Notes on Chancel Screens in Some Romanesque and PreRomanesque Churches

Transcription

1 Notes on Chancel Screens in Some Romanesque and PreRomanesque Churches Introduction The architectural plans of churches have almost always been designed to meet the liturgical requirements for the church. As with most things in life these requirements have been modified down the ages as the Church s perceptions of the forms of liturgy were altered. For example, in the Middle Ages significant emphasis was given to processions. Around the same time the Benedictine movement led by the formidable monastic power of Cluny gave impetus to the development and sustainment of the great pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostella. The need to accommodate processions and to allow the flow of pilgrims resulted in architectural innovations to the larger churches. Narthexes, wider side aisles and ambulatories with radiating chapels were all visual structural modifications to architectural forms that had existed hitherto. Another development that has earlier roots was the chancel screen. In Britain in the late Middle Ages screens of wood or iron were frequently erected across the East end of the nave to divide the nave from the chancel, and thus the laity and general public from the choir. Such screens in Britain are usually termed a Rood Screen. Similarly there remain some Romanesque churches that have retained the twelfth century wrought iron railings that similarly provided a physical barrier between nave and choir. (1) These notes will not be considering either of these forms of screen. Instead they will focus on the stone screens. St Andrew s Backwell Chancel screen (left) Coustouges, Rousillon Choir grille (right) Roman Origins 1

2 When, in the mid IV century, Emperor Constantine permitted the Christians to practice their religion in public it paved the way for the Roman Empire to adopt Christianity as the religion of the state. That transition took place over time. Christianity did not arrive in Rome with a new plan for its places of worship; it adopted and gradually adapted the prevailing form of building used for religious purposes. This was the basilica, a rectangular building that had a central aisle or aisles with side aisles that might be of a similar size as the central aisle or they might be narrower. Such buildings had been in use as public buildings in the Roman Empire since the II century BC. Overlooking the Forum area of Historic Rome stands the remains of the basilica that was begun by Emperor Maxentius in AD 308 and which was completed by his successor, Constantine four years later. When built it was used as a council chamber and courts. Statues of gods were placed in bays set into the walls and at one end of the basilica there was a huge statue of Constantine. Basilica of Emp. Maxentius, Rome Showing remainder of North aisle and floor plan In the V century Christians began to construct basilicas as their places of worship. Remarkably, two survive in much of the original form, Sant Sabina and San Clemente, whilst several others have been completely rebuilt following their destruction over the centuries; the best known is St Peter s at the Vatican. Santa Sabina Interior 2

3 It would appear that at first there was no physical barrier between clergy and laity in the churches. Then in the Vth century new architectural features were introduced to separate the choir and chancel from the nave. In some instances the choir and chancel were raised above the level of the nave. An example is the VIII century Roman church of San Giorgio al Velabro. The choir was occupied by the schola of choristers. Another feature was the introduction of the the templon which was to be generally adopted in Byzantine churches. The templon was initially a low barrier similar to the Communion rails that are found in many present day small Anglican churches. A pluteus is very similar, being a low screen between columns that surround a choir. Those people in the nave continued to have a largely unobstructed view of the area around the altar. Since that early beginning the templon in many Orthodox churches has become more elaborate so that the altar is frequently obscured by the screens which are covered with icons; (these screens are known as iconostasis). In a museum in Jerusalem there are two panels from chancel screens. One is from Hamet Gader on the Golan Heights and has a Menorah, indicating that it was from a synagogue; the other is from a church at Massuot Yizhak in the Negev and it has a large cross. Both have been dated to the V or VI centuries. The museum notes record: For centuries, Jews, Christians, and the followers of other creeds lived side by side in the Land of Israel. The daily contact among these groups found expression both in their spiritual worlds and in the objects they used. Building methods and burial customs showed a marked resemblance, as the same masons and artisans served members of all religions, creating a stylistic unity in decorative motifs. Sometimes only the most important symbols, such as the menorah or the cross, make it possible to determine the religious affiliation of the inhabitants of the buildings or users of objects... Chancel screens are among the best examples of the similarities between church and synagogue furnishings. Sometimes, the panels from different houses are so similar to one another that we can assume that they were made in the same workshop. Chancel screens from Hamet Gader, Golan (left) and Massuot Yizhak, Negev (left) The Byzantine Empire retained a firm foothold in the lower Po basin which included Ravenna. The VI century churches of Ravenna with their inspiring mosaics attest to the richness and vitality of their art. From the church of Sant Apollinare several fragments 3

