Early Christian Missionaries up to 1800 A.D

Transcription

1 - Early Christian Missionaries up to 1800 A.D

2 83 CHAPTER II EARLY CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES UP TO 1800 A.D Christianity An Introduction Missionary activities were the extension of churches which had its earliest beginning. While looking upon the universal relevance the Christian churches to resembled that of other great missionary religions. Buddhism and Islam had also single historic founders. 1 Christians were divided among three main groups in India. They are the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Protestant church. The most ancient among them the three divisions is the eastern tradition which now comprises various groups known collectively as the followers of St. Thomas Roman Catholic came to India by the beginning of the sixteenth century where as the Protestantism entered in the eighteenth century A.D. 2 Jesus Christ was born to Jewish parents and his disciples and followers were called as apostles. His followers believed Jesus as Christ or Savior chosen to fulfill gods from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. 3 The aim of the Portuguese during the early 16 th century was mainly to win a monopoly of the immensely profitable spice trade from Asia. They desired to establish a monopoly of trade between specific local ports and to control and to tax all other traders on those routes while carrying out private 1 The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol.IX, London, 1987, p The Encyclopedia of Americana, Vol.XIV, Danbury, 1984, p The New Encyclopedia of Britannica, Vol.III, Chicago, 1986, p.280.

3 84 trade. They also wanted to have converts to Roman Catholic Christianity. 4 Roman Catholic missionaries came settled and preached in Tamil Nadu. Before that St.Thomas, the disciple of JeusChrist arrived at Kerala and came to Mylapore in Tamil Nadu. So it will be apt to have a short history on that line. In India history of Christianity may be divided into four periods namely the Syrian Period, the Roman Period, the Lutheran Period and Modern period. The oldest Christian community in India was in the state of Travancore. The Roman period began with the missionaries of the Roman church who were in India during the 13th and 14th centuries. It was only after the arrival of Vascodagama in 1498 A.D. the greatest missionaries of Roman church such as Francis Xavier, Robert D.Nobilie, Joshep Constantatius Beschi and others came and preached in Tamil Nadu and started the schools for native children. The birth of 18th century saw the beginnings of Protestant Missionary work in India. Ziegenblag and Plutchav, the two stalwarts were the first protestant missionaries. 5 4 Surjit Mansingh, Concise Encyclopedia of Indian History, Historical Dictionary of India, Delhi, 2009, p They were sent by Frederick IV of Denmark to preach the gospel in the Danish possessions in India and they arrived at Tranquebar on 9th July 1706 A.D. They were the founders of the Tranquebar Mission. Christian Frederick Schwartz was the father of the Christian church in Tanjore and Thiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu. Johan Zacharias Kiernandar assumed the responsibility of preaching the Gospel and he landed in the shore of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu on 8th of August 1740 A.D and was here upto 1799.He was the first Swedish missionary came to India. Sweden started Swedish Mission Board in 1874 for the Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, Vol.2, No.5, 2011,p.52.

4 85 missionary work. Rev.Carl Jacob Sandegren, Rev. Ernest Heuman, Rev. David Bexell, Dr. Frederick Kugelberg. Rev C.J.Sandegren, Missionary Esther Peterson, Missionary Miss. Ellen Nordmark were the prominent missionaries of the Church of Sweden Mission. During the period of two world wars the German missionaries could not serve in India because Germany was against the British. At the critical juncture Swedish missionaries carried out the mission works with great responsibility. The contribution of the missionaries in general and Swedish Christian missionaries in particular towards the abolishion of the social evils such as Sati will go permanently in the annals of the history of Tamil Nadu. 6 Francis Xavier who arrived at Goa on 6 th May, 1542, visited Tamil Country frequently. He and his companions worked in the Pearl Fishery Coast of Tuticorin, Mylapore and in other parts, preached the Gospel and planted the Catholic Church. The whole of India, including the Tamil country was part of the Goa Province, having Francis Xavier as its first Provincial, Antony Criminali ( ), Henri Henrique s ( ), Goncalo Fernandez ( ), Robert de-nobili ( ) and others were sent from Goa to Tuticorin, Madurai and other parts of the Tamilnadu to preach the Gospel and to baptize those who had faith and belief in Christ. When Robert de-nobili visited Madurai in 1606, he found it an ideal place for evangelization and conversion and so he founded a mission known as Madura Mission (1606) dependent on Goa Province for men and material. 7 After Robert de-nobili, personalities like St.John de Britto ( ) Constantine Joseph Beschi ( ) and others 6 7 Ibid.p.53. Jesuit Madurai Province - Golden Jubilee Souvenir ( ), Dindigul,. December 2002, p.39.

5 86 have worked in this mission till 1759 when all the Jesuits working in the Portuguese possessions in India were arrested and deported to Portugal by the Plot of Pombal who was against the Jesuits and on 21 st July 1773, Pope Clement - XVI suppressed the Society of Jesus in the whole world. 8 The old Madura Mission was a harbinger and a pioneer in the 17 th and 18 th Centuries, not only for the mission in India, but also for the whole society of the church. It was because of the fact that the newly founded Propaganda Fide (in 1622) not only approved the innovative methods of the Robert de-nobili, but also promoted it (in 1629) as the authentic missionary approach anywhere in the world. With reverence and respects the missionaries of other missions referred to Madurai as the Holy Madurai Mission. Thus, the Malabar Mission in Kerala, the Mysore Mission in Karnataka and the Carnatic Mission in Andhra inherited the traditions of Madurai Mission and patterned their missionary endeavours on the model of their mother, institution the Madurai Mission. 9 The Services of the Old Madura Mission in the Ramanathapuram District ( A.D) The term Marava signifies a warrior caste. It also means the people inhabiting dry and arid tracts of land. It formed the kingdom of Maravas ruled over by the Sethupathies whose capital was Ramnad (Ramanathapuram). Later in the 18 th century the region came to be divided in to three autonomous principalities under the Rajahs of Ramnad, Sivagangai and Pudukottai, Until the British brought them under their rule, 8 9 Caritas - year 95, July 2010, No. 1 & 2 Madurai Province Record,Mathew J.Moolel. S.J, St.Arulanandhar Shrine, Oriyur,p.14. Jesuit Madurai Province - Golden Jubilee Souvenir ( ), Op.cit, p.25.

