Writing Workshop. Argumentative Texts by MF (2016)

Transcription

1 by MF (2016) Writing to argue for or against ideas involves not being afraid to express your views and analysis, being able to word it in a way the reader can follow, and being able to pose ideas without attacking people. In other words, when we reason out things we need to be true to ourselves & walk in people s shoes. w For more on this, check out my workshop on Holding Nonviolent Rational Discussion. One of the most valuable things we learn from writing argumentative texts is how badly many of the ideas withheld by society are sustained. Writing or preparing an argumentative oral presentation will help you be more analytical, rational, empathetic, more aware of stereotypes and misperceptions, more true to the idea of communicating ideas, far more nonviolent than using language to prevail, to hurt other people. w Listen to an excerpt from Lakoff s Metaphors we live by ( Argument Is War ) at The TP Podcast, language- is- powerful- metaphors- we- live- by- argument- is- war/ Argumentative texts can be oral or written. Examples are essays (exam questions), philosophical letters, articles of analysis, essays (books). Reasoned opinions are good practice for rational discussions (oral practice) & a first step to approach essays (written argumentative texts). Writing a Reasoned Opinion Start practicing today: writing reasoned opinions in 100 words (a paragraph). Analyze my work on a sensitive topic and notice how I avoid trying to offend people with a different opinion to mine while wording my views with clarity. Bullfighting: Art or Cruelty? I think bullfighting is cruelty to animals because it involves debilitating the animal by hurting it and making it run in circles, and its killing is a climax in the framework of a human show designed for entertainment, where the public cheers toreros (traditionally men, carrying a cape and a sword), picadores and banderilleros (men with piercing weapons). Culturally in Spain, bullfighting has been considered art, & that is why I do not call people in this business torturers or murderers. However, today this tradition is being examined as we evolve in favor of more humane forms of relating. (99 words) Compare with this beginning for an essay on the same topic: Topic: Bullfighting: Art or Cruelty? Ideas for my topic statement (your guiding star): I want to relate the creation a world with less violence and injustice to how we justify the use of violence in everyday events > The use of violence is human, but we can evolve to more humane ways of relating. (Never forget the title!) Bullfighting: Art or Cruelty? (Introduction: surprising idea eliciting curiosity to read on) There was a time when humans were a 2% of life on the planet. Today they constitute the 98% of biodiversity on Earth. There are very few places on this planet where you cannot find humans, and everywhere humans are, all life around them is mostly exploited by humans irrationality. (Creating the framework where to place the topic under scrutiny) As they spread their settlements and eventually created geopolitical nations, humans have developed a very violent way of living in this world. Not only do they kill, torture, abuse each other in endless wars -- they behave likewise with all forms of life, which is resulting in endangering life on Earth. Although the 20th century brought about relevant social change and knowledge, helping us truly humanize our behavior, some of us have just begun to be more empathetic towards other animals. Still, one of the things we do, although it is increasingly considered unjustifiable violence, is keep animals to offer shows where those animals fight each other to death or are killed by humans. (Notice the last sentence, how it works as a transition to the next block) Bullfighting began in (history) Today in Spain (for: part of cultural background) However, (against: banning bullfighting in ) Conclusion showing my preference. Now I can work out my outline Intro: 98% biodiversity Point 1: spread/violence although/20th c. See how 98% relates to spread? (transitions) Point 2: History Point 3: In Spain today / views both sides + transition to my view (violence damages us too) Conclusion: My view + ending looking at future: evolution to overcome violent traditions 1

