[FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE] PMUNC 2018

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2 CONTENTS Letter from the Chair and CD......[3] Committee Description.[4] The Siege of Constantinople: Introduction.. [5] Sailing to Byzantium: A Brief History [6] Current Status [9] Keywords.[12] Questions for Consideration.[14] Character List....[15] Citations [23] 2

3 LETTER FROM THE CHAIR Dear delegates, Welcome to PMUNC! My name is Atakan Baltaci, and I m super excited to conquer a city! I will be your chair for the Fall of Constantinople Committee at PMUNC We have gathered the mightiest commanders, the most cunning statesmen and the most renowned scholars the Ottoman Empire has ever seen to achieve the toughest of goals: conquering Constantinople. This Sultan is clever and more than eager, but he is also young and wants your advice. Let s see what comes of this! Sincerely, Atakan Baltaci Dear delegates, Hello and welcome to PMUNC! I am Kris Hristov and I will be your crisis director for the siege of Constantinople. I am pleased to say this will not be your typical committee as we will focus more on enacting more small directives, building up to the siege of Constantinople, which will require military mobilization, finding the funds for an invasion and the political will on the part of all delegates.. Sincerely, Kris Hristov 3

4 COMMITTEE DESCRIPTION The year is 1451, and a 19 year old has re-ascended to the throne of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed II is now assembling his Imperial Court for the grandest city of all: Constantinople! The Fall of Constantinople (affectionately called the Conquest of Istanbul by the Turks) was the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed II, the 21-year-old Ottoman Emperor, led a 53 day siege against the imperial capital of the crumbling Byzantine Empire. Constantinople s formidable walls, one of the strongest in the world at the time, and the Byzantine efforts to unify the Christian world against the siege proved to be a tough challenge to the Ottoman ambitions. As the Ottoman Divan-ı Hümâyûn (Imperial Council), your task is to overcome these challenges to accomplish the greatest military operation of your time. 4

5 INTRODUCTION The city of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire has stood for almost 1500 years, as a bastion of both Christianity and the remnants of the once expansive Roman Empire. Byzantine diplomacy, military technology and tactics have kept the empire intact throughout the years. It is only now, after an occupation by Crusader forces and a general stagnation of the Byzantine Empire that the Ottomans have been able to launch an invasion which has kept its momentum. 1 Presently, Ottoman forces are being mobilized and augmented with Serbian cavalry and other contingents from the Balkans, primarily through janissaries from the devshirme system. Should the siege succeed and the city fall into Ottoman hands, it will forever change the balance of power both in Europe and in the greater world. To break the thick walls of Byzantium and the political clout of Byzantine diplomats will require immense efforts on the parts of all delegates, as new technologies, alliances and methods of warfighting are brought to bear in what may be the greatest siege to date in world history. 1 John Teall, Byzantine Empire, Encyclopedia Britannica (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.), accessed September 29,

6 SAILING TO BYZANTIUM: A BRIEF HISTORY The story of Byzantium begins with the division of the Roman Empire into East and West. Emperor Diocletian split the empire in two, in order to better address the issues at hand. As the Western Empire fell victim to a range of threats, ranging from barbarian invasions, weak emperors and 2 infighting, the East prospered. The Byzantine Empire officially adopted Christianity and shifted more towards Greek, rather than Roman culture as it progressed. As Rome fell, the Byzantine Empire expanded its reach, eventually encompassing many former Roman territories. The Byzantines preferred diplomacy to all-out war and was willing to negotiate with its enemies. By 555 AD, the Empire had expanded to Syria, Persia and the Balkans, while also encompassing most of Italy. This would be its greatest extent. Emperor Constantine placed his capital, aptly named Constantinople in a precarious location, split between Europe and Asia. While the Byzantine Empire carried out its own particular brand of diplomacy, it would be at the crossroads of history and politics for much of the medieval period. 3 In 681, the Bulgar tribes formed a union with the Slavic and Thracian peoples of the Balkans to form a new state: Bulgaria. Bulgaria also soon adopted Christianity, as did the Kievan Rus (present Ukraine and Russia) further north. Both of these states would be a key focus for Byzantine diplomacy and wars for a significant time. Byzantine writing systems, developed by Cyril and Methodius would become the Cyrillic alphabet used today by the Eastern and Southern Slavic states. 4 By 1018, the Byzantine Empire had stabilized itself, through a series of military victories. Bulgarian lands were incorporated into the empire, while Kievan Rus was kept at bay through royal 2 Teall. 3 Teall. 4 Teall. 6

