africa since September 2001 to December 2016 in Mali and Nigeria. The study will focus on the sources, causes, operations and dynamics of terrorism in Mali and Nigeria over the 15-year period. 8

19 1.5 Rationale of the Research To understand the impact of terrorism on Mali and Nigeria, it is necessary to explore the nature of terrorism in these countries in comparative terms in order to appreciate the similarities and differences in their operations and dynamics to be able to suggest ways terrorism can be curbed in these countries. 1.6 Hypothesis There are significant evidences of both locally and internationally induced influences on the causes and dynamics of terrorism in Nigeria and Mali; however, contemporary terrorism in West Africa is essentially an extension of militant Salafist Islamist global revivalism. 1.7 Theoretical Framework This study utilizes the Social Constructivism theory. The theory of Social Constructivism was originated by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann in the book The Social Construction of Reality.42 Social Constructivism was initially a Sociological theory but is now used widely in International Relations. The theory emphasizes how general philosophical constructions are applied to social life. In other words, the theory explains how subjective meanings, interpretations, thoughts, actions and words, influence human behavior.43 In the field of International Relations, social constructivism is the claim that significant aspects of international relations are historically and socially constructed, rather than inevitable consequences of human nature or other essential characteristics of world politics. 44 It focuses on international issues and questions, as they exist within a larger set of 9

20 social and political interactions and the ways in which those relationships help a state frame the answers.45 According to Wendt, states form ideas about the world around them based on the structures with which they interact and then act on the perceptions that they form.46 Wendt also writes that, a fundamental principle of constructivist social theory is that people act toward objects, including other actors, on the basis of the meanings that the objects have for them. 47 In this case, state and organizations can be viewed as people, who react to the actions of other states or organizations depending on how the state views itself and the ways in which it views the other state/ organization.48 Over time, depending on the interactions between those states, and the ways in which they perceive themselves and the other country, their reaction is subject to change.49 Thus, these perceptions will constantly be redefined as circumstances change. Wendt therefore concludes that identity results in the motivations for people s decisions and actions based on how others perceive them.50 For constructivists, where institutions are relatively stable and set, relationships between states are more fluid.51 As a social construction of a reality, there is no true and universally accepted definition of terrorism. States and their citizens define terrorist acts differently. Baylis asserts that an analysis of the structure of constructivism details in-depth knowledge of states various responses to terrorism by assessing the complexities of the construction of reality based on history and cultural factors.52 A major problem that terrorism poses for states is deciding on the suitable series of responses to indict perpetrators while at the same time preventing future events. The absence of a universally accepted definition of terrorism makes the prosecution of actors through 10

21 established international institutions like the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC) very difficult. States have therefore had to figure out their definitions and approaches to terrorism.53 Constructivism purports that ideas and criterion define the formation of our interests.54 Therefore, an idea like terrorism has no natural meaning. Baylis further explained that it lies on us to provide meaning through experiences, history and culture.55 From the constructivism theory, we find that the experiences that countries have had as well as their history and culture, is what causes the uncertainties when dealing with terrorism.56 For instance; the US has evolved their definition of terrorism over the years. After the 9/11 attacks, terrorism s definition has expanded to mean act of war on the US.57 Today, the US defines terrorism as a crime to which they take legal action to bring about justice.58 More and more countries began to change and toughen their resolve against terrorism after the 9/11 attacks, the March 2004 Madrid bombings, and the July 2005 London Tube bombings. Baylis explains that this reformation is a defense of the constructivist theory that actors are produced and created by their cultural environment. 59 Germany for example, was supportive to the United States following the 9/11 attack but was unwilling to engage and support Bush's war on terror with the increased occupation in the Middle East, calling it an act of war. Germany s disproval can be said to stem from a history of occupations and the consequences thereof. In this case, a previous experience works within the framework of the theory of constructivism to explain the nonconformity in various responses to terrorism. In Africa, Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger and Chad have set up a joint military action to fight Boko Haram as they operate within their regional intersection.60 Consequently, they all have a 11