4 and panels from the chancel screen have survived. These serve to confirm that the liturgical requirements of the Eastern Church calling for the installation of these screens were relevant in this outpost of the Byzantine Empire. The symbolism of the two peacocks is derived from the preceding pagan symbolism of the Roman Empire. Sant Apollinare, Ravenna Three VIc panels from a chancel screen The Christians at Rome began to add a low screen across the West side of the altar. This may have been the result of Byzantine influence. Additionally, in basilicas the area used by the choir was also enclosed in a similar low screen. This additional area was at the East end of the central nave. Further East towards the outer wall of the apse was a presbyterium and beyond it was the sanctuary with the altar. This was the focus for the ritual of the Mass or celebration of the Last Supper. It was here that the bishop, priest or abbot celebrating Mass occupied a space containing the table or altar. This arrangement may still be seen in the basilicas of San Clemente and Santa Sabina. In the early years of Christianity the celebrant faced the faithful; this was to change towards the VI/VIII centuries, with the change taking place at different times according to the region. In the last century the practice has been reversed again, with the celebrant facing the faithful. 4

5 San Giorgio al Velabro, Rome (left) San Clemente, Rome (right) In both of these there is a low screen across the front of the altar and around the choir; the choir is set at the end of the nave so that there is an enclosure that is of similar height to that of the altar screen. These screens comprise a number of sculptured marble panels. The panels have several different designs some of which are repeated. Some of the motifs are overtly Christian with large and small crosses. Others have motifs that come from antiquity: birds, interlaced patterns, leaves and bunches of grapes. These came with a pagan symbolism that was frequently adopted by the Christian church. These all have Lombard influence and the Lombards on the whole did not use figures, let alone biblical scenes in their sculpture. Some of the panels on the screens in San Clemente are possibly Romanesque; others date from the rebuild that was carried out in the Renaissance. 5

6 Santa Sabina Four panels from choir screen San Clemente Right side of choir screen This compartmentalising of the space at the East end of a church is well illustrated by the positioning of mosaics in a church where there is no screen. At the church of Notre Dame at Ganagobie, in Provence there are two mosaics. One, the larger is in the presbyterium, whilst the smaller mosaic is in the sanctuary. The delineation between the two spaces is made by means of a shallow step. 6

7 Ganagobie Mosaics in the East end The Museo Nazionale dell Alto Medeoevo in Rome has several fragments of chancel screens. There are many similar examples from the VI to VIII centuries that survive as fragments in other museums in Italian cities. These fragments are also decorated with the now familiar motifs of birds, flowers, foliage and interlace. Somewhat surprisingly several museums have examples of panels that show a pair of griffins drinking from a chalice; the griffin was a pre-christian symbol of eternity; it is probable that it was used by paleo-christian sculptors who had not understood the pagan symbolism fully. 7

8 Museo Nazionale dell Alto Medeoevo, Rome Four IXc fragments of chancel screens 8

9 Cimitile Paleo-Christian panel (left) Bobinaco Paleo-Christian panel (right) The Patriarchal Basilica in Aquileia, which dates from the IV century but was rebuilt in the XI century, has both a raised choir and elements of a choir and chancel screen. The present raised area of the choir shows signs of being rebuilt in modern times but it reflects that ancient concept of the separation of nave and choir. The screen fragments are to one side and may not be in their original place. The screen has been decorated with motifs that stem from the same sources of inspiration as those at Santa Sabina, in Rome. So we see the traditional interlace, animals, birds and plant elements. But the grouping of a central crucifix and interlace patterns was decorative combination that was familiar across those parts of pre-romanesque Christendom where skilled sculptors practised their art. Patriarchal Basilica, Aquileia Choir (left) and screen (right) 9