6 87 the Madurai Mission annals tell us that the whole of the Marava was entrusted to a single missionary during the 17 th and 18 th centuries and it was known as the Marava Residence. Fr.James De Rossi ( ) has mentioned that he was in charge of the above mentioned three principalities. 10 The growth of the church in the Marava region centered on four District epochs. (i) (II) (III) (IV) The first period covers the years between St.Francis Xavier ( ) and the starting of the old Madurai Mission by Fr.Robert De Nobili (1606) The second period co- incised with the old Madurai Mission itself lasting from when that mission was suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. The third epoch covers the years from the suppressions of the Society of Jesus to 1838 when four Jesuits of the resurrected Society of Jesus started again their work in the Madura Mission. The fourth period lasted from 1838 to the present day. 11 With the founding of the Madurai Mission in 1606 by Robert de Nobili, a new epoch in evangelisation began in South India. Fr.Antony Proenza entered the Marava region in 1663 and converted many because he was the founder of the Malayadipatti Residence. From the time of Arch-Diocese of Madurai - origins, Development.... Nobili Pastoral centre, Madurai. p.131. Idem.

7 88 Fr.Antony Proenza to St.John de Britto who entered the Marava in 1686 there were no residential missionaries there. The Christians of the Marava areas went to Kandalur, Mullipadi or Karayambettu, all to the North of the Marava region to fulfill their Easter duties. In the year 1683 there were 4000 Christians in the Marava country. 12 That period between 1663 and 1669 was a time of exploration. Amidst skirmishes they had some initial successes and the missionaries and the new Christians suffered persecution. The mission entered into a mood of prudence that lasted for 18 years from 1669 to No missionary entered the Marava country till Fr.John De Britto revived the mood of heroism in 1686 despite the prevailing state of persecution. 13 After the cessation of missionary activity for 18 years there began an upsurge of bold and heroic offensive into the enemy camp. It lasted from the day St.John De Britto entered the Marava country till the time of Fr.James de Rossi, and with death in 1774 the Society of Jesus bowed out of existence. From 1686 persecution also came to an end. It persisted all through that epoch in some form or other except for the short period of five years when Kattathevar was on the ghadi at Ramnad. 14 During this epoch there worked in the Maravar region many stalwart missionaries and seven of whom were worthy of special notice. They are (i) (ii) St.John De Britto ( A.D) (ii) Fr.Francis Laynez ( A.D) Arch-Diocese of Madurai. Op.cit, pp Idem. The life sketch of St.Arulananthar, St.Mary s Press, Dindigul, 1647.p.5.

8 89 (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (iii) Fr.Peter Martin ( A.D) (iv) Fr.Augustine Cappelli ( A.D) Fr.Constantine Beschi ( A.D) (vi) Fr.Bertoldi ( A.D) (vii) (vii) Fr.James De Rossi ( A.D) 15 The Sanniyasi Swamis: ( A.D) The Paranghis; Paranghi is a name of ill-repute, signifying a person of low culture and spiritual level. They are accustomed to meat - eating and wine - drinking and low morality mixed freely with all castes. He was considered lower than the low casts. 16 In Madurai Paranghi meant not only a Portuguese but also anybody connected with them. Thus Christianity was called Paranghi Margam and Indian converts were also known as Paranghis. Paranghis totally disregarded Indian social customs and rules of etiquette. 17 Robert de Nobili ( ) He was born in Rome in 1577 and came to Goa in 1605 and reached Madurai. In next year, he became the founder of the Madurai Mission (MM). Later he called himself a Brahmin Sannyasi, and took the name of Tattuva Podagar (the teacher of truth) of the Satya Vadam (True Faith). In Arch-Diocese of Madurai, Op.cit, p.135. Mathew J.Moolel, Caritas - year 95, July 2010, No. 1 & 2 Madurai Province Record, Oriyur,pp Anand Amaldass, Jesuit Presence in Indian History ( ),Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, Anand, India,1987.p.303.

9 , Nobili was joined by Fr.Manual Leitao who had already been Novice Master and was an experienced missionary. He had a weak physical constitution for suitable ascetic life. So he was replaced by Fr.Andrew Buccerio. It was reported in 1611A.D that Robert de Nobili had obtained the conversion to Christianity of some 120 persons mostly Nayaks and 12 Brahmins. All were instructed in the faith, with deep personal attachment to Christ, and it was done by him by designating himself as a Brahmin Sanniyasi (Buccerio). 18 Nobili was the first European Sanskrit scholar and was also the Father of Tamil Prose with his foundational Christian literary works. In 1648 A.D he was at Mylapore to work out and almost totally blind though he continued to dictate to his disciples, He died on 1656 January 16 at Mylapore. 19 Among the religious sects the Old Madura Mission, a Jesuit Order founded by Robert De nobili is noted for its qualities of adaptation and accommodation of Hindu customs and traditions. South India was opened for Missionary activities on a large scale in the sixteenth century by the Jesuit Fathers of the Padroada or patronage system. The Jesuits utilised the political influence of the Portuguese in south India to gain the acceptance and respect of the native powers and the people.the close ties between the Portuguese and vijayanagar in the sixrteenth century assured the Jesuit fathers a safe berth in the capital of Vijayanagar. The Portugueses victories in the western coast led to the planning of cross in the eastern coast Caritas - year 95, July 2010, No. 1 & 2 Madurai Province Record - written by Fr.Mathew J.Moolel. S.J, St.Arulanandhar Shrine, Oriyur, p Micheal. S.V.L.,,Y.S.Yahoo S.J,L.Alangararaj Verkalae Villuthagiee.... Publication, Palayamkottai,2006, pp Jubilee