7 marriages and agreements. Varangian (Russian) and Arab raiders were repelled, while the empire s stability seemed guaranteed. New, military minded emperors once again began expanding the borders, going as far as threatening to take Jerusalem. In 800 AD, Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor, a title previously used to refer to the Byzantine Emperor. This began to drive a wedge between East and West. Finally in 1054, due to a series of disagreements, Pope Leo IX s delegation to Constantinople decided to excommunicate 5 the Byzantine Patriarch Cerularius. The Patriarch in turn excommunicated the delegation and Pope Leo IX. This event, known as the Great Schism, split Christendom into the Catholic (Western) and Orthodox (Eastern) churches. The Western church launched several assaults into the Middle East, today known as the Crusades. In 1204, the city of Constantinople is sacked by the Fourth Crusade, severely weakening the empire and guaranteeing its future demise as the West does not come to aid it. With Bulgarian assistance, the Byzantine Empire is restored and the Latin crusader kingdom removed from Constantinople, but the damage had been done, the Byzantine Empire would now be a vestigial state, a shadow of its former self. This brings us to the present day, where Constantinople is surrounded by enemies on all fronts, with no aid on the horizon. 6 The Ottoman Empire was established as a principality around modern day Bursa at the end of 7 the 13th century by Osman. At the time a principality, the Ottomans were surrounded by the Byzantines and various stronger Turkish principalities. Utilizing the decay of the Byzantine Empire, Osman and the Ottoman sultans who followed gradually took over Byzantine territories. Initially having a more nomadic state and military structure, the Ottoman capture of the Byzantine city of 5 Teall. 6 Jay Stanford and Michael Yapp, Ottoman Empire, Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d., accessed September 29, Stanford and Yapp. 7

8 Bursa in 1324 and the subsequent declaration of the city as the principalities capital provided the first 8 opportunity to develop the economic and administrative means to run a state. From then on, the Ottomans crossed the Dardanelles and captured the Byzantine city of Adrianople (Edirne), which is the current capital of the Ottomans. Throughout this period, even though the Ottoman lands surrounded Constantinople, the siege of the city was bypassed due to its thick walls and Ottomans 9 lacking strong siege equipment. The Ottoman expansion towards the rest of the Turkish principalities in Anatolia and Christian lands in the Balkans continued until In 1402, Ottomans suffered a defeat against Tamerlane. Baized, the sultan at the time, was captured and died a year later. This was followed by a period of interregnum, where four of Baized sons competed for the throne. Finally, Mehmed I restored the Ottoman Empire in Mehmed I and Murad who followed him continued Ottoman expansion in the Balkans. In 1444, upon signing a peace treaty with Christian Balkan principalities and Turkish principalities in Anatolia, Murad voluntarily passed his throne to Mehmed II. Mehmed II was twelve years old at the time, and the Byzantine Empire and Pope Eugenius IV saw this young sultan as an easy target. Thus, they organized a crusade army that moved through the Balkans. Upon this, Mehmed II invited his father Murad back to the throne. Murad assumed the throne and defeated the Christian armies in the Battle of Varna in 1444, thus ending the last Christian Crusade effort against the Ottomans. By the time of Murad s death in 1451, the Ottomans were well established in Europe. One of Mehmed II s first acts when he ascended the throne in 1451 was to cut the tributes paid to the Byzantines for Orhan Celebi (pronounced Chelebi). Orhan Celebi is a member 10 of the Ottoman royal family who is held by the Byzantines. Ottomans paid tribute to the Byzantines 8 Stanford and Yapp. 9 Blake Ehrlich, Istanbul, Encyclopedia Britannica (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.), accessed September 29, Stanford and Yapp, Ottoman Empire. 8

9 to prevent them from releasing Orhan Celebi, who could make a claim to the Ottoman throne. (Shaw and Yapp, Ottoman Empire ) 9