2 And start gathering info and brainstorming on the language I ll need to express my analysis. Gathering info Language to describe bullfights History of bullfighting Writing Procedures Brainstorming on language Clarity Describing instead of being judgemental Check I use varied tenses (including modals), clauses and modifiers. Work on transitions and connectors. You should understand writing is a complex process that involves a great deal of time of work Before Writing and then checking your work, reading it and re- reading it as a to look for all kinds of mistakes, explore better ways of saying things, see if you can improve the story, how you reach people, or the wording and this can also be done by a very healthy and difficult action: crossing out things! When you know what to cross out it means you re making good progress! w Watch video How to work on Writing Assignments at EOI Teacher Sharing C1 Work, and take notes! Then follow my advice! Writing Argumentative Articles & Essays Basic Tips for a Good Essay! Brainstorm on points for your argumentation Use the headings pros and cons to sort things out and decide what kind of structure you will use. How would you order those points? Which arguments do you favor? How can you best counter the points put forward by a contending side? What kind of conclusion will you arrive at? Your own view, or the one you have been leading up to in your presentation of the argument? When you state something, explain why you say that. Try to say things that are relevant, and not vague or unimportant. Do not mix up arguments and opinions or comments. Textual Structure 1. Classical a. Introduction: The purpose of my / Some people believe that b. Explanation of the case under consideration: There are two different approaches to this issue / Historically, the debate/discussion c. Outline of the argument + reference/discourse deixis: The difficult points are the following / + as it was said above / The most controversial issue is (noun or that clause). d. Proofs/Evidence supporting your argument: As a matter of fact, / It can not be forgotten / Furthermore, / What is more, e. Refutation: Even though / It is obvious that / Nobody would believe that f. Conclusion: On the whole, / As a result / As a conclusion, / Finally, / Summing up, 2. Pros- cons Discussion: intro + pro- con + pro- con, or con- pro + con- pro + conclusion. The obvious way to organize your material is under pros and cons, points for and against the argument. A contrast between two different stands can help you write about the subject, make things easier. 3. One Argument: no couterargumentation. You can just develop your own opinions. You will have to be clear about the point(s) you want to make and make those points. Be relevant! 4. Eclectic Approach: expressing a variety of views on the subject. 5. Other positions first, then author s arguments: Traditionally, it has been believed / It seems to be a fact that 6. Other positions questioned: no direct refutation, just posing questions for consideration. w Choose a topic. Brainstorm on pros and cons. Select ideas and organize them. Do an outline. Don t write away now. Let it be. Then go back to it and improve it. Write your essay/article following your outline. Find an original title for it, and an informative subtitle. Or else, find a clear descriptive title. 2

3 TIPS Checking your Cohesion, Coherence & Punctuation. Read your text out loud (in your mind, or physically). This will allow you to notice when something is missing, when you need to cross out something or put it somewhere else, and where you need a comma, period/full- stop, a new paragraph Cohesion refers to the tools you will use to create UNITY in your text. With WORDS you will build sentences. With SENTENCES you will build paragraphs and with PARAGRAPHS you will build your TEXT. All of these have to build a unit. Reference, semantic fields, connectors help. Coherence refers to MAKING SENSE. You must be clear about what you want to express BEFORE you write (perhaps not the inspired intro, but certainly the points of your reasoning) and develop logical progression. Titles, Introductions & Endings. The title and the intro, including the opening sentence, are very important. Titles need to express the theme or topic of discussion clearly and if possible, be interesting to attract the reader s attention. The same applies to the ending. Think about it. Intros: step back and look at your points placed in a wider picture or setting. Endings: Some ideas: introducing your personal view in a not- very- personal way! Summarizing and concluding. Do not include new points! Recapitulating and closure. Pointing to the future. Making a comment which will elicit a smile in the reader, or an emotion. Paragraphs. Dividing the text in paragraphs should HELP the reader. Particularly in articles and essays, paragraphs help to provide order for thought and understanding. There is always a topic sentence in each paragraph (indicating what the paragraph will be about), so within a particular paragraph there should be a unity. Often, the topic sentence is the first in the paragraph. It shows that the writer has moved on to another point or issue. In a well- constructed piece of writing, you should be able to sum up the idea of each paragraph in a short phrase, and everything in the paragraph should be relevant to that idea or phrase. You can create a more detailed outline to follow, with these key words. Logical Progression. How is the writing constructed? Does it help the reader to follow the argument? Do you think it is ordered logically, or Do you think it makes sense? Sentence connectors are very important to order the contents. Checklist for Writing Essays Title Topic statement Brainstorming on ideas Considering content structure Paragraph transitions and logical progression Beginnings & Endings Outline (general, and if helpful, more detailed w. key words) Brainstorming on language: o Vocabulary o Sentence structure, e.g. clauses, questions, emphasis o Sentence connectors / linkers / linking devices o Paragraphs: length and organization Did you support your views with ideas/reasons? (not by attacking people) Did you look for info, do some research? Learned anything? Did you distinguish fact and opinion? Did you sort out biased opinions (to discard) from informed opinions (to include)? 3