10 91 Like Goa, Kayal in the far South on the fishery coast figured prominently in the affairs of the Portuguese. The helplessness of the Paravars of the fishery coast against the harassment of the Arab traders drove them to become believers of the cross in 1536 A.D. 20 The insular characters of the Paravas preserved them in the new faith and they remained loyal to the Portuguese in gratitude for their deliverance. 21 Francis Xavier who was considered as the political and spiritual agent of the Portuguese on the fishery coast. He was the first Jesuit in South India to establish a commanding influence with the indigenous rulers. When Ramaraya of Vijayanagar lost his force to the south and persecuted Christians, it was St.Francis Xavier who brought the situation under control. 22 By this time the only Jesuit in Madurai was father Goncalo Fernandez. The purpose of his stay was more political than religious. He remained an agent of paravars and an interpreter of the Portuguese Government in the court of the Nayaks of Madurai. Taking advantages of the situation, the Jesuits obtained permission from the Nayak king Muthuveerappa Nayaka ( ) to build a church for the Paravars in the city of Madurai. The Nayak also permitted the Jesuits to traval to any part of his kingdom. 23 The interior of Tirunelveli and Madurai gave way for the gospel work of the missionaries. The Old Jesuit Mission of Madurai was the chief outcome of the Indian Mission (16 th Century) founded by Francis Xavier. 24 The successor of Francis Xavier in the fishery coast was Father Criminale Joseph Thekkadeth, History of Christianity in India,Vol-II,p.145. Bertrand, La Mission Du Madura,Vol-I,p.2. George Schurhammer, Francis Xavier, His Life and Times, Vol-II,pp Henry Heras, The Aravidu Dynastry,p.348. Castets.C.J.,Madura Mission,p.6.

11 92 who took up the thread where Xavier left abrubtly. Father Criminale was killed in 1548 and thus became the first martyr of the Society of Jesus in India. His successor Fr.Henriques, who became the superior of the fishery coast Mission, was the path finder of the old Jesuit Mission of Madurai. Twenty members of the Society of Jesus worked under him, Viz, seventeen Fathers and three brothers. The Fathers were distributed among other twenty two Parishes of which sixteen were in the fishery coast and six in the inland including the residence at Madurai. By 1600A.D there were more than 90,000 Christians in the twenty two Parishes. 25 Robert de Nobili ( ) piloted the mission from 1606A.D onwards. Laerzio wrote: that in the month of November 1606, when he went to visit that residence, he left their Father De Nobili with father Gonzalo Fernandez. Mainly to make him to learn the language of the court and to see whether he could find some means of opening a door for the conversion of these gentiles who are remarkable for their activity, judgment and sense of honour. 26 At a later year of his stay, Robert de Nobili by taking into account of the caste and customs of the people started two kinds of missionaries in One was intended for the high caste under the Brahmin Sanniyasis and the other part was for lower caste under the Pandaraswamis. There were only a few Brahmin Sannyasis, viz, Antony Vico, Sebastin de Maya, Emmanuel Martinz, Peter Mechado and Joseph Arcolini. The most important Pandaraswamis were Father de Costa, Proenza, de Silva, and Caldwell.R.,Political and Genral History of the Tinnevely District,p.225. Letters of Father Inerzio to General, Cochin dated ,( Jesuit Archives, Shembaganur).

12 93 Alvarez. 27 The work of De Nobili was continued by John de Britto. He believed that blood of Martyrs is the seed of Christianity. Britto was true to his belief and shed his blood to the Jesuits Mission of Madurai. 28 John de Britto, a Pandaraswamy was having working knowledge of Tamilnadu unlike the Brahmin Sanniyasis. He strongly felt that it was easier to face persecution than to manage different Christians of different castes. The time demanded separate churches for the lower castes. He therefore started a church exclusively for the outcastes, at the south of Coleroon in the Cauvery delta. Tadiya Thevar was the legal heir of Marava country more than Ragunatha Sethupathi. Here Britto wanted segregation for the betterment of the outcastes. 29 He did not want to make any compromise with regard to the basic tenets of the religion. It is proved in the case of the conversion of the Marava Prince Tadiya Thevar who had five wives. According to Christian law one should have only one wife. Hence Tadiya Thevar repudiated the four and was baptised. The Yougest wife happened to be the niece of Sethupathi. He brought all troubles that cost the life of John de Britto. John de Britto was confronted with three types of conversions on the basis of the experience of the previous missionaries. 1. Individual conversion in high castes Letters of Father Francis Laynes, Superior of Madura Mission dated 11-February,1693. Fernao Periera de Britto, Life of the Blessed John de Britto, p.3. Chandler.J.S., Op.cit,p.38.

13 94 2. Group conversion in rural castes. 3. Mass conversion in coastal areas. Of the three, Britto opted forth the second and found a tremendous success. He knew pretty well that conversion among the Brahmins did not last. It is the focal point from where Britto derivated from Nobili not by choice but by practical experience. After 47 years of toil Robert de Nobili could convert only a handful of Brahmins. Whatever Britto did become permement. The famous centres of Christianity today are due to the labour of Britto. 30 The early ministries served their best due to then existed social and political conditions of the Ramnad region. The Pandarasamis: ( ) The Pandarams were the priests of the important Vellala landlord caste and were much respected. They could deal with all castes including Brahmins. From the point of view of ascetic life, their life-style was less rigid and tasking on the physical constitution of the European missionaries. The hope of converting Brahmins in large numbers diminished. The lower caste weighed somewhat on their conscience. This vision came up with the conversion of Muthudaiyan and his baptism by Fr.Manuel Martins in 1626A.D. Muthudaiyan was a farmer. Paris a pandaram and Tamil Scholar too boost, with more than 2000 disciples. More converts were made at Tiruchirapalli and Karur, as also at Sendamangalam and Moremangalam by the efforts of Muthudaiyan and later by Fr.Balthasar da Costa Fr.Nobili obtained the approval of his religious and ecclesiastical superiors and 30 Gnanapragasam.V.M, Contibution of Beschi to Tamil, an Un published Ph.D thesis, Submitted to Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, p.34.