10 Aquilea Two panels of the screen Though in origin the pluteus was a development of the Byzantine templon, the use of a pluteus would seem to have been widely used in churches across Italy, including those that were not within the Byzantine sphere of influence. For example, Ventimiglia has a number of fine fragments including one panel that is incorporated into the base of the main altar in the Cathedral. The fragments date from the VIII century. Excavations of the former church of Sant Anastasio, in Asti, brought to light two VIII century fragments from a chancel screen. One, a short pillar has vine patterns, whilst the other has an elaborate interlace pattern. It is noticeable that the variety of motifs used in all these screens is not great; we do not know whether there was a small list of motifs that were considered acceptable or whether there was no conception of having a greater variation in the motifs employed. An exception is a small fragment at Ventimiglia that has the outline of a candelabrum. This motif is unusual in a Christian place of worship. We cannot be sure of the context for this fragment. 10

11 Ventimiglia Two VIIIc fragments of a screen 11

12 Sant Anastasio, Asti Two sides of a pillar and a fragment of a chancel screen, both VIIIc 12

13 Ventimiglia baptistery Fragment with candelabrum In the fine Swiss church of Romainmotier there is large sculptured VII century slab that is now used as the front for a lectern; it may well have been used differently in the pre- Romanesque church. This slab is a fine example of the decorative skills of the craftsmen of that period. At Martigny, nearby to Romainmotier, a small fragment of a chancel screen was found and is now in the local museum. It is decorated with an interlace pattern. The passage of architectural style from Northern Italy and the Como area in particular through Switzerland to what is now Burgundy and the Rhone valley is well known; the presence of these screens suggests that their use was also carried North from Italy by travelling masons. In the basilica of Sant Ambrogia, Milan, two panels from a chancel screen survive and have been placed in the South chapel. 13

14 Romainmotier VIIc lectern Sant Ambrogia, Milan - Screen A similar example was at Cividale. The panels are now located in a local museum and in the Metropolitan, New York. The screen is from the VIII century. As with the others that we have seen, it was decorated with motifs of birds and interlace. Additionally one panel has a large cross beside what resembles the outline of an oil lamp with a rose-like chrism. Cividale Two screen panels The final examples from Italy are from the church at Moriondo, near Chieri and are from the VIII century. (They are now in a museum in Turin). The decoration on both is of interlace patterns with florets. The decoration in almost all these examples from Italy has interlace, frequently as the main form of artistic expression. 14

15 Moriondo two VIIIc fragment of a chancel screen The more common forms of motif used on screens were geometric and vegetative until the XI century when the liturgical requirements no longer placed emphasis on the need for such screens and most were removed. The museum of Reggio Emilia contains an example of one of the later fragments decorated with flower heads and grapes. However, animals and birds were also included from time to time. It is interesting that the motif of the peacock was used on several screens. It seems to have gone out of favour as a decorative motif from the end of the XI century; it is rarely seen in Romanesque sculpture. Reggio Emilia XIc fragment (left) Torcello, Veneto XIc pluteo (right) 15

16 Pavia museum Pluteo of Theodote, VIIIc The Iberian Experience The Visigoths, who conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the V century, were Christian but they had adopted the Arian rite. During the course of their three centuries of rule they developed a distinctive form of church architecture (2).The Visigoth churches were small buildings, but frequently the plan of the basilica was employed. The remainder had a cruciform plan. The interiors were usually constructed so as to create small pockets that served their liturgical requirements to keep clergy and laity separate and also, where applicable, to separate priests from deacons. Thus there were many with chancel screens and even a barrier at the chancel. An example is to be seen at the VII century chapel of São Gião de Nazaré, in Portugal North of Lisbon. Here there is a barrier which provides very restricted access to the sanctuary area and which would have hidden the activity around the altar from the laity in the nave. 16