10 CURRENT STATUS With the city in the crosshairs, two major problems must be overcome by the council. The first problem will be raising an army to siege the city. Constantinople will be a heavily defended city, an invading force will need to be three times larger at a minimum. The technologies to break the thick fortifications also need to be developed. The Ottoman court is not entirely sold on the idea of besieging Constantinople, it is a costly venture which could bring about economic collapse should it fail. This being said, there are solutions in progress: New artillery: The walls of Constantinople are world renowned for their strength. Current cannons cannot make a dent in these walls. Sultan Mehmed II has summoned Urban, a Hungarian artillery engineer.. Urban claims he can make a cannon that can fire a stone projectile weighing about 1500 lbs. While this cannon takes long to reload, thus giving the Byzantines ample time to reconstruct their walls, combined with the full might of the Ottoman army pushing through any breaches, artillery can be the solution to bring down the walls of Constantinople. That said, such a cannon is expensive and timely to build. It is also prone to sabotage. 10

11 Forging new alliances: 11 The Karamanids and the Aq Qoyunlu are two other Turkish-Muslim states in Anatolia. While they may not have a vested interested in Ottoman expansion, they could be crucial in providing limited support against the Byzantines. Their political clout could be useful in deterring Western powers from intervening. The rising influence of the Ottomans in Anatolia has put these three states at odds with each other and caused several clashes. However, the upcoming siege could be a great opportunity for these 12 states to unite for the purpose of ending the Eastern Roman Empire. The Aq Qoyunlu and the Karamanids are primarily concerned that if the siege is successful, they might be the next targets of the young Sultan. The Ottomans are concerned that the Aq Qoyunlu and Karamanids can stir revolts or clashes in Anatolia, thus putting the siege at risk. In preparing for the siege, the Court has to decide if they will view the Aq Qoyunlu and the Karamanids as allies or enemies. 11 Wikipedia Commons, Map of Aq Qoyunlu 1478, September 29, 2018, September 29, 2018, 12 Wikipedia Commons, Eastern Mediterranean 1450 AD, September 29, 2018, Digital Image, September 29, 2018, n_mediterranean_1450.svg.png. 11

12 KEYWORDS Devshirme System: The literal meaning is tribute in blood. This was a custom of taking Christian boys from the Balkans and other regions in Eastern and Southeastern Europe to raise them to serve the Ottoman state, speaking Turkish and converting to Islam. This practice was only done to Christians, partially to incentivize a conversion to Islam in the conquered lands, partially to curb the power of Turkish nobility against the Sultan with a fighting force loyal only to the Sultan. The system was started in the 1300 s, not without controversy. Murad I created the practice, which was subsequently criticized as non-islamic and essentially enslavement. The system would eventually be abolished by the early 1800s. Janissaries: The Janissaries were the soldiers from the Devshirme system, primarily Slavic, Greek and Albanian children from the Balkans, raised to become a fighting force for the Ottomans. It should be noted that despite the morality which was questioned by Muslim scholars and outright despised by the subjects of the empire, there was a military need for the Janissaries. Traditional medieval armies consisted of peasants and conscripts, poorly trained and motivated soldiers. A corps of professionally trained, well equipped, zealously indoctrinated soldiers for life makes sense for both an effective fighting force and for eternally loyal imperial bodyguards. It should be noted that the system was abolished as European armies began to reduce their reliance on conscription and focus on recruiting professional soldiers, which made the system obsolete. Resentment for the system remains to this day in the Balkans. Bosphorus Strait: The Bosphorus is a natural waterway that separates current day European Istanbul from Asian Istanbul. Constantinople is on the European side of the strait. The strait controls the trade 12

13 between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, and is one of the most important naval trade routes of the time. European states like the Republic of Genoa and the Venetians that have trade colonies in the Black Sea use this strait frequently. Any state that controls the Bosporus can charge tax on the trade flowing through it. As of 1451, the Ottomans already have a fortification on the Asian side of the strait (see Anadoluhisari), but that is not enough for exerting total naval control. 13

14 QUESTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION How can the European states be prevented from forming an alliance to support the Byzantine Empire or even a fifth Crusade? How can stability be ensured in Anatolia and Rumelia during the siege? How can the sea defences around the Golden Horn be overcome? How can the empire muster enough financial resources to finance this campaign? How will allies be chosen? Will the Aq Qoyunlu or the Karamanids ally with the Empire? And most importantly, how will the mighty walls of Constantinople be destroyed? 14