14 95 officially launched the new experiment in the middle of 1640A.D choosing Fr.Balthasar da Costa to be the first Pandarasami based in learner. 31 Fr.Antony de Proenza ( A.D) pioneered in the Maravaland, ruled from Ramanathapuram by the Sethupathy theoretically a suffrage of the Nayak of Madurai. Proenza formed a small community of Christians among the lower Marava caste, working from Mullaipadi and Kandalur in the neighborhood of Madurai, in spite of opposition from the local authorities. Later on, these Christians devoid of any missionary help approached Fr.John de Britto in the north of Marava land to help them. 32 Fr.John de Britto ( ) St.John de Britto (Arulananda Swami) a holy and intrepid missionary, was led by the Holy spirit even at the risk of his life to enter into the Marava land and preach the true religion and to give eternal salvation to God-hungry people knowing full well Kilavan Sethupathi ( ) was always on the look out to capture the Roman Sanniyasis who preached the new religion and if possible to put an end to thier lives. 33 The first phase of his preaching and conversion lasted from May 1686 to July Within those 2 months he baptized 3070 Hindus. As he was proceeding from Vellaikulam near Suranam to the north, he was apprehended by Kumarapillai, the Pradani of Kilavan Sethupathi, first at Maravamangalam, then at Kalaiyarkoil and finally at Paganeri. St.John and his catechists were subjected to punishments like torture, beating, laceration and what is known Fr.Mathew J.Moolel. S.J Caritas - year 95, July 2010, No. 1 & 2 Madurai Province Record, Oriyur, p.22. Ibid,p.23. Arch-Diocese of Madurai - origins, Development.... Nobili Pastoral centre, Madurai, pp

15 96 as Water-torture and finally to roasting on burning rocks bare bodies. All those were for refusing to invoke the name of Siva Sanguinary persecution ended in August of the same year by John being driven out of the Marava country by the order of the king. 34 History insured that he would have baptised nearly 8000 catechmen working night and day. He built four chapels in the Marava land the centre of his stay at Monni. They were Kurunthangudi, Monni, Ponnagudi near Thirupathur and Kannappankottai, an extinct settlement near Kottaiyur of Salaigramam Parish. It was at Kannapankottai he baptized Thadia Thevar, belonging to the royal family of the Sethupathies. That lord was cured from an incurable disease by the prayers of the Saint. At his baptism he repudiated all his wives except the first. On the bitter complaints from the last of them. Kathali by name a niece of Kilavan and egged on by the court Brahmins, the king arrested the Saint at Monni on 8 th January 1693 and put him in the dungeons of his palace. He tried his level best to make him to deny the faith, but to no avail. He could not kill him by shooting, as Thadia Thevar was at hand with a big following of his own. So helped by the cunning of his priests, the Sethupathy apparently exiled the captive from his kingdom and he was led to Oriyur at the border of the Marava land. There by a secret order of Rajah, Fr.John De Britto was beheaded on 4 th February Thus ended the life of the Saintly martyr of the Marava. First Martyrdom was followed, not by the extinction of Christianity as it was thought, but by an extraordinary growth of the Christian community by more and more conversions The life sketch of St.Arulananadar,St.Mary;s Press, Beschi College, Dindigul, 1647.p.9. Fr.Mathew J.Moolel. S.J, Caritas - year 95, July 2010, No. 1 & 2 Madurai Province Record, Oriyur, pp

16 97 Fr.Peter Martin ( A.D) Fr.Peter Martin, a French priest took charge of the Marava residence in 1708A.D. But his church and Presbytery had been plundered before his arrival and he found an idol installed on that altar. He approached and brought about such a change in him that restored all that had been stolen and gave a grand welcome. He was famous for his wonderful letters depicting the various aspects of life in the Marava religious, social, economic and cultural orders. His description of the infamous Sati ceremony forced on the 47 wives of Kilavan Sethupathi at his death in 1710A.D has been fully quoted by the writer of the Ramnad Manual. Mostly he stayed at Sarugani and surrounding region and converted nearly 20 Marava Ambalakarars around Ponnalikottai. 36 He built four churches in the Maravar areas but all were destroyed by the storm in December 1709A.D. Vijayan, the successor of Kilavan Sethupathi first seemed to be favorable to the Christian but soon started persecuting them. He allowed the Father to construct a brick church at Ponnalikottai. But when the Christian Amabalakarars refused to drag the Ther (temple car) at the temple of Thiruvehampattur, urged by the infuriated Brahmins, he ordered the newly built church to be destroyed and torturing his two catechists, imprisoned Peter Martin in the jail of Kalaiyarkovil and after 2 months released and banished him in 1711A.D. 37 In a letter written by him in 1709A.D, it is learnt that in two months he heard 6000 confessions of neophytes and baptised 1100 non-christians. In the last year of his ministry in the Maravar region he gave 1708 baptisms and his catechists Idem. Idem.