22 definition of terrorism as it impacts on their country and as their judicial system provides. These countries; Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger and chad believe that triumph over Boko Haram depends on military efforts and actions and defining terrorism as an act of war will encourage public support and sympathy for the government against Boko Haram. These varied reactions and opinions on terrorism point to the need for a constructivist approach on the subject. 1.8 Literature Review There has been some study on terrorism in recent times. Most of these works have been written specifically on Terrorism in Africa, focusing on Nigeria and Mali and the current presence of radical Islamist terrorist groups. It is from this standpoint, that some of these works will be reviewed to indicate how they contribute essentially to this study. The work of Ayuba Isyaku on Terrorism: A New Challenge to Nigeria s Stability in the 21st Century has contributed significantly to the topic under study. In this work, Ayuba focuses primarily on the threat and risk of terrorism to Nigeria.61 Ayuba believes Nigeria will react differently, based on the state s perception of the threat of terrorism. The paper also indicates that the Nigerian understanding of the cause, threat and effect of terrorism differs from that of other countries.62 In the paper, Ayuba examines the origin, scale, impact and the threat of terrorism to the corporate stability of Nigeria in the 21st century. In addition to the above, Ayuba elaborates on the origin of terrorism, stating that terrorism began with the first organized human interactions.63 In making this claim, there is a mention of Roman Empire territory subjects, fighting back against the empire with random killings and destruction of property64. Ayuba 12

23 also expands on the quarrels of Sunni versus Shiites over religious doctrine and revolts against Christian crusaders by the Arabs. According to him, modern day terrorism first began during the French revolution.65 He claims that terrorism has now shifted to include groups within a political system who are dissatisfied with the existing socio-political and economic arrangements and are determined to challenge the ruling class to their advantage.66 Obi Cyril argues in West Africa s Security in the Context of the Global War on Terror: Some reflections that the greatest transnational security threat to West Africa is terrorism.67 In the paper, he defines transnational terrorism as a global network using conventional and unconventional weapons of destruction to strike at targets representing the dominant system, actors or symbols of Western political, philosophical and economic power and hegemony 68. In talking about the victims, Obi stated that civilians who are not involved in the conflict, suffer the most in terrorist attacks.69 The paper argues that the structure of West Africa makes it highly vulnerable and supportive for terrorists. Obi mentions the Liberian, Sierra-Leonean, the Guinea-Bissau and the Cote d Ivoire civil wars as evidence of the region's inability to fight terrorism.70 Obi attributes the problem of religious militancy to the continuous politicisation of religion in the sub-region. He added that the West African political elites have exploited religious differences between the Muslim north and Christian south.71 Obi failed to acknowledge the perceived growth of terrorist groups believing it was nothing more than a regional problem. Dougherty and Pfaltzgraff in "Contending Theories of International Relations" analyze religion as a source of conflict. They claim that religious conflict is a constant element in global affairs and therefore, cannot be erased totally from the system.72 They examine the 13

24 monotheistic religions and how each of them have been used as a reason for conflict in the past.73 They explained that war in Islam is embedded in the Jihad teachings of the Prophet Mohammed and Jihad which means holy war, is portrayed as a crusade to fight against evil rather than a just war.74 In Judaism, conflict and war are seen, according to Dougherty and Pfaltzgraff, as a necessity because the chosen people of Israel found themselves living in a hostile world where they had to rely on both religious prophecy and divine directions to survive.75 In Christianity, the Catholic Church accepted war as a sad necessity in the eyes of men of principle, after the church had assumed the responsibility of ensuring social order or government.76 The analysis of Dougherty and Pfaltzgraff proves that major religions have at a point allowed the use of force for the attainment of a goal. Religious militant groups in Africa and everywhere else, defend their actions as embedded in scripture. Further, the article of Christopher Bartolotta titled "Terrorism in Nigeria: the Rise of Boko Haram" also offers more insight into this study. He asserts that, after almost a decade of continuous violence, Nigeria s government does not have an effective strategy to dissemble the group.77 He further backs the claim that Boko Haram takes advantage of the disillusioned Muslims in the north of Nigeria, who are fed up with corruption and economic marginalization to recruit members.78 According to Barlotta, Boko Haram s success is also a result of the mass corruption in the government.79 He points to corruption as the reason for the government s inability to tackle the issue years after various attacks. Bartolotta argues that the political goal of Boko Haram is to create an Islamic nation in the twelve (12) northern states of the country along Islamic principles. Even though, a Muslim president now governs Nigeria, Boko Haram views the country as a state run by non-believers and has made the government its main target