15 CHARACTER LIST Grand Vizier Candarli Halil Pasha (pronounced: Chandarli Khalil Pasha meaning: Halil Pasha of the Candarli Family) As the Grand Vizier of Mehmed II, Candarli Halil Pasha comes from the highly influential and powerful Candarli family. His grandfather, Candarli Halil Pasha the Elder, for example, served as a grand vizier under Murad I. As the Grand Vizier, Candarli Halil Pasha holds a lot of power in the Ottoman Imperial Council. He has the absolute power of attorney for the Sultan and is the Sultan s top advisor. The Grand Vizier is dismissible only by the Sultan himself. The Grand Vizier is distinguished from the other viziers in that he holds the Seal of the Sultan that approves any imperial decision. He is of Turkish and Muslim origins, while there are other prominent members of the Court from Balkan origins who adopted Islam through the devshirme system. Candarli Halil Pasha fears a Christian Crusade led by the Pope in case the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, and is therefore timid on the Siege of Constantinople. As someone who values experience and maturity, Candarli Halil Pasha wants to ensure that the young Sultan makes clever decisions that do not put the Empire at risk of a Christian counter-offensive. That said, he has to tread lightly. If he is to displease the Sultan or gain the enmity of the other viziers in the Imperial Council, he might not leave the Imperial Council with his head on his shoulders. Molla Aksemseddin (pronounced: Mullah Aqshemseddhin meaning: teacher Akshamsaddin) Mollla Aksemseddin is the teacher of Mehmed II. A very respected religious scholar in the Ottoman Empire, Aksemseddin encourages the Sultan on the conquest of Constantinople as a way to spread Islam and end the Eastern Roman Empire. He is claimed to be from the family of the second 15

16 caliph of Islam, Abu Bakr. The Sultan does not take his teacher s opinions lightly, nor should anyone else in the Court. Zaganos Pasha Zaganos Pasha was converted to Islam through the devshirme system, and rose through the ranks of the janissaries to become the second vizier to Mehmed II after Grand Vizier Candarli Halil Pasha. Coming from the devshirme system, Zaganos is loyal to Mehmed II. He was Mehmed s lala ( pronounced the same as in Lala Land), for a long time in his youth. As Mehmed s lala, Zaganos Pasha served as an advisor, tutor and mentor to Mehmed. He is known to be a fierce military commander, and will play a valuable role in the Conquest of Constantinople, which he vigorously supports. He is known for his ability to build fortifications and devise creative ways to destroy those of the enemy. Hadim Lala Sehabettin Pasha Lala Sehabbettin Pasha mostly served Mehmed s father, Murad II before he fell out of favor for a failed military operation again Vlad II Dracul, voivod of Wallachia. But now he is back in the Imperial Council as an advisor to Mehmed II in the most important siege in Ottoman history. This is a great opportunity for him to gain the favor of the young Sultan. Also coming from the devshirme system, Sehabbettin served the Sultan s harem and palace as a eunuch. Rising through the ranks, Sehabbettin Pasha first became a Kapi Agha (the keeper of the imperial palace) and controlled the flow of information to the Sultan. After that he served as the beylerbeyi of the Rumelia province, where he was the military governor of all Ottoman provinces in the Balkans. He is known to advocate for an aggressive expansionist policy, and is in favor of the siege of Constantinople. 16