17 98 were 300. Forced by ill health he left Marava land in 1711 and later went to Rome where he died. 38 Fr.Joshep Constantine Beschi ( ) As known by his literary name Veeramamunivar (Fr.Joshep Constantine Beschi). Beschi labored primarily as a Missionary (Pandarasami) stationed at Tiruchirapalli and Elakurichi and at Amabalakad (near Kochi) where he was buried. At the time of his Ministry, Madurai was ravaged by raids and counter raids of rival chieftains. He was a friend of Chanda Sahib, the Mogul General and Lord of Tiruchirapalli, confined to his residence for long periods. He gave himself to studying and writing in Tamil. He also undertook dialogue with Hindus and Muslims, as well as with Lutheran Christians active around Tranquebar (Tarangampadi) on the east coast. Beschi also collected the materials for the cause of the sainthood of John de Britto. In 1746 he was visitor of the Madurai Mission. 39 Beschi (Veeramamunivar) wrote many epic poems in Tamil, teaching the Christian religion also religious polemical works. Grammar, Dictionaries and even local medical material chief of his compositions is the epic Thembavani - a life of St.Joseph (his own patron) that narrative presents the whole history of salvation, the old and new Testaments, in 36 cantos, 3615 strophes Arch-Diocese of Madurai, Op, cit, p.138. Ibid,p.27. Ibid, pp

18 99 Fr.Bertoldi (1730) Fr.Charles Bertoldi (Avoor Gnanapragasiar Swami) was the missionary of the Avoor Residence. For eight years before 1730 no missionary could step into the Marava land as there was a fierce civil war regarding succession to its throne. Kattathevar a rightful heir to the throne in Marava and Sasivarna Thevar of Sivaganga the legitimate occupant of that principality were driven out of their kingdom by a usurper. These two princes went to Tanjore to elicit that king s help. On their way they met in Trichy. Fr.Bertoldi hearing the tale of woe from the two fugitives, he blessed them and as in a prophecy he told them that they would get back their thrones. As events proved Katta Thevar and Sasivarna Thevar got back their kingdoms. 41 When on the throne, Katta Thevar proved a veritable patron of the missionaries and of Christianity. It was a bright dawn for the church. Christians were allowed to build churches in the Marava land and where the missionary wanted them. Suranam Church had its origin at that time. 42 Christian religion was allowed to be preached in the Marava area and the Christians breathed freely and thanked the Lord.The two kings were not ungrateful to the prophetic missionary of Avoor. He was invited to the palace of Sivaganga and Ramnad and a right royal reception was given to Fr.Bertoldi who was the guest of the Ramnad Rajah for a full fortnight. The days of Katta Thevar were indeed a glorious chapter in the annals of the Marava Christianity. Alas! Katta Thevar reigned only for five years and died in the year 1735 to the bitter grief of the Christians Ibid,p.139. Idem. Caritas - Madurai Province Record (for Private circulation only) year -95, January & July , No. 1 & 2 - p.28.

19 100 Fr.James De Rossi ( ) Fr.James De Rossi (Sinna Savarier) was the greatest next to John De Britto, and the last missionary of the old society in the Marava. The anti- Christian forces that were kept down during the previous five years, started to raise their ugly heads soon after Katta Thevar and SasivarnaThevar who died in 1740A.D. 44 The persecution was renewed by Ministers and other minor officials in the administration, Fr.De Rossi founded strong Christian centres at Sarugani and Suranam. He ministered to the three principalities of Ramnad, Sivaganga and Aranthangi. He was the founder of Sarugani village on a land obtained from the Raja of Sivagangai and built the most beautiful church in the whole of Marava region, whose front façade is extant upto this day. Conversions and administration of the sacraments went upto thousands every year. He was a great devotee of St.Francis Xavier with whose blessed water he wrought countless miracles and got thousands of temporal and spiritual favours for Christians and non-christians alike, Common people called him Sinna Saveriar as his zeal was similar to that of St.Francis Xavier. In the midst of his laborious apostolate, he wrote spiritual treaties and sermons on palmyra leaf called Olais and distributed copies to them and to all the churches in the Marava region. It was those treatises read in those churches every day that kept up the faith of the Marava Christians during the fifty years when the Marava as well as the other parts of the Madura Mission were deprived of missionaries due to the suppression of the Society of Jesus Idem. Arch-Diocese of Madurai, Op.cit, p.140.

20 101 These olai treatises have been collected and are preserved at Sarugani. He passed to his eternal reward in 1774A.D when the decree of Rome suppressing the Society of Jesus had not reached the Madura Mission. His monumental tomb is in a fine state even today. It was visited by innumerable pilgrims from all parts of the Marava land for getting favours through his intercession. The second centenary of the saintly missionary was celebrated in a fitting manner in October 1974, in Sarugani by Fr.M.Arulanandam who spared no money or labour and was presided over by Archbishop P.J.Diraviam. 46 The Pariah Swamis ( ): The Jesuits were bent on obedience to the Pope. The Papal Bull of 1744 itself gave the vague hint of the possible way out of the impasse in the conversion caused by caste restriction in the Madurai mission; this was the establishment of a separate mission for the Pariahs. So then some of the Pariahs were the lowest of the low castes. Those new type of missionaries are called the Paraih-samis. 47 Dark night of the Madura Mission: Madura Mission which grew from strength to strength during the period of Robert de Nobili, John de Britto and James de Rossi, received a fatal blow in the suppression of the Society of Jesus. In 1759A.D all Jesuits were expelled from Portugal and its colonies. In 1773 this suppression was extended to the whole world. In 1775 the brief suppression issued by Pope Clement-XIV was communicated to the Indian Missions. The few Jesuits Idem. Caritas - Madurai Province Record (for Private circulation only) year -95, January & July , No. 1 & 2 pp,