25 Charlie Warren posits a contrary albeit cautious view in Terrorism in West Africa: The Anarchy that hasn t come. In his view despite the prevalence of weak states, West Africa has not become the hub of international terrorism it was feared to become.81 However, it does not imply that warnings about extremists should be ignored. He expanded on topics such as the Global extremism versus local grievances, the border situation and the illicit flows through the border and the link between political instability and terrorism.82 Warren argues that the effort to combat the menace of terror lies therein in international and regional bodies, more so than the affected countries. In "War without End", Dilip Hiro writes on the foundation of militancy in Islam. Hiro traces militancy in Islam to its very early years, after the death of Prophet Mohammed. 83Hiro claims that the problem with interpretation, in terms of the Jihad (the holy war), the (religious proclamation) and the haram (the forbidden in the society), has to do with Islam s lack of a central authority.84 Moderate Muslims approach Jihad with a pacifist mindset while fundamentalists are more militant about it. According to Hiro, radicals frustrated with the existing reality as opposed to their ideals, gather the alienated and underprivileged against the system in strict quest for justice, mostly by demand for a new system based on strict religious principle which, unlike the existing system, is just and incorruptible.85 Hiro makes no mention of militancy in West Africa despite the strong emergence of religious militancy in the region. Judith Miller explains in The Challenge of Radical Islam, that Islamic Militancy is a real threat to Western Civilization. Miller views religiously motivated conflicts as the century's immediate threat and therefore, calls for pragmatic measures by the West to counter this malice.86 Miller tries to differentiate between good and bad Islamic groups, claiming 15

26 policymakers may find it convenient to distinguish but it is almost impossible to determine which ones abide by democracy and human rights.87 Michael Tanchum in "Al-Qaeda's West African Advance" writes on the growing threat of the network of militant Islamist groups in West Africa. According to him, the existing network among North Africa s Al-Qaeda of the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), the Ansar Dine terrorist group in Mali and Boko Haram in Nigeria makes it possible for the more sophisticated AQIM to train militants for Boko Haram and Ansar Dine as well as share resources.88 Tanchum argues that an enforcement action against one of the groups may attract the support of others.89 Tanchum fails to make a comparative study between the countries involved and why these groups have defied all resolution measures, which this research seeks to find. Also, the work of Dr. Nivedita Ray on the Growing Threat of Terrorism in Africa: The Case of Boko Haram is of great relevance to this study. In the work, the author revealed that weak and corrupt states, lack of governing military, underdevelopment, porous borders, ungoverned spaces, poverty, socio economic discontent of the population, under-trained and under-equipped military, unemployment and conflicts are factors contributing to the success of Islamic extremist groups.90 The work also acknowledges that the present challenge for Africa is how to contain the widening reach of the Al-Qaeda and ISIS, which have emboldened and inspired the regional terror groups.91 This contributes significantly to the study by revealing how the ever-present drug trade has impacted on terror groups by being a financial backbone.92 16

27 Another work by Dr Nivetdita Ray explores the terrorist challenges in Mali. The work investigates the factors behind the rise of terrorism in Mali, the operations of the terrorist groups, their motives, tactics, targets and source of financing. It also assesses the capacity of the national, regional and international responses and the implications.93 The studies above provide little argument on terrorism as a local threat or a global menace in connection to Africa. This study therefore assesses the nature of terrorism in West Africa by comparing the situation in Nigeria with that of Mali, two of the sub-region s biggest security threatened countries. 1.9 Source of Data The research makes use of both primary and secondary data. Primary sources of data for the study was collected from officials from the Research Department of Ghana s Foreign Affairs Ministry who served as diplomats in Mali, soldiers from Peacekeeping Missions in Mali and the Nigerian Minister at the Nigerian High Commission in Ghana. The primary data was obtained through an unstructured interview with the officials. In the collection of the primary data, the sampling procedure used was the purposive sampling method. The purposive sampling method was used as result of the vast expertise and knowledge of respondents on the subject matter under study. Tape recorders were used as instruments for the collection of the primary data. Secondary sources of data for the study include data obtained from books, academic journals, articles, documents, reports, up to date media report and Internet sources Research Methodology The research employed the qualitative analytic tool in analyzing the data. Qualitative research approach is used because it encourages detailed description of events. In the text, the events 17