17 São Gião de Nazaré, Portugal Plan and chancel barrier from nave Such screens were used in most churches in Spain that date from the VI and VII centuries. The liturgical requirement for them seems to have existed in the coastal belt of Southern France; the Musée Lapidaire at St Guilhem-le-Désert has on display a substantial number of fragments of a chancel screen. At Algezares, just South-east of Murcia, there once stood a VI century basilica that had a fine chancel screen. Fragments of this and the bases of columns from the same building are now in the Museum at Murcia. Amongst the motifs are small spirals that resemble those to be seen on Iberian pottery that dates from the IV to I centuries BC and which are to be found at many sites across Spain. The same pattern was to be used by the XII century workers creating wrought-iron screens across choirs and reinforcing on the doors in the Eastern Pyrenees (1). Algezares, now in Murcia Fragment of VIc chancel screen Algezares, now in Murcia VIc column base Murcia VIc BC Iberian jug 17

18 At Santa Cristina de Lena, built in the mid IX century and generally considered to be the Asturian church with the most Visigoth characteristics, there are the remains of a finely sculptured chancel screen; this screen was probably first used in another church as it has been cut down to fit here at Santa Cristina. The position of the screen within the arch at the entrance to the chancel confirms the retention of the Visigoth concept of separating the nave and the laity from the sanctuary area and the clergy. The sculpture is reminiscent of the style seen at San Miguel de Escalada on the tympanum (a former chancel screen) and on fragments of screen that remain in the church at the two side chapels. Sta Cristina de Lena Looking East over the transept (left) and chancel screen (right) San Miguel de Escalada Tympanum in South gallery and side chapel By interesting coincidence elements of an Ottonian screen have been re-employed as a tympanum on the North door to the church at Albenga, in the Italian Liguria. It would not have looked out of place at San Miguel de Escalada, so similar are the styles of these reused fragments in the widely separated churches. The archeological museum in Seville 18

19 has fragments of chancel screens the date from the VI to VII centuries that have similar motifs. Albenga, Italy Tympanum over North door The screen at Santa Cristina de Lena that is illustrated above has a decorated pillar that is not dissimilar to those incorporated into the screens at San Clemente, Rome and at Aquilea and in the Museo Nazionale dell Alto Medeovo, Rome; in the latter the pillars were no longer with the screen panels. Spain provides similar examples that are now in the church of El Pino, Cudillero and in museums in Alicante, Badajoz, Cordoba, Oviedo, Merida, Tarragona & Toledo amongst others. One that may be seen in the Mezquita at Cordoba has a shell-like decoration that is reminiscent of the form to be used in the decoration of choir vaults. Unlike the examples from Italy, those in Spain make sparing use of the interlace pattern in the decoration. Cordoba (left & centre) and Tarragona (right) Panels from choir screens 19

20 Chancel pillars from San Salvador, Toledo, now in San Román (left) and from Badajoz (right) We saw Rome and at Ventimiglia, in North-west Italy, the incorporation of crosses into the decoration of chancel screens. The device was also used in Spain. The museum in Alicante has an example. 20

21 Alicante VIIc fragments of a chancel screen The Archeological Museum in Oviedo has fragments of a chancel screen that makes use of an unusual motif. It comes from the church of Santa Maria de Lugo and is dated from the V century. It shows two pairs of bulls confronting each other. Over the backs of each is a stylized tree. Strangely each foot of the bulls terminates with three toes. The significance of these symbols is not known; it is possible that the church took on the symbolism from Roman Mithraism or that the motif was brought in by the Visigoths when they invaded in 411. The motif had been in use during the Roman period as can be seen on another panel from Gastian that is now in the Museum of Navarre in Pamplona. This panel, a tomb stone which possibly dates from the 3 rd or 4th century, shows other motifs that are familiar, such as vines and stars. 21