21 102 missionaries found that they were either incorporated in their respective diocese or worked jointly with the fathers of the foreign mission of Paris. 48 Thus the dedicated and selfless work of the earlier missionaries and their successors to the Tamil region began to bear fruit now. The church in the Tamil region an acculturated church. It provides many missionaries to different Dioceses in India. All the same, it has its own problems. A survey conducted by the centre for Socio- Religious Research of the Catholic University of Louvain in the Tamil region reveals that At present, the work of conversion has quite diminished, if not altogether stopped. The main and the more general reason for this have to be found in the process of institutionalisation, which is affecting as well the mentalities of the organisations or the institutions 49 In the old mission, there were many acute problems from its inception upto the suppression of the society. Caste system, Malabar rites, the problems of adaptation, and inculturation, open persecution, want of personnel (missionaries and catechist),financial difficulties, political instability, frequent wars and famine, Protestantism, the antagonism of Hindu leaders like brahmins, yogis, pandarams, opposition from within the form of controversies, etc. were some of the problems it faced. But none of them perhaps has been so serious and as persistent as the The annual letter from the Malabar Province most touchingly says of them: Go faithful companions of Christ. March along the royal road of the cross, where in Christ your king and model precedes you. You are the dregs of humanity but the Society of Jesus regards you as her noblest glory and this province of Malabar looks upon you, as her most precious ornament. You are isolated: to all appearances, you are strangers to your brethrens and unknown to the children of your own mother. But be not dismayed. Repeat with St.Paul, You are great and honored, we are little and dis- honorable and you will draw tears from their eyes, and you will force them to envy you! Not much more is known to us about these most precious dregs of humanity brilliant with magnificent love of Christ. Augustine Kanjamala, Integral Miison Dynamics, (An Interdisciplinary Study of the Catholic Church in India), Intercultural Publications, New Delhi, 1995, p.68.

22 103 problem of breaking through the barrier of Hindu prejudice against the gospel. In the new mission it was the padroado problem, which questioned the very existence of the mission. Protestant Missionaries in Ramanathapuram District The story of the growth of Protestantism in South India is one of obstinacy of caste Hindus. The heroic perseverance in the eyes of Christians had dependence on churchman or statesman, because they had not been decisively aided by the Church of England and by the official of the British Empire. Otherwise it would have succeeded in establishing churches and communities of Protestant believers. 50 Among the Protestant nations, Danes were the first to preach the gospel to the people of India. Catholic missionaries from Portugal and France had already founded several churches in Southern India by the time of First Danish Protestant evangelical group arrived. Working within the small settlement, Tranquebar, on the south eastern coast, the Danish Missionaries concisously strove to bring the blessings of Protestant Christianity within thier own religious obligations.in the year At the instigation of Dr.Lutkens, Chaplain to the King of Denmark, two young Germans Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Henry Plutchau, were sent to the Danish settlement of Tranquebar. 51 The Society for the Propogation of Christian Knowledge (S.P.C.K) was established 1698 in England by Dr. Thomas Bray, a Christian priest Yesudass. R.N.,The History of the London Missionary Society in Travancore, ,p.1. Sherring.M.A.,The History of Protestant Missions in India, London, 1971, p.1.

23 104 Four people supported him for the development of this movement. They were Hook, Guilford, Colonal Colchester, and Humphrey Mack Worth. The aims of the S.P.C.K were 1.To develop education in England and other countries through the establishment of schools and free education system. 2.To spread the knowledge of the Christianity among the Inland and foreign countries. In 1701A.D, the Society for the Propagation of Gospel (S.P.G was established with the support of the Anglican traditional people. 52 by Dr.Thomas Bray, Bishop Kantar Pari was in charge of both of these movements. Dr.Thomas Bray was the back bone of these movements and worked as a member of Jesus Christ in the United State of American countries.the aims of the S.P.G: 1. To preach the Gospel works to English people in inland and abroad. 2. To spread the good messages among the Non-Christians. There were 60 Pastorates and 1000 Missionaries in India. After 1811, they could enter to India directly. 53 Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church (TELC) The first Protestant Missionary to India was Rev.Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg from Germany, who dedicated himself for the upliftment of poor and for removal of untouchability and caste hierarchy. He was a catalyst in Daniel Manohar.S., Services of S.P.G for three hundred years and the Schwartz, Diocese of Madurai- Ramnad, Madurai, 2001, p.3. Ibid., p.4

24 105 promoting Tamil culture both India and outside India. His contribution to Tamil Literature is worth mentioning. 54 The Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church has celebrated the 300 th year of its founding. The event marks the 300 th anniversary of the arrival of Bartholemaeous Ziegenbalg, sent by king Frederick-IV of Denmark to Tarangambadi. 55 Along with his preaching of the gospel and pastoral ministry none could have fulfilled a multifaceted mission as linguist, Tamil scholar, translator, ideologist and a great social reformer. He learnt Tamil within eight months of his arrival on the shores of Tranqubar. 56 The services and mission works TELC has done for much for the region since 14 th January The TELC had the privilege to participate in God s mission despite so many challenges during these past years. The continued faithfulness and proclaiming the Gospel of Jesus Christ to all people the basic and fundamental purpose of the church. The gospel and the church itself belonged to God and the mission. 57 The important Tranquabar Missionaries Bartholomew s Ziegenbalg, Heinrich Pluetchau, Christian Frederick Schwartz, Johann Philipp Fabricius, Kohlhoff, A.F.Kammerer, Daniel Schreyvogel and Aaron, (the first Indian Pastor) and others.for several reasons, they were distinguished and unique in the history of Protestant Mission worldwide. This mission has made a significant contribution to nation building by continuing and Tranquebar Mission, Tercentenary Souvenir ( ) Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church Tiruchirapalli, p.1. E.R.Hambey S.J., History of Christianity in India, Vol III, The Church History Association of India,Bangalore,1997,p.118. Tranquebar Mission Tercentenary Souvenir, Op.cit, p.45. Samuel Ayyar.N, History of the Tranquebar Mission in Tamil, A.D , Vepery, Madras, 1955, p