28 surrounding terrorism are probed and the analysis is made from a constructivist point of view. The method involved close reading of texts, taking notes, reflecting on the data and writing down interpretations to reach conclusions Arrangement of Chapters The research is arranged in four (4) chapters. Chapter one (1) constitutes the introduction to the research. Chapter two (2) is an overview of terrorism in West Africa. Chapter three (3) makes a comparative analysis of the sources and dynamics of terrorism in Mali and Nigeria and chapter four (4) provides the summary of research findings, conclusions and recommendations. 18

29 Endnotes 1 Bruce Hoffman, "Inside Terrorism". Columbia: Columbia University Press, p. 14 DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms", Accessed at on 26 May Early History of Terrorism", Terrorism-research.com, Accessed at on 12 June U.S. Intervention in Nicaragua, 1911/1912", Accessed at on 13 June Ibid 7 "BBC News HISTORY The Return of the Jews to the Promised Land", News.Bbc.Co.Uk, 1998 < Accessed 4 July Ibid 9 Cordesman, Anthony H. "Peace and War: The Arab Israeli Military Balance Enters the 21st Century". Greenwood Publishing Group p WSJ Graphics, "Timeline: Terror Attacks Linked to Islamists Since 9/11", WSJ, 2015 < News Graphics> Accessed 11 July U.S. Department of State. "Country Reports: Africa Overview" Accessed at -/ state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2007/ htm on 13 June Ashley Kirk, "Mapped: Which Countries Suffer the Most from Terrorism? The Telegraph, 2017 < [accessed 9 July 2017]. 14 Onuoha, Freedom C. Split in ISIS-Aligned Boko Haram Group, Al Jazeera Centre for Studies, / Umar, Sani. "The Discourses of Salafi Radicalism and Salafi Counter-radicalism in Nigeria: A Case-study of Boko Haram". Northwestern University: Agbiboa, Daniel. "The ongoing campaign of terror in Nigeria: Boko Haram versus the state." Stability: International Journal of Security and Development Onuoha, Freedom C. Split in ISIS-Aligned Boko Haram Group, Al Jazeera Centre for Studies, / 20 Cummings, Ryan. Africa s 2017 Terrorism Outlook, Centre on Religion and Geopolitics Accessed at on 14 June, Crenshaw, Martha. "Terrorism in Africa". New York: G.K. Hall & Co. 1994: Print Gunaratna, Rohan. "Understanding the challenge of ideological extremism." UNISCI Discussion Papers 18 (2008) Østebø, Terje. Islamic militancy in Africa. National Defense Univ Fort Mcnair Dc Africa Center for Strategic Studies, Crenshaw, Martha. "Terrorism in Africa". New York: G.K. Hall & Co. 1994: Print 32. Ejiogu, Kingsley U., and Thomas S. Mosley. "Local Neocolonialism and Terrorism in Africa." SAGE Open 7.2 (2017): Davis, C. "Anatomy: African Terrorism: Boko Haram: Nigeria s Homegrown Terror Network", World Policy Journal 29.4, 2012: Charlie Warren, "Terrorism in West Africa: The Anarchy That Hasn't Come - African Arguments", African Arguments, 2012, Available at on 17 Jun Onuoha, Freedom C., and Gerald E. Ezirim. "Terrorism and transnational organized crime in West Africa." Centre for Studies Report Available at 2 19

30 ational%20organised%20crime%20in%20west%20africa.pdf 39 Ibid 40 Gunaratna, Rohan. "Understanding the challenge of ideological extremism." UNISCI Discussion Papers 18 (2008) Berger, Peter, L and Thomas Luckmann. "The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge". Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday Print Wendt, Alexander. Collective Identity Formation and the International State American Political Science Review 88: Baylis, J, Smith, S & Owens P. The Globalization of World Politics. Oxford: Oxford UP Print Wendt, Alexander. Social theory of international politics. Cambridge University Press, Reese, Stephen D., and Seth C. Lewis. "Framing the War on Terror: The internalization of policy in the US press." Journalism 10.6 (2009): Ibid 59. Ibid 60 Perry, Chiaramonte, "African Nations Form Military Coalition to Combat Boko Haram", Fox News, 2015 < [accessed 12 July 2017]. 61 Isyaku, Ayuba. "Terrorism: A New Challenge to Nigeria s Stability in the 21st Century." pp 12, Obi, Cyril, Reflections on West Africa s Security in the Context of the Global War on Terror Legon Journal of International Affairs, LEJIA, Vol. 5. No Ibid 70 Ibid 71 Ibid 72 Dougherty, J.E, & Pfaltzgraff, R.L. Jr. Contending Theories of International Relations: 5th Ed, London: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., p Ibid 74 Ibid 75 Ibid 76 Ibid 77 Bartolotta, Christopher. "Terrorism in Nigeria: the Rise of Boko Haram". The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations Available at 78 Ibid 79 Ibid 80 Ibid 81 Warren,Charlie. Terrorism in West Africa: The Anarchy That Hasn t Come Accessed at on 31 May Ibid 83 Hiro, Dilip War without End: The Rise of Islamic Terrorism and Global Response, London: Routledge,