4 RELATED ISSUES Understanding Signal Words (Useful Language & Clear Structure) When people speak in public they also signal when they state an important new idea or give an example. Every good speaker does it, and you should expect to receive these signals. Signals are usually ignored by those of us who do not know how to listen effectively. Expect signals and be alert when you receive them. MAIN IDEA SIGNAL WORDS SIGNAL: MEANING: There are three reasons why... (HERE THEY COME!) Gives the number of main ideas There are several reasons which explain There is a reason which explains First / Firstly / In the first place (HERE THEY ARE!) Gives the first main idea Second / Secondly / In the second place Gives the second main idea Third. Gives the third main idea And most important(ly). (HERE IS A MAIN IDEA!) Signals a main idea The basic concept here is A major development is The main idea is The point of my argumentation is to show Finally / In the last place / Last but not least Signals a final main idea Now this is important... Hightlights idea!! Remember that... The important idea is that... The basic concept here is... On the one hand, Signals the 1st of 2 main ideas On the other hand, Signals the other main idea SUPPORT IDEAS SIGNAL WORDS SIGNAL: MEANING: On the other hand,... / On the contrary,... In contrast,... Shows a contrasting idea For example/for instance/as an example... Gives an example Also,... Continues an idea [Además ] Further(more),... Continues an idea [Y es más...] Likewise, / Similarly, Continues an idea In order to/so as to / [Purpose infinitive, too] Idea of finality/purpose Because... Gives a reason So... Gives a result [Por lo que, y así] CONCLUSION or SUMMARY SIGNAL WORDS: Therefore, / In conclusion,... / As a result, / Finally... / In summary, / In a nutshell, / From this we see / Shortly, The World of Clauses TYPE OF CLAUSE FINITE CLAUSES NON- FINITE CLAUSES Noun clauses [What you said] was great > subject (Infinitive, Present participle) [To give up at this stage] would be a pity > non- finite noun clause, infinitive, subject [Closing the factory] would mean unemployment for all > non- finite noun clause, gerund, subject Adjectival Clauses or Relative Clauses Adverbial Clauses* We bought the house [which you had rented] > object, part of the object! I shall see you [when we return] > time adverbial (Infinitive, Present and Past Participles) I have something [to tell you] > non- finite adjectival clause; infinitive The thieves took two bags [containing $2,000] > present participle I couldn't read the instructions [given in the manual] > past participle (Infinitive, Present and Past Participles, Perfect Participle) [To speed up the process] she bought a computer > non- finite adverbial clause, infinitive of purpose [While travelling by air], she was taken sick [Given time], she'll do the job extremely well [Having finished their task], they went out for a drink 4

5 *TYPES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES [LINK EXAMPLE] TIME I ll show it to you [when you come back]; or [When you come back], I ll We could do it [whenever you like] PLACE I am always meeting her [where I least expect her] MANNER He solved the problem [as one might have expected] COMPARISON He writes [as incoherently as he speaks] Her stepmum treated her more kindly [than any real mum would have done] REASON OR CAUSE He stole the money [because he was out of work] [Since we haven't seen him], we must assume he isn't coming [Having heard nothing from her], we assumed she wasn't coming (reversible +,) PURPOSE She spent most of her time studying [so that she might later get a better job] [To speed up the job], she bought a computer (it can be reversed) RESULT The boy was so exhausted [that he fell asleep on the bus] Weapon production is now increasing so much [as to constitute a major problem] CONDITION** [If I were rich], I would go on a world cruise (It can be reversed) We could leave now [provided we called her first] CONCESSION [Although she is over eighty], she's still very active (reversed;,) Alternative link: in spite of the fact that CONNECTORS when, whenever, while, as, since / ever since, after, before, until/till, as soon as, then, during, the sooner, no sooner...than, hardly... when, immediately, the moment, the minute where, wherever as, as if, as though as (as...as, not so...as, as much...as), more/- er...than..., less...than because, as, since, for (sometimes: if), seeing that Alternative linkers: so, therefore so that, in order that, for fear that, in case, lest, Non- finite purpose: to- infinitive (specific), for + - ing (general), in order to, so as to, for +noun/pron+ to- inf so so+ adj/adv + that such + (adjective+) noun + that if, unless, whether whether...or not, as/so long as, provided that, supposing, on condition that although/though, even though, even if, while, no matter, however + adj/adv, whatever, wherever, whenever, as + "be" Finally, remember inversions! When do we use them? What for? w For language for descriptions (including adjective order), see Writing Workshop: Story- telling Adverb and Adverbial Order Adverbs and adverbials may be one or several words that offer information on circumstances connected to the state or activity named by the verb. Adverbs are one- word items that modify verbs. Adverbials may be single words or else phrases that provide information about when, where, how, or why things happen. So adverbs fall into the category of adverbials. The difficulties around them have to do with where we should place adverbs. Adverbials belong to the predicate, and there they may be placed next to the verb or after the object (at the end * ). But they may be found at the beginning of a sentence ), provided they do not separate the subject from the verb. A general idea is this: elements in a sentence organize around the heart of the sentence, S + V, in a hierarchical manner: the more important they are, the closer they are to the heart. For instance, an object (O) is more important than an adverbial of time because it is closer to the verb, so the adverbial of time can never interfere between the V and its O, and must be placed after. Exceptions: Frequency Adverbs. Another idea: when an element that usually comes before another is long, the