25 106 strengthening the educational and vocational programmers and social and health services initiated 300 years ago by Bartholomaeus Zieganbalg, 58 The holistic approach that he evolved as a pioneer missionary continues to be remarkable even today. Ziegenbalg shone and continued to shine in many spheres of life by bringing new hopes among the downtrodden and the oppressed in the society. 59 The evangelical zeal, the bi-product of reformation contributed much to the establishment of many missionary organisations. Among the Protestant Missions the Lutherans were pioneers to reach India. The Danish Halley Mission was the first german Lutheran Protestant Mission which arrived in India in 1612A.D 60 They concentrated more on the study of Tamil Language to understand the condition of the people and for the effective propagation of Gospel. Bartholomew Ziegenbalg translated the New Testament and parts of the Old Testament, established a Congregation of 250 baptised Christians, and constructed the New Jerusalem Church and maintained cordial relation with Hindus in the adjoining areas before his death in The successor C.F.Schwartz carried the gospel work to Tanjore, Tiruchirapalli and Tirunelveli during his long missionary career Lucas. Fr.,,Christianity in South India,Annie Joshep Publication House, Trituapuram,Kuzhithurai,p.76. Daniel Manohar.S., Op.cit, p.6-8. Hough Pearson, Memories of Schwartz, Vol-I,p.168. Zorn.H.M., Much Cause for Joy and Some for Learning,p.6.

26 107 Contribution of Christian Friedrich Schwartz ( ) Christian Friedrich Schwartz born in Prussia in 1726A.D, ordained in Copenhagen in 1749A.D, arrived in India in 1750 as a Lutheran missionary. He worked at Tranquebar, Trichinopoly, and Tanjore, for forty-eight years without returning to his native Prussia. While in India, Schwartz learnt Tamil, Telugu, Sanskrit, Persian, Hindustani, Marathi, and Portuguese and he assisted translation of the Bible into Tamil. Schwartz was benefited by the works of numerous missionaries including two eminent German predecessors, Bartholomew s Ziegenbalg ( ) and Heinrich Plutschau ( ). Both these missionaries came from the Pietism Tradition at the University of Halle, where Schwartz had studied Theology, Hebrew Greek, Latin, and various European languages. Schwartz s indirect influence on Carey occurred through the administrative protection of Carey by Colonel Bye, the Danish Governor of Serampore. Prior to Carey s arrival in India, Bye had been disciple of Schwartz. When Schwartz arrived at South India, the Tamil-speaking Christian community established by Zeigenbalg and others had exceeded seventeen hundred persons. 62 He later served as a Chaplain-missionary to the British Community in India, and in 1767, he was sponsored by the Anglican Society for the Promoting Christian Knowledge, London. In 1768, the East India Company appointed Schwartz as a Chaplain in Trichonopoly. Ten years later in 1778, Schwartz moved to Tanjore where he spent the rest of his life. During his service with the British, Schwartz was known as a Peacemaker (i.e., 62 G.H.Lamb.G.H., Memoir of C.F.Schwartz,The Christian Literature Society For India, Madras, 1948, p.2-5.

27 108 diplomat) during times of war caused by the East India Company s aggressive policies in India. Schwartz s linguistic abilities became legendary as he related easily among Germans, English, Portuguese, and many different Indian peoples. He endeared himself to be an Indian as he established many schools for native Indians and orphaned Indian children. At his death in 1798, the East India Company erected a monument honoring Schwartz in St.Mary s Church, Madras. 63 Swartz and Raja s of Tanjore: Schwartz s relation to Tulaji Rajah of Tanjore, whom Schwartz befriended, should also be recognized.when Tulaji Rajah died, Schwartz became the Raja-guru (i.e., protector and regent) for Serfoji, the adopted son of Tulaji. In 1787, the Madras authorities recognized Serfoji Maharaj, the ruling king of Tanjore ( ). As Serfoji grew, he acknowledged Schwartz as a God father, and at Schwartz s death in 1798, Serfoji received Schwartz s final blessing for equitable rule, protection of Tamil Christians, and peace from God. 64 Due to Schwartz s memorial service, Serfoji composed and read an eulogy in English; he also erected a monument to Schwartz in Christ Church, Tanjore. Schwartz won the admiration of Hindus, Muslims, and European settlers in India. Schwartz as the apostle to South India after which Carey became the apostle to North India. At the time of his death, Schwartz was effective in gaining over six thousand Indian converts both Hindus and Muslims to Christianity. Following below is an extract of Daniel Manohar.S., Op.cit,p.15. Centenary Souvenir, ( ) of C.S.I. Trichy-Thanjavur, Diocese,Thanjavur, 2000, p

28 109 Schwartz s 1787 supporting essay on Christian missions to the heathen. His essay originally appeared in Report of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, for the year 1787, The Panoplies and Missionary Magazine published in Boston, Massachusetts to contain detials. 65 Monuments to C.F.Schwartz, (c A.D) Christian Frederick Schwartz ( ) was known for his various public and diplomatic services during his stay in Tanjore as a missionary and English Chaplain. In his memory the Raja of Tanjore and the Madras Government erected monuments in Tanjore and the church of St.Mary s in Fort St.George, Madras, respectively. 66 Schwartz on Casteism in Ramanathapuram, (1787) The question of the relationship between the traditional caste structures and the practice of the Christian church was an important issue in Tanjore, Ramanathapuram and Tranquebar Protestant churches during the eighteenth century. Schwartz had to deal with this problem frequently. Due to the caste distinction which arose due to the intercourse between natives of different castes, even after their conversion to that divine religion, the men and women of the higher caste sat on the one side of the church, and on the other, those of the lower. Rev.Schwartz carefully avoided all unnecessary restraint, and met with difficulties. The country priests and catechists were generously belonging to one of the higher castes Lamb.G.H, Op.cit.,pp M.K.Kuriakose, History of Christianity in India: Source Materials, United Theological College, The Christian literature society, Bangalore, 1995, p.82. Ibid.p.69.