22 Fragments of a chancel screen from Sta Maria de Lugo, now in Oviedo Museum (left) and tomb stone from Gastian, now in Museum of Navarre, Pamplona (right). Less usual are chancel screens that have an inscription. A V century marble fragment from a necropolis of Tamarguillo and which is now in Seville was used in a VII century chancel screen. The inscription, which dates from V century also, reads: Sanidiana, sierva de Dios, vivió más o menos ( ) años ( ) and it would seem that it was written for a tomb stone that was re-cut for use in the screen. 22

23 Tamarguillo, now in Seville Vc marble fragment that was re-used in a VIIc screen Some Chancel screens in France Examples in France of chancel screens are mostly confined to the coastal plain along the Mediterranean. Much of this plain was part of the Visigoth Kingdom of Spain; it might be supposed that churches along the coast therefore followed Visigoth architectural patterns. Certainly there are churches that have other features that come from the Iberian Peninsula. From the little church of Pezilla-la-Rivière, in Roussillon, comes an example from the VII/VIII century and the Visigoth period. However, three re-used VIII century panels in St Sauveur, Aix-en-Provence, demonstrate that the motifs based on circles and discs were in widespread use in areas outside Visigoth control. Pezilla-la-Rivière VIIIc Chancel screen 23

24 St Sauveur, Aix-en-Provence Three re-used VIIIc screen panels The former abbey church of St Guilhem-le-Désert is in the Languedoc. An important collection of fragments of sculpture from the former IX century chancel of the pre- Romanesque church is to be seen in the Musée Lapidaire in the Refectory. On these fragments we see a variety of patterns of interlace and floral decoration, some of which are illustrated below. The designs are in keeping with those that were widely used at the time elsewhere. 24

25 Artist s impression of St Guilhem Abbey chancel 25

26 St Guilhem-le-Désert Six fragments from IXc chancel The Musée Lapidaire in the Castle of La Cité, Carcassonne, has a particularly fine example of a Carolingian chancel screen that is covered with an elaborate interlace. And finally, we have another pre-romanesque example of interlace being used to decorate a 26

27 chancel screen at St Pierre, Vienne, (a little South of Lyon); this example along with two fragments from the abbey at Montmajour, near Arles, that are illustrated below, serve to confirm the popularity of the pattern for chancel screens at that time. It is perhaps worthy of note that the use of the interlace motif in the chancel screens extended from Northern Spain to the mouth of the Rhone and North to Vienne. None of the screens follow the style developed for the early Christian sarcophagi; these had groups of biblical scenes from both Old and New Testaments often depicted in a somewhat stereotyped way. But the scene to be depicted was always clear. None of the screens had a panel that bore the remotest likeness to the form on the sarcophagi despite the fact that the earlier panels were carved only a matter of decades later than the main period of production for the Christian sarcophagi. Chateau museum, Carcassonne Chancel screen from St Nazaire Montmajour (now at Arles) - Fragments of the Xc chancel screen 27

28 St Pierre, Vienne (now in cloisters of St André-le-Bas) Fragments of IXc chancel screen In the museum at Avignon there is a IX century panel of a chancel screen from Tresques in the Gard. It is decorated with floral patterns that are copied almost detail-for-detail from decoration on Gallo-Roman monuments that were in profusion in the area at the time. Tresques, now Avignon IXc Chancel screen panel (detail left) Another example in the Vaucluse is to be seen in the church of Fontaine de Vaucluse. Here nearly a dozen fragments of sculptured stone have either been reused in the walls or secured to them. Two of them are almost certainly fragments from an early chancel screen. They have patterns of interlace. 28

29 Fontaine de Vaucluse Two re-used fragments of a chancel screen Two IX or X century fragments from the original church in Moissac are now in the cloisters there. It has the interlace pattern that is seemingly most usual on these screens. In Provence, at Salagon in the commune of Mane, several fragments from a chancel screen are now in the local museum. These also have an interlace pattern. Moissac Elements of IX or Xc screen 29

30 Screens from Elsewhere In the Coptic museum in Cairo are two fragments of a VI century screen. Unlike the sculptured panels from the Northern and western rims of the Mediterranean, one of these fragments depicts the scene of Christ with the two midwives, Zelomi and Salome. Details relating to the early years of Christ s life and particularly the detailed descriptions around the circumstances of his birth such as is illustrated here we find only in the Apocrypha; they were widely disseminated across the Christian world. We see them on a XII century Byzantine ivory from Venice and on the lower panel of the ivory book cover for the Lorsch Gospels, an item that was made for the IX century Carolingian court. Coptic Museum, Cairo Fragment of VIc screen (left) and XIIc ivory from Venice, detail (right) Away from the Mediterranean, evidence of the existence of early Choir screens is sparse. There is a small panel from a screen that used to be in the church of Gondorf, in Northern Germany near Koblenz and is now in the Landesmuseum in Bonn. It dates from the VIII century and shows a man holding a book, indicating that he is an Apostle or saint. The whispering birds are offering wisdom. This is a scene that was to remain popular with mediaeval sculptors through to the middle of the XII century. 30

31 Gondorf, Nr Koblenz, now at Bonn Fragment of choir screen In the same museum there are three panels that originally formed part of a choir screen at the abbey of Knechtsteden, outside Koln. They date from around 1150 and depict biblical scenes of the Nativity and Apostles. The form resembles those seen on paleo-christian sarcophagi. Knechtsteden Abbey, now Bonn Three 1150 choir screen panels The depredations of the Reformation in Britain ensured the destruction of most church sculpture, decoration and furnishings. However, two sculptured panels from the former priory church at Ivychurch, in Hampshire, are believed to have once formed part of a choir screen. They are now in the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. They are dated to around 1160 and show St Peter as a bishop and St Paul as a scribe; this is perhaps a reference to the numerous letters that St Paul wrote that are incorporated into the New Testament. They are unusual as elements of such a screen, being carved in deep relief unlike almost all the examples we have seen thus far. Furthermore, the use of large 31

32 human figures is also unusual; they bear some resemblance to the statue pillars and columns that were to feature in many of the cloisters in Southern France Ivychurch priory, Hants, now V&A, London Plaque of St Peter (left) & St Paul (right) Two small panels from Georgia were illustrated in the catalogue for an exhibition that had been planned for 1999 in America but which was delayed. (3). One panel of an altar screen from the late VII century is from Tsebelda, Gulripshi. It is unlike any other panel that we have seen in this article. Within a floral frame are illustrations of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection. On the left side are two scenes from the life of St Peter, whilst on the right side is part of the Sacrifice of Abraham with the baptism of Christ below it. The second panel is from a century later and is from Gveldesi. It shows signs of Islamic influences in the geometric pattern in the form of the eight-sided star alongside the Christian symbolism of a stylised Peacock. 32

33 Georgia VIIc panel from Tsebelda, Gulripshi (left) and VIIIc panel from Gveldesi Conclusion From the V century low screens were constructed to separate the sanctuary and the priest from the monks or canons in the choir and main body of the church. By the end of the IX century gradual changes in the liturgical requirements brought adjustments to structures that were closely linked to the liturgy. Whilst some form of screen continued to be used in most Christian churches there form and the materials from which they were constructed was modified. Elaborate wood constructions known as rood screens with fine tracery became the norm. It was at the time of the Counter Reformation that most were removed. References: 1. See for examples of grilles as screens 2. See 3. National treasures of Georgia, Ed Ori Z Soltes. Pub Philip Wilson Publishers Ltd