ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE ( ) E.H.I.-2

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2 ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE ( ) E.H.I.-2 History of India Earliest Times to 8th Century AD Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance of the student to get an idea of how he/she can answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100% accuracy of these sample answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the assignment. As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/ Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact information, data and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the university. N Note : All questions are compulsory. Marks are indicated against each question. Section 1: Answer each question in about 500 words. Q. 1. Describe the material characteristics of the important sites of the Harappan Civilization. Ans. An important feature of Harappan civilization is the existence of numerous large and small cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro which have provided material characteristics of an affluent economy. And this economy established a vast network of contacts with faraway regions. The presence of granaries in Harappa and Mohenjodaro suggest that the rulers tried to store an assured source of food supply. The towns are usually located in fertile regions as it would have been difficult to transport large quantity of food grains over a great distance. Mohenjodaro was situated in the Larkana district of Sind. It is the most fertie region. Mohanjodaro was closer to the sea. Compared to Harappa which provided them better access to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia resources, Southern Rajasthan and Deccan. Harappa also enjoyed a suitable location in terms of trade. It was located at a point which separated. The zone of agricultural settlements to its south and a zone of pastoral nomads to its north west which enabled. Harappa to make use of the resources of both the neighbouring communities. Besides Harappan location was that it gave them access to Tin and Copper from Rajasthan, mineral salt from salt range, gold from Kashmir, timber from the mountains zones of Kashmir. Moreover, Harappa had access to the Hindukush and North West Frontier. This meant that within a distance covered by 10 days of travelling Harappans could get. Turquoise, Lapis Lazuli and other such precious stones brough through these routes. Therefore, it has been discovered that Harappa is located in a place which is crossed by several trade routes from West and East even presently. Geographical locations of the important centres of Harappan Civilization : (A) Harappa : The excavations at Harappa began in Archeologists like Dayaram Sahani, M.S. Vats & Mortimer Wheeler carried out excavations at Harappa. Harappa is located on the bank of the Ravi in western Punjab. The ruins of the city cover a circuit of about 3 miles. There a solid section of the population was engaged in activities other than food production. So the community would have to mobilize a large number of people to food producing areas for processing & transporting food. Because of this it was located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use. By these routes Harappan was connected with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu. 2

3 (B) Mohenjodaro : It is the largest site of the Harappan civilization, located in the Larkana district of Sind on the bank of the river Indus. The excavations begins here in 1922, in the supervision of R.D. Banerjee & Sir John Marshall. Later on Mackay and George Dales also conducted excavations. Excavations show that here people went on building and rebuilding houses at the same location. There were regular floods at Mohanjodaro deposited alluvial soil here and raised this land by 30 ft. (about). (C) Kalibangan : It is located in Rajasthan along the dried up bed of the river Ghaggar. This area had the largest number of settlements of Harappan civilization. This was excavated in 1960s under guidance of B.K. Thapar. The Harappan sites like Bara, Siswal and Alamgirpur have been discovered in the areas of present day Haryana, East Punjab and Western U.P. (D) Lothal : Rangapur, Surkotada and Lothal was discovered in Gujarat. Lothal is located in the coastal flats of the Gulf of Cambay. This place seems to have been an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary West Asian societies. (E) Sut Kagen-Dor : It is located near the Makran coast, close to the Pakistan-Iran border. At present the settlement is land-located in dry inhospitable plains, as this location had a need of sea port for trading. Q. 2. Discuss the main characteristics of the society and economy between 6th century B.C. 4th century B.C. Ans. Society saw a rapid change in all spheres of life from the 6 th to 4 th century B.C. Preachers, kings and merchants all made their mark. NBut it was the art of unity, that really made all the difference. Earlier too society had faced changes but there were no written records to go by since all information was passed from generation to generation orally or by memorisation. Once facts were written down they could be observed by the generations to come, who could refer to these written texts to understand the beliefs and ideas of their questions. Now we ll review the changes literary place