31 84 Ibid Ibid 86 Miller, Judith, The Challenge of Radical Islam. Foreign Affairs, vol. 72, no. 2, pp , JSTOR, Accessed from on June 12, Ibid 88 Tanchum, Michael, Al-Qaida s New West African Map: Ansar Dine, Boko Haram, and Jihadism in the Trans Sahara, Telaviv Notes, Vol.6, Edition Ibid 90 Nivedita, Ray, Growing Threat of Terrorism in Africa: The Case of Boko Haram, Indian Council of World Affairs, 2016, Retrieved from icwa.in/pdfs/ib/2014/growingthreatofterrorisminafricaib pdf on June 3, Ibid 92 Ibid 93 Nivedita, Ray, The Rise of Islamic Terrorism in Mali, 2016, Indian Council of World Affairs, 2016, Retrieved from icwa.in/pdfs/ib/2014/riseofislamicterrorisminmaliib pdf on June 3,

32 CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF TERRORISM IN WEST AFRICA 2.0 Introduction This chapter gives an overview of what terrorism is and the current situation regarding terrorism in the West African sub region, focusing on the situation in Mali and Nigeria currently. It further elaborates on the factors that have contributed to the rise of the terror groups, what fuels their continual existence and the resulting consequences in the areas they operate. 2.1 Definition of Terrorism Acts of terror at an increasing frequency have become the focus of the media. Terrorism has moved from being a nightmare to being a part of our lives. Attempts to solve it have proven harder than expected mainly because states define terrorism differently. Terrorism has taken different forms even to the point that there is no general consensus on the subject. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines terrorism as: the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion. 1 By systematic use of terror, it means to put people in a constant state of fear. This definition does not exclude a particular group, race or ideology from acting as terrorists. Once coercive actions inspire terror in others, then the threat of terrorism is active. A more specific definition comes from the Legal Dictionary. In the Legal Dictionary, terrorism is defined as the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property in order to coerce or intimidate a government or the civilian population in furtherance of 22

33 political or social objectives. 2 This definition also focuses on the pain and suffering inflicted upon the victims and not by the political identity of those committing the crime. The UN Security Council Resolution 1566 (2004) defines terrorism as criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization, to do or to abstain from doing any ac.t3 The European Union (EU) also defines terrorism in Article 1 of the Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002) as offences under national law, which, given their nature or context, may seriously damage a country or an international organisation where committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population, or unduly compelling a government or international organisation to perform or abstain from performing any act, or seriously destabilising or destroying the fundamental political, constitutional, economic or social structures of a country or an international organisation.4 The technicalities of this definition include the admission of terrorism first and foremost as a criminal offence. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) simplifies it as the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives." 5 Particularly for Africa, the African Union (AU) formerly the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) adopted a unifying stance at Algiers during the OAU Convention on the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism in 1999 which defined terrorism as (a) any act which is a violation of the criminal laws of a State Party and which may endanger the life, physical integrity or freedom of, or cause serious injury or death to, any person, any number or group of persons or causes or may cause damage to public or private property, natural resources, environmental or cultural heritage and is calculated or intended to: 23