17 Sheikh-ul Islam Molla Fahrettin Acemi As the Sheikh-ul-Islam of the Ottoman Empire, Molla Acemi is the highest religious official in the Imperial Court. He has the power of issue official fatwas to assess the compatibility of any imperial decision with the Islamic law. Therefore, his religious support is vital to the actions of the Imperial Court. His powers and interpretation of Islam, however, is not limitless, as the Sultan can replace him at well, and there are many other mollas eyeing his coveted position. Molla Acemi is also known to be a strict Sunni, and is not tolerant towards what he considers as heretic sects of Islam, such as Alawites and Hurufis. This view has placed him at odds with others in the court and he will be of limited use as a negotiator to the Byzantines and the rest of Christian Europe. Ahmed Pasha (Military Governor of Eastern Provinces (Eyalet of Rum)) Ahmed Pasha is a prominent commander and governor in the Imperial Court. He too has been raised through the devshirme system, and is the current Beylerbeyi of the Eastern Provinces of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan values Ahmed Pasha as he also has ambitions to conquer lands bordering the Eastern Provinces. Both as a governor and military commander, Ahmed Pasha has successfully held off against the other Turkish principalities around the Eastern Provinces. As the Eastern Provinces are far from the Imperial Capital and Constantinople, Ahmed Pasha has to find ways to make his opinion more relevant. While most of his military forces are spread around the Eastern Provinces for the protection of the region, the Sultan might ask him to assist militarily with the Siege. He is however, a relative outsider at the court and his tolerant views towards Christianity have earned him a poor reputation among his contemporaries. He is however well respected by Byzantine field commanders. 17

18 Ishak Pasha (Military Governor of Anatolia) Also of a devshirme background, Ishak Pasha is the Beylerbeyi of Anatolia. He is married to Mehmed II s father s (late Sultan Murad II) widow. As the Beylerbeyi of Anatolia, Ishak Pasha counters the threat posed by other Turkish principalities in Anatolia, and is a strong commander and a statesman. While most of his military forces are spread around Anatolia for the protection of the region, the Sultan might ask him to assist militarily with the Siege. At a crucial time like this, prevention of any instability created in Anatolia by the other Turkish principalities (Karamanids and the Aq Qoyunlu) is very important. Ishak is most concerned with maintaining his own power and wealth, the siege is not his priority as he believes his considerable military acumen is better utilized elsewhere. Omer Pasha (Military Governor of Rumelia) (name quasi made up, saw his name on a Turkish Wikipedia page but there is no link. The position exists in real life tho) Along with the military governor of Anatolia, Omer Pasha is one of the two most important military governors in the council. While most of his military forces are spread around Rumelia for the protection of the region, the Sultan will surely ask him to assist militarily with the Siege. Governing over all the predominantly Christian provinces of the Empire in the Balkans, Omer Pasha has to be cautious against guarding the current imperial capital of Adrianopolis against any attacks or uprisings. It is also possible that the Christian states that rally in support of Europe might propel an uprising amongst the Christian populations of the Balkans. Omer is thus weary and extremely hesitant about committing to further expansion of the empire, believing that vassal states on the fringes of Europe and the Ottoman empire may be a more defensible solution. 18

19 Kapudan Pasha Balthoglu Suleiman Suleiman is the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Empire. He is the Commander of the Ottoman Navy, and leads all the forces involved in the naval blockade of the city. He also plays an important role in preventing any aid sent by the Christian states of Europe. In addition to that, the most important challenge facing him is overcoming the defenses (the chain) blocking entry into the Golden Horn. Suleiman is also a skilled diplomat and wary about the invasion of the city. Constantinople is well defended and Ottoman naval technology is well behind that of Europe. Byzantium s Greek fire and innovations in naval warfare are of keen interest to him, as is Ottoman expansion into the Mediterranean, towards the seafaring Venice. Hamza Bey Hamza Bey is the another naval commander in the court. His creativity and ingenius is respected by all sailors as well as the Sultan. He played an important role in the successful naval siege of Thessalonica a couple decades ago. Maybe he can come up with a surprising solution to take on the naval defenses blocking the Golden Horn. He is also the younger brother of an old vizier, Bayezid Pasha, which brings Hamza Bey great reputation. He is however strictly a military man, well respected by his soldiers and fellow commanders. He has no ambitions besides glory on the battlefield and a well deserved retirement with his extensive family. Agha of the Janissaries The Agha is the commander of the elite Janissary force. While this brings him immense military power, Janissaries are also known to revolt against the Sultan if they do not think they are paid well and regularly. Previous Aghas have also participated in such revolts. Surely, the Sultan will punish 19

20 the Agha harshly if such a thing were to happen. The Janissaries both serve as elite infantry soldiers and as the Sultan s bodyguards. All the Janissaries, including the Agha, come from the devshirme system, and their absolute loyalty to the Sultan is expected, though not guaranteed. Defterdar (Treasurer) Defterdar, meaning bookkeeper, oversees the finances of the entire empire. He is responsible for collecting all the taxes and tributes, and at this crucial point, financing the siege of Constantinople. Any failure in this regard will halt the operations of the military and cause the failure of the siege. The defterdar has to keep a special eye on the regular salaries of the Janissary to prevent them from revolting. He is wary of the expenses of a potential prolonged siege of a financial capital and worries that the siege will weaken the Empire, agreeing with Omar Pasha that rapid expansion is risky and vassal states are a more secure investment. Court Calligrapher (Nisanci) The chief duty of the Court Calligrapher is to seal royal precepts. In that duty, the Calligrapher can issue official documents, a powerful responsibility. He is also the highest ranking diplomat in the Imperial Council. He knows a lot of languages and his pen is mightier than his sword. As a prominent diplomat, he has lots contacts amongst the Byzantines and other European countries. He should put his contacts to good use to prevent European Christians from rallying in favor of the Byzantines. This is not to say he is particularly zealous about Islam, or unswayed by money. The court calligrapher is never the highest paid job after all. Ibrahim II of Karaman Ibrahim Bey is the Sultan of the Karamanids, a Turkish principality in Anatolia. He controls lands in Central Anatolia and has access to the Eastern Mediterranean. He is not an Ottoman, but 20

21 Mehmed II invited him to his Court with the hopes of forming an alliance against a fellow Muslim-Turkish state against the Christian Byzantine Empire. However, Ibrahim is not loyal to the Ottomans. In the past, he allied himself with the Hungarians and the Venetians to capture key Ottoman cities. Ibrahim II has his own army and treasury, and can act independently if he so wishes. While the Karamanids are not as strong as the Ottomans on their own, Ibrahim is a good enough diplomat to make allies at crucial times. A stronger Ottoman Empire could mean the end of the Karamanids. After all, once Mehmed II is done with capturing Constantinople, he can shift his focus to Anatolia. However, even if that were to happen, it is Ibrahim s responsibility to ensure that the Ottomans do not attack the Karamanids next. Maybe Mehmed II just wants to keep his friends close and his enemies closer. Uzun Hasan of Aq Qoyunlu Another non-ottoman in the Court, Uzun Hasan is the Sultan of the Aq Qoyunlus. The Aq Qoyunlus control what is present day Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan and parts of Iraq. Mehmed II also asked him to join his Court in order to seek the support of a Turkish-Muslim country against the Ottomans. Like Ibrahim, Uzun Hasan s allegiance to the Ottomans is at best dubious. His primary goal is to ensure the continuance of the Aq Qoyunlus. It is for him to choose whether that will come through supporting Mehmed s ambitions to conquer Constantinople or to support the Byzantines and undermine Ottoman control over Anatolia and the Eastern Provinces. A powerful commander, Uzun Hasan also has a strong military that he is very capable of mobilizing. Urban As a non-muslim, Urban is not a part of the Court. Mehmed II requested Urban s help is a Hungarian artillery expert. Urban will act as the leader of military research and development for 21

22 Mehmed II s forces, which will need heavy ordnance penetrate the walls of Constantinople. It should be noted that before serving the Ottomans, Urban offered his assistance to the Byzantines, who could not afford his services. While he will not have much to say as a non-muslim, if he pleases the Sultan and can build the cannons he needs, Urban can play an important role in the conquest of this great city. As he is not Muslim, he ll be faced with suspicion from the committee, especially from the Mollas, if he is too vocal. He cannot get a permanent in the Court unless he converts to Islam. Even then, the Mollas might be suspicious of his honesty. As a devout Catholic, Urban is in it for more than money, he wishes to see the Orthodox Christian bastion fall, but he is also wary of the Islamic push into Europe. Urban must be convinced through coin and faith to finish his assignments. 22

23 CITATIONS Ehrlich, Blake. Istanbul. Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Accessed September 29, Stanford, Jay, and Michael Yapp. Ottoman Empire. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Accessed September 29, Teall, John. Byzantine Empire. Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Accessed September 29, Wikipedia Commons. Eastern Mediterranean 1450 AD. September 29, Digital Image svg/1264px-Eastern_Mediterranean_1450.svg.png.. Map of Aq Qoyunlu September 29, Ehrlich, Blake. "Istanbul." Encyclopædia Britannica. September 21, Accessed September 29,