in all sections of society. There are two sources of information and they both vary slightly one is the Brahamanical texts and the other being the Buddhist sources. Kshatriyas : According to the Buddhist sources, the Kshatriyas were placed at top of the four Varnas. In one of his discourses, Budha is believed to have said that, everywhere a Kshatriya has fallen to the lowest depths, but he is still the best and the Brahamans are low in comparison. Some of the Kshartriyas are known to have taken up activities like preaching, trading, agricultural activities. This could be because according to Buddhist texts, there are only two dimensions in society, high class and low class. There are no references to Brahamanical practices. But according to the Brahamans, the Kshatriyas are put at the second place in the four varnas. Here they are equated to the warrior caste and they were viewed as saviers and rulers of society. They had power, linage and status. Brahamans : In the Brahamanical texts, a Brahaman was born a Brahaman. He had exclusive rights to perform rituals and scarifies and this gave him the status of being a mediator between man and God. So he rose to a level higher than the kings and was bestowed with privileged priests. But the Buddhist literature criticised the Brahamans who did not follow the set rules and still enjoyed the privileges. The Buddhist found the rituals and ceremonies as burder for the common man and co-practised a simple religion. Vaishyas : The Vaishyas were allotted the third place in the Brahmanical Varna. They pursued occupations like cattle rearing, agriculture, trade and a variety of professions. Infact these Vaishyas were identified on the basis of their profession and geographical location. The Buddhist literature defines the Vaishyas as a community of land holders who cultivated land with the help of their family members or hired slaves and servants. They owned the land exclusively and enjoyed the profits within the family. There was no community land holding. There are references to development of trade unions and formation of guilds for various occupations like carpenters, ivory carvers, garland makers, etc. These units had their own rules. Shudras : The shudras were the fourth and lowest caste of the Varna system. This class of people led a pathetic life because they had no access to land or education and to top it they could never hope to attain a better life. They led a life of servility and served the rich. The Shudras were made to live outside the village and gradually they were given the status of being untouchables. They were despised, abused and tormented whereever they went. The period between sixth and fifth century B.C. marked a substantial growth is agriculture which in turn lead to a great impetus to the trade economy of that period. The change was carried upon from a subsistence economy to a market economy, which was catalysed by the introduction of coinage. This transition to enhanced mobility, growing trade and commerce and accelerated intercourse over a vast area. These development facilitated the growth of a complex rural and urban economic system. 3

4 The main occupation is the rural area remained to be agriculture. The village also supplied surplus produce to the towns and the towns supplied other necessities to the villagers. Besides agriculture being the main occupation, cattle rearing and certain small crafts connected with land, forest and animals catering to local requirements, were the other features of the rural economy. On the other hand, the urban economy centres around two important features : (i) The industry having large number of professionals and craftsmen. (ii) And Trade including internal as well as external. However, the urban economy was donated by traders and craftsmen who produced goods for a wider market on a larger scale. Literary and archaeological sources reveal that economy took major uprising during the 5 th and 6 th century B.C. The most logical reason for this being the enhanced production of agriculture. Once the people could sustain themselves agriculturally they could look towards processing other occupations and produce for a market. The introduction of coins only accelerated the trade and commerce between rural and urban economic systems. The rural economic pattern was based on a system of village communities of peasant ownership, but when the rural economy prospered there was a need to expand. This policy of expansion was pursued by the king by giving various grants like cattle, seeds, irrigational facilities. Villages were still very much agriculture based and supplied the surplus to the towns in return they received various other necessities. The emergence of surplus Nfood developed an urban economy where people were free to pursue occupations like crafts and trade they now produced on large scale for a wider market. The urban economy was dominated by traders and craftsmen. Once the trade picked up the economy got more streamlined in the sense that there was a development of political organisation, metallic coins and a literate society. This tells us that the society was prosperous enough to deviate from regular occupations which were based on sustenance only. Section 2: Answer each question in about 250 words. Q. 3. Critically discuss the main principles of Ashoka s Policy of Dhamma. Ans. Dhamma was not any particular religious faith or practice, it is the norms of social behaviour and activities. The Mauryan period witnessed change in the economic structure of the society. Caste system based on four-fold Varna division was very rigid at that time. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class sharpened the division within the society. At this situation Ashoka took the reins of Mauryan thorne. Buddhism began as a schismatic movement from the more orthodox outlook of Brahmanism. Its basic idea was to take a middle path. It was the set of ethical principals. As it opposed dominance of Brahamanas and the concept of sacrifice and rituals it appealed to lower class and the emerging social classes. Ashoka attempted a very careful synthesis of various norms which were current in his times as dominism of Brahmanism and rigid caste separation. This gives rise to demand for a more flexible social organisation, which is enshrined in Dhamma. Dhamma was an attempt to solve the problems that the complex society faced. Ashoka s private beliefs and his own perceptions to solve the problems of his empire were responsible for the formulation of the policy of Dhamma. Dhamma was not given any formal definition or structure. It emphasised on toleration and general behaviour. It also laid stress on non-violence and certain welfare measures. We can understand the development of the policy of Dhamma chronologically by the Edicts : Major Rock Edict I : declares prohibition of animal sacrifice and holiday of festive gatherings. Major Rock Edict II : Relates to certain measures of sociely welfare like medical treatment of men and animals, construction of roads, tree planting, etc. Major Rock Edict III : Says that liberality towards Brahamanas is a virtue, respect to mother and father etc. are all good qualities. Major Rock Edict IV : Says that due to Dhamma the lack of morality and disrespect towards Brahamanas, violence and evils to friends and relatives have been checked. Killing of animals also stopped to a large extent. Major Rock Edict V : Dhamma Mahamattas were appointed to look after these things and to spread the message of Dhamma. Major Rock Edict VII : is a plea for toleration amongst all the sects. This plea is to maintain unity. Major Rock Edict VIII : States that Dharmayatras would be undertaken by the emperor. 4

5 Major Rock Edict IX : Attacks ceremonics performed after birth. illness and marriages. Ashoka instead lays stress on practice of Dhamma. Major Rock Edict X : Denonces fame and glory and resserts the merits of Dhamma. Q. 4. What were the chief characteristics of architectural activities between 200 B.C. 300 A.D.? Ans. The Buddhist Stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. The Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. Fortified cities with stupas, viharas, and temples were constructed during the Maurya empire (c BCE). Wooden architecture was popular and rock cut architecture became solidified. Guard rails-consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping-became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. Templesbuild on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans-were constructed using brick and timber. The Indian gateway archs, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE-11th century CE). Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the only rocks left are the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature. In India, caves have long been regarded as places of sanctity. NCaves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were felt to hold the same sanctity as natural caves. In fact the sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free standing ones, retain the same cavelike feeling of sacredness, being small and dark without natural light. Initially works of art were common place i.e. they dealt with daily happenings of common man and could be seen easily in rock paintings, terracotta figuracaes etc. But gradually art became more specialized and artists who produced individualised pieces of art began to emerge. With that art was not limited exclusively to the state but could be patronised by different social groups. Art began flourishing within India and beyond India, eventually there was a marked form of art from various schools of art. The two most important schools being (1) Gandhara and Mathura art forms, (2) Sarnath and Amaravati. These art forms were dominated by Buddhist and Jain impressions and were depicted on rocks, cave walls and interiors of Stupas. Due to frequent interaction with other cultures we find glimpses of non-indian elements in the art of this period specially so in the Gandhara region. Basically art was form of expressing religion in the form of symbols, units, practices, images. Sculpture was an important expression of art during this period and had developed tremendously in figures of Buddha produced during this period are among the most impressve pieces of world works of art. A unique feature found in the specimens of Mauryan art in stone form is the smooth polished finish given to the sculptures that they are as glossy as glass. The Yakshini from Patna gives an intricate detail of hairstyle, ornaments and dress of women during that period. Sculptures were enjoyed in all stratas of society because there are evidences of terra cotta figurines which must have been the possessions of the not so rich. Other forms of sculptures are found