34 (i) Intimidate, put in fear, force, coerce or induce any government, body, institution, the general public or any segment thereof, to do or abstain from doing any act, or to adopt or abandon a particular standpoint, or to act according to certain principles; or (ii) Disrupt any public service, the delivery of any essential service to the public or to create a public emergency; or (iii) Create general insurrection in a State; (b) Any promotion, sponsoring, contribution to, command, aid, incitement, encouragement, attempt, threat, conspiracy, organizing, or procurement of any person, with the intent to commit any act referred to in paragraph (a) (i) to (iii).6 There has been a lot of debate within the international community on what constitutes a terrorist group and what does not as some groups believe they are aimed towards liberation rather than terror. According to terrorism expert Carol Bahan, the incapacity of states to have a uniform definition for terrorism is due to the fact that states have different beliefs regarding which act constitutes international terrorism Types of Terrorism National and global agencies like the United States Department of Defense (US DOD), the United States National Counter Terrorism Centre (US NCTC), the United Nations (UN) and the European Union (EU), have all defined terrorism in the way it impacts them. While the definitions vary, they hold a constant theme. Their definitions point to a premeditated act of harm against a group people, motivated by some political or social agenda. Just as the definitions of terrorism vary, the types also vary as defined by lawmakers, security professionals and scholars. Some have broadly classified it under domestic and international terrorism.8 24

35 Domestic terrorism refers to acts of terror, committed within the country or on agents of the country by those terror groups located and operating from within the country. 9 Conversely, international terrorism refers to acts of terror committed by individuals or groups towards countries other than the ones they operate from.10 Others too have classified terrorism based on the course being fought for or the ideology motivating the individual/group. The various types of terrorism identified in this study are political terrorism, religious terrorism, state terrorism and cyber terrorism. Political terrorism refers to instances where violent criminal behavior is exerted to generate fear in all of society or a sizeable part of it, for political purposes.11 Political terrorism consists of violent acts of insurrection on a state or government by ideologically motivated groups.12 Even though political and government leaders are the primary targets, citizens end up being affected as well. In the name of national liberation, groups like the Zionist movement, Irish Revolutionary Army (IRA) and the Tamil Tigers have committed acts of terror. The latter period of the 20th century saw the emergence of many groups committed to socialist revolution.13 Some of these groups operated with terror to achieve the political ideas they envisioned. Lately, few of such groups exist and even if they do, they have had little impact. For these groups, the course could be a choice to be on the left, right, centre right, liberal or conservative.14 Nonetheless, it is a course they believe is worth fighting for, illegally if necessary. This type of terrorism is rooted in political ideology.15 Another type of terrorism is religious terrorism, which is undertaken by terrorist groups, which are extremely religiously motivated. Today, religious extremism rivals nationalism and ideology as motivations of terrorism and has become a central issue for the global 25

36 community.16 According to Mark Juergensmeyer, religious terrorism consists of "acts that terrify, the definition of which is provided by the witnesses - the ones terrified - and not by the party committing the act; accompanied by either a religious motivation, justification, organisation, or world view."17 Religious terrorism has been in existence for a long time. However, it has rekindled in the last three decades. Juergensmeyer suggests that religiously motivated terrorism increased in the 1980s.18 Bruce Hoffman argues that for a terrorist act to be considered as religious terrorism, the perpetrators must use religious scriptures to justify or explain their violent acts or to gain recruits.19 Also, clerical figures must be involved to an extent in the leadership of the group.20 Religious terrorism predates modern terrorism. At the height of the Roman Empire, there was a Roman occupation of modern day Palestine stretching into the Middle East.21 Jewish nationalists and Judaism fanatics who opposed the occupation and the idol worship of the Romans fought the Roman occupation through a series of clandestine activities.22 These nationalists were called "Zealots."23 The same can be said of the "Assassins", a discreet Islamic group that fought against the Christian crusaders in Syria and Persia between 1100 and The crusaders raided the Middle East to take back the city of Jerusalem from the Muslims because the Christians considered Jerusalem a holy city.25 The intensity of the Zealots and the assassins was so noticeable that, today both zealots and assassins have become notable words. Religious terrorism has been a major form of terrorism since the actions of the zealots and the assassins. Recent religious terrorists groups to have emerged include Al-Qaeda, Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb (AQIM), Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), Boko Haram and Anti Balaka. With the exception of Anti- Balaka that is a regarded sometimes as a Christian fundamental group, the other terrorist groups have been subjects of much interest with regards to Islamic extremism.26 26