29 110 In the interior parts of the country, such intercourses were not so easy. Schwartz was invited to the house of a heathen of the higher caste. The Paraiyar catechist came to an opinion that the people of the higher caste, had not learnt to be humble: they were proud sinners- yet one should must bear with them. Thus they were not willing to admit, and accordingly showed kindness to the catechist. 68 Rev.G.Billing: The period of Rev.G.Billing ( ) was an important period in this district.after Rev.G, Billing had come to Ramanathapuram in 1873, the place got momentum as he had started missionary work, and it was done without minding missionary work done up to him. Within one year of his arrival, he converted the S.P.G school into a Matriculation school. Rev.G.Billing after his arrival at Ramanathapuram in 1873, bought Singara Thoppu. To buy this Rev.Henry the Pope and Dr.Strachan were helpful. In the same year the Varavani land and Raja Singamangalam land were bought. In 1875, in the church campus a girl s school and a boy s hostel were built at SingaraThoppu. By this initiation the church at Ramanathapuram was fully constructed. In 12 th January 1856, it was blessed by the Arch-Bishop of Madras. The collection of preaching the gospel has increased in this area. According to the Diary of Rev.G.Billing for the year , there were four sections. They were Idem. Vedamanickam.J. Missionary Work Carried by S.P.G. Missionaries, C.S.I.Madurai- Ramnad Diocese, Madurai, p.16&17.

30 111 Table No.1 Sections of Preaching the Gospel Work S. No Name of the branches supervisors vill-ages volun-teers Chris-tians bap-tized apos-tles liter-ates schools 1 Ramanatha -puram S.Devasahayam Kilanjunai Gnanayutham Rajasingamangalam Pamban island Abraham J.D.Martin The number of people interested to take baptism also increased due to natural calamities. Therefore Rev.Swami Dhas was sent to Vavani village to deal with 1156 Christians and were ready to convert. 70 In this way in 1879, Vavani also became an important Christian centre. Rev.G.Billing has come to know that only through education, preaching of the Christianity and conversions activities would be possible. Therefore he started number of schools.the congregation centre was developed. The most hard work and efforts of Rev.Schwartz and Rev.G.Billing were for the success of missionary and growth of the pastorates centre. The foreign and inland disabled have worked hard for the development of services. Rev.J.A.Shand in his book, South Indian Mission has written about Rev.G.Billin given below. He says, among the missionaries sent by 70 Ibid, p.18.

31 112 S.P.G.-Mission Rev.Billing has performed well as well as Rev.Coldwell. He knows well about the people as well as the ways to attract them. In the spot itself he could preach in Tamil. He had the capacity to attract others by his speech. He has dedicated his life for the development of churches in Ramanathapuram. Due to his long journey of missionary wok his health was affected. Then he left Ramanathapuram and went to his mother land and he died in the year For twenty years from 1896 Rev.A.D.Limbrick and his mother had renderedadmirable spiritual works in Ramanathapuram. As pointed out by Rev.Shakak during the period of Rev.Limbrick, there were 3563 baptized Christians and 1000 volunteers lived there. 72 Services of the American Madura Mission (AMM) Having established the context of mission in the theological musicological Elimate of North America and explored official theories of the Boston Board through the articulation of various foreign Corresponding Secretaries, they turned to specify location of Madurai. The North Americans were not the first missionaries to choose Madurai as a site of Christian work. Roman Catholic missionaries had been in Madurai since sixteenth century, along with a sizable number of Roman Catholic Indians when the Americans arrived in A year after the Jesuits were formed in 1540 A.D, Francis Xavier visited the coast of what is now Tamil Nadu Idem. Vedamanickam.J., op.cit, p.19. Mary Schaller Blaufuss-Changing Goals of the American Madura Mission in India, , vol,133, p.82,peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main Berlin-Bern Bruxelles, New York- Oxford.

32 113 Jesuits Robert de Nobili had already founded the Roman Catholic Madurai Mission in 1606A.D, that Rajah Rishi used methods of cultural adaptation to identify the high castes and draw them into Christianity. 74 Ignatius Hirudayam has pointed out that Robert de Nobili respected the Brahmins for their knowledge of their scriptures and was happy to discuss with them and learn from them while communicating to them what he had. 75 In 1619A.D, a conference on de Nobili s methods was held in Goa. Although the majority of participants voted against de Nobili, the Grant Inquisitor of Portugal, who later received the transcript of the proceedings, ruled that de Nobili had the stronger case. In 1623A.D, the new Pope Gregory XV, provisionally approved de Nobili s methods in the Apostolic Constitution, Romance Sedis Antistites. Soon after de Nobili s death in 1656A.D the mission discontinued these methods. The Roman Catholic mission remained until 1773, when Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Jesuit order as a whole. Pope Pius VII restored the Jesuit order in 1814, but French Jesuits did not arrive back in Madurai until Protestant missionaries and native Christians worked in the Madurai before the North Americans arrived, leaving both Lutheran and Anglican influences. In 1705, the king of Denmark sent two Lutherans from Halle, Germany, Henry Plutchau and Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, to found the Royal Danish Mission in tranquebar.the English Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge Rajamanickam.S. The Old Madurai Mission: A Chronological Table, Indian Church History Review 21(December 1987) p.130. Ignatius Hirudayam, Christianity and Tamil Culture, The Dr. S. Rathakrishnan Institute for Advanced Study in Philosophy (Madras: University of Madras, 1977), p.15. Ibid, p.82.