within the Malls of the Stupas which depict scenes observed in nature along with religious ideas. Since image worship became popular, sculptures could be seen depicting various religions. Sculptures could be seen on stone slabs pillars, railings and some giving a continuous narration from the Jataka Tales. The sculptures follow the rise and fall of faiths, religions, kings and dynasties giving us a detail picture to understand the past. Q. 5. Trace the emergence and consolidation of Gupta political power between the 4th Century A.D. to 6th Century A.D. Ans. The fall of Satvahanas of the Deccan gave way to the rise of a few new royal families in various parts of Deccan. Towards the beginning of the fourth century A.D. North India was divided into many small kingdoms and chiefdoms. These kingdom would often indulge in war with each other. It was in such a political condition, that the Gupta dynasty gained power and gradually established an empire. Archaeological evidences show that Srigupta was the first King and Ghatotkacha was the next to follow him. Chandragupta I was as such the first independent ruler. He was given the title of Maharajadhiraj. He married the daughter of King of Lichhavis and thus expanded his territory, it is assumed that the boundaries of Chandragupta 5

6 empire extended parts of Bihar, U.P. and Bengal. The credit of starting a new era (from A.D.) goes to Chandra Gupta I, which came to be known as Gupta Samrat. Samudra Gupta, son of Chandragupta I succeeded the empire took aggressive military campaigns in different regions to consolidate the power. It is a fact that the military foundation of the Gupta empire were laid by Samudragupta and his successors carried on with the process of building upon these foundations. His successors were Chandragupta II, Kumargupt and Skandgupta. The Guptas remained a powerful empire till the period of Skandgupta. However, after him the process of fall of the Gupta empire began. It is believed that under the rule of Samudragupta mainly the empirial power of Gupta dynasty was properly consolidated. In order to expand and consolidate the Gupta empire lie adopted the policy of aggressive conquests. Following are the aggressive campaigns taken by Samudragupta during his period. Aryavarta Campaign : Samudragupta attacked and defeated three Aryavarta Kings namely Achyute of Ahichchatra, Nagasena of Gwalior and Kota Kulaja of East Punjab and Delhi, after these campaigns Samudragupta had acquired full dominance over Ganga valley regions and surrounding areas. Campaign in South : During his several campaigns in South India Samudragupta defeated and subjugated the territories of twelve rulers of Orissa, M.P., Vishakapatnam, Tamilnadu, etc. Frontier Kingdom N: Rulers of the Frontier Kingdom paid him tributes of all kinds accepted his dominance and paid him homage. This kingdoms were Kamerupa (Assam), Nepala (Nepal) etc. Many of rulers acknowledged his rule by self surrender, or offering matrimonial alliances with their daughters. Few of the rulers like later Kushanas and the Saka Chief etc. remained independent but their independence had to be approved by Samudragupta. Then it is believed that Samudragupta laid the foundation of Gupta empire through his aggressive military campaigns. Q. 6. Analyse the main features of changes in the economy in the Gupta and post-gupta Period. Ans. The main source of income of the state of Guptas was land revenue. One sixth of the production was declared as the royal revenue uparikara (octroi). It was a type of tax levied on cloth oil etc. when transported from one city to another. Shulka (commercial tax) was taken from the traders organisation failing to which resulted in the cancellation of the right to trade and a five of maximum eight times of the original 'Sulka' was laid. The King's income from royal lands and forests went into his personal treasure, he enjoyed the right to treasure coin hoards, jewels and other valuable objects. he also enjoyed right to forced labour (visthi). Several officers like Pustapala and Gopasramini were appointed to carry out the revenue administation. Pustapala was the record keeper who made enquiries before recording any transaction where as gopasramini entered several crisis in the accounts register, besides recovered royal dues. He also recovered fines for loss due to neglect or fraud and checked embezzlements. During the post Harsha period the literary and inscriptional evidences show the advanced state of agriculture, trade and economy. The early Arab writers also refer to the fertility of the soil and the rich cultivation. Literature like Abhidhanaratnamala mentions that the soil was classified variously as fertile, barren, desert, excellent etc. It is also mentioned that different kinds of fields were selected for different classes of crops. In the field of industry the oldest one is that of textile. The profession of weavers, dyers, tailors etc. are mentioned by the contemporary literature. Working in metal was also very popular during that period. Some centres of metal industry were famous. Saurastra (Gujarat) was famous for its bell metal industry while Vanga (Bengal) was known for its tin industry. The trade with South East Asia increased enormously during this period. The Arab, Chinese and Indian sources mention the flow of trade between east and west via India. Indian exports consisted of cotton, sandal wood, camphor, metals, precious and semi precious stones, pearls etc. In the list of imported items, horses were the most important. The best breed of horses were imported from Central and Western Asia. The shrenis or guilds played an important role during that period. Contemporary inscriptions mention not only about the different classes of guilds, but also their constitution and functions. 6

7 Section 3: Answer each question in about 100 words. Q. 7. Write short notes on any two of the following in 100 words each. (i) Painted Grey ware Ans. The PGW Culture : PGW stands for Painted Grey Ware. It was first discovered at Ahichchatra in the year Several other sites of PGW have also been discovered in Northern part of India. The settlement at these sites are mostly small villages located along river banks. Pottery found in PGW culture was wheel made, out of clay and have thin core, they are also grey in colour and have smooth surface. The houses made to burnt earth, mud bricks, burnt bricks. Various other objects made of copper, iron, glass, bone were also found. People of PGW culture were fond of jewellery. Beads of terracota, agati, jaspar etc. have been excavated. Bones of wild and domesticated animals have been found and evidences of agriculture were also found at some places. Rice, wheat and barley are believed to have been cultivated during PGW culture. Thus, the PGW which was also known as iron age pottery was used over a larger area. During this period evidences show that there was greater interaction among various communities and a transition towards urbanisation was taking place. Satvahana Dynasty N: Satvahana period is important in the history of South India because it was in the first century B.C. that the earlierst state came into existence in Penissular India. The administration of the state was simpler than that of the Mauryas. One of the important aspects of Satvahana dynasty was their expansion of overland and maritime trade network. This provided additional revenues to the rulers and also resulted in the prosperity of a large number of towns and cities throughout the South during their period. Satvahanas referred to themseleves as unique Brahamanas who crushed the pride of the Kashatriyas. The society, though during the Satvahanas was not governed by Brahmanic text rulers. Buddhism also known to have flourished during this period. (ii) Kushanas Ans. The Kushanas (45 AD-73 AD): The Kushanas, originally belonged to western China. They are also called Yueh-chis. The Kushanas after defeating Shakas and Pahlavas created a big empire in Pakistan. The first prominent ruler of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises. He was succeeded by his son Wema Kadphises. Next ruler was Kanishka. He was the most famous of the Kushanas. He probably ascended the throne in AD 78, and started a new era, now known as the Shaka era. It was under Kanishka that the Kushana empire reached its maximum territorial limits. His empire extended from Central Asia to north India and included Varanasi, Kaushambi and Saravasti in Uttar Pradesh. The political significance of Kanishka s rule lies in the fact that he integrated central Asia with north India as part of a single empire. It resulted in the intermingling of different cultures and increase in inter-regional trading activities. Kanishka is famous in history as a great patron of Buddhism. He convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalavana in which a large number of Buddhist scholars took part. It was in this council that Buddhism got split into two schools Hinayana and Mahayana. Kanishka also patronized the Gandhara and Mathura schools of sculptural art. He built in the city of Purushpura (present day Peshawar), his capital, a giant stupa to house the Buddha s relics. The building was still intact with all its magnificence when the Chinese pilgrim Fahsien visited the area later in the early fifth century AD. The Kushana power gradually declined from the early third century AD. Nothing much is known about the administrative machinery of the Kushanas. Perhaps the whole empire was divided into provinces, each ruled by a mahakshatrapa ( a military governor), who was assisted by a kshatrapa; but how many provinces were there in the empire, is not known. Sources indicate that Kushana horsemen wore trousers while riding. A headless statue of Kanishka found at Mathura reflects the same. A prominent feature of Kushana polity was the title of devaputra, i.e., son of God, used by the Kushana kings. It indicates the claim to divinity by the Kushana kings. The Kushanas occupy a special place in the ancient Indian history because of their contribution to various aspects of life. Their vast empire helped in the growth of internal and external trade. It resulted in the rise of new 7

8 urban centres. The rich state of economy under the Kushanas is also evidenced by the large number of gold and copper coins that they struck. Even in literature and medicine, India made progress. Charaka, known as father of Ayurveda, wrote a book on medicine called Charaksamhita whereas Asvaghosha, a Buddhist scholar, wrote Buddhacharita, a full length biography of the Buddha. Both these scholars were believed to be the contemporaries of King Kanishka. The Kushanas patronized the Gandhara and the Mathura schools of sculptural art which are known for producing the earliest images of Buddha and Buddhisattavas. N 8