37 Religion is also sometimes used in combination with other factors or as the primary motivation in acts of terror. Groups like the Klu Klux Klan, Al-Qaeda, and Hezbollah are religious-political or religious-nationalist in nature because religion is used as their mandate but their goals remain political since they seek recognition, power, territory and concessions from states.27 Religious extremism has grown with the prevalence of Islamist groups in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria. A third type of terrorism is state terrorism where there is a systematic use of terror by a government. State terrorism occurs in two forms. First, it can be regarded as a state sponsoring or engaging in violence against another state.28 Most often, acts like these are regarded as acts of war. An example is the US involvement in Nicaragua and Afghanistan.29 Regardless of the reasons given for both occupations; a military action by one state against another which are hitherto, not at war is a form of state terrorism. The other form of state terrorism is often enforced by the power holding majority in a country against either minorities or opposition. History frequently mentions rulers who employed this form of state terrorism tactics to control and oppress subjects. The goal of this type of state terrorism according to Hannah Arendt is to destruct the human spirit for total submission to the regime 30 State violence tends to be systematic and well organised, largely as a result of the institutional structures available to the state. In fact, many military dictatorships in the past held on to power through committing acts of terror. Hitler's Germany from 1933 to 1945 is a prime example of state terrorism against German people of Jewish descent and other minorities in the country at the time.31 Also, 27

38 Uganda's Idi Amin was responsible for the deaths of over 300,000 civilians at the height of his terror reign.32 Another case is Saddam Hussein's use of violence against the Kurds.33 Bassar Al-Assad's suppression of democratic protestors in Syria is also another example of state terrorism.34 Almost every dictator in history has in some way used state terrorism as a way of controlling or handling power. Another type of terrorism is cyber terrorism, where hackers manipulate information technology to attack civilians and publicise their course.35 It can be done by accessing public or private computer servers illegally, or even secured government networks.36 Cyber terrorists can disable and enable networked emergency systems or hack into networks to attain critical financial information. With global advancements in technology, cyber terrorism is most likely to be a much bigger problem going forward Rapoport's Four Waves of Terrorism David C. Rapoport, an expert on terrorism identified four waves of terrorism based on the origin and incentive behind the actions.37 According to him, the first wave is the Eastern European form of anarchism from 1879 to 1914 which spread across the rest of Europe until the start of the First World War (WW1).38 During that time, actions of terrorists were seen as liberation tactics. The first wave started in the 1880's from Russia and spread within a decade to other parts of Europe.39 Anarchists carried out assassination campaigns against prominent officials.40 He explained the second wave as the anti-colonial movements that became frequent after the end of the First World War (WW1).41 The end of the war between colonialists and anticolonialists brought about the breakup of empires and many new states entered world system. 28

39 42 The ensuing power struggle was largely marked by extreme actions of terror and violence. African and Asian nationalists engaged in anti-colonial fights against European colonialists for the right to govern their countries.43 Terrorist activity was crucial in the formation of new states and as the empires dissolved, the wave receded. The third wave Rapoport identified is the emergence of Marxist inspired radical leftist groups in Latin America as a rebellion against the capitalist system that kept the working class poor.44 Groups like the Peruvian Shining Path, the Nicaraguan Sandinistas and the Colombian 19th of April Movement were actively engaging in acts of terror in the 1970s and 1980s to overthrow the existing capitalist system.45 Rapoport argues that the fourth wave of terrorism is the mix of theology and nationalism, which so far has been difficult to deal with.46 Religion has provided justifications and principles for the establishment of terrorist ideologies. To explain further, there have been Christian fundamentalist and Arab-Islamic terror groups, which are emboldened by faith. Most of the terrorist groups in operation today, are subjects of the fourth wave. 2.3 Causes of Terrorism There are a number of popular conceptions on what causes or leads to terror. Finding one variable to blame terrorism on is almost impractical since it depends on a number of factors. In order to combat terrorism, it is imperative to understand what drives it. If wars fought in the past are anything to go by, it is evident that humans are more likely to resort to violence in oppressed situations with the belief that violence brings answers. To understand why a person will go as far as to strap on a suicide bomb vest, one will have to be acquainted with the 29

40 ideology, psychology, and rationality that constitutes the profile of the terrorist. The causes of terrorism may be economic, social or political.47 The significant economic cause which has driven many modern day terrorism is Poverty, which leads to a dissatisfaction with the existing socio-economic order. Newman suggests that when people are deprived of basic resources and opportunities, it can create resentment and cause some to turn to violence in order to express their outrage.48 This is evident in the situations in the Middle East and sub-saharan Africa where most people are poor and are willing to go extremes for money. It will be crucial to measure poverty with indicators such as social inequality, low literacy and unemployment in order to examine its impact on terrorism. In Gottlieb's "Debating Terrorism and Counterterrorism", Hippel argues that, the difficulties with poverty as a cause of terrorism is that it is not easily quamtifiable.49 However, systematic poverty occurring in some underdeveloped countries increases the likelihood of insurgency as people begin to feel left out and resort to any means necessary for solutions. Newman's explanation is that when social inequality develops, people affected negatively are infuriated because of the deprivation and inadequacy inequality comes along with. 50 This creates an internal conflict making it more likely for terrorism to occur. In addition to providing grounds for grievance, it also portrays underdevelopment and weak governance, which revolutionary terrorists use to rally others to their course. Also, even when poverty is not the direct cause for terrorism, it can aid in the recruitment of terrorists. 30

41 Political factors that cause terrorism include political grievances and government repression. 51 Individuals may join or create terrorist groups when they hold grievances against a certain political order. Berrebi and Ostwald 2011 assert that repression of political rights and civil liberties by ruling governments can result in uprisings and serious insurrections leading to acts of terror. Such political environments are prone to frequent human rights abuses which some will react violently against. 52 Newman writes that some undemocratic societies with mass incidents of human rights abuses by the government must be considered as a form of repression. 53 It can be argued that terrorism has a positive correlation with perceived social injustice by the government even more than poverty.54 It is easy for terrorist groups to seek help from people who feel abused and humiliated and to give them a reason to join their course. Gunaratna agrees that "in conditions of poor governance, rampant corruption and human rights abuses, terrorism flourishes."55 Another cause of terrorism is the various social factors present in varying circumstances. Multiple reasons account for this. One of which is religion. Religion is a social aspect that has influenced terrorism. Religious terrorists believe in an eternal justification for acts of terrorism.56 This nature of extremism is demonstrated in many ways as there are many different forms of religious terrorism. Recent times have seen a dramatic increase in religious terrorism globally. Finally, ethnicity, nationalism and calls for separatism are also causes of terrorism. This form of terrorism is demonstrated when a group resorts to violence for nationalist or separatist reasons.57 Nationalism demonstrated as love for country is so strong that, sometimes people are willing to change or overthrow a government to stake their claim. This is done in ways 31

42 such as rebellion, repression and discrimination.58 Separatists also resort to the use of violence, abuse, intimidation and terror to drive home their point. 2.4 Global terrorism: 9/11 and the War against Terror On September 11, 2001 the United States experienced the deadliest terrorist attack which claimed about two thousand nine hundred and ninety six (2,996) lives, injured over six thousand (6,000) others, and caused at least ten (10) billion dollars in property and infrastructure damage.59 It was a sequence of four coordinated attacks by Al-Qaeda led by Osama bin Laden.60 It was a defining moment for the US under President George Bush which intensified the US fight against Terror. Osama bin Laden stated in a November 2002 "Letter to America" that Al-Qaeda's motives for the attacks include "U.S. support of Israel, support for the attacks against Muslims in Somalia, support of Philippines against Muslims in the Moro conflict, support for Israeli aggression against Muslims in Lebanon, support of Russian atrocities against Muslims in Chechnya, pro-american governments in the Middle East being against Muslim interests, support of Indian oppression against Muslims in Kashmir, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia and the sanctions against Iraq."61 There was global condemnation on the attacks with many countries being sympathetic to the US. To help bring the terrorists to justice, some countries introduced new anti-terrorism legislation and went as far as crippling the finances of businesses and individuals suspected of having connections with Al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden.62 Germany's chancellor at the time of the incident, Gerhard Schröder, described the attacks as "a declaration of war against the entire civilized world." 63 British Prime Minister Tony Blair pledged that Britain would stand full square alongside the US in the battle against terrorism and British security forces worldwide were on maximum alert.64 Egypt s Hosni Mubarak and Libya s Muammar Gaddafi also condemned the attacks.65 In retaliation, President George 32

43 Bush led the US to a War on Terror, which saw the US attack the Taliban in Afghanistan in search of the leaders and members of Al-Qaeda.66 After 9/11 the world has experienced many more attacks. The Beirut bombing, Egyptian plane crash, Ankara suicide bombing, Paris attacks and the recent London Bridge bombing all bring into perspective the global threat that terrorism poses.67 Figure one shows the incidence of terrorism worldwide since 9/11. 33

44 Figure 1: Data and world map on global terrorism, Source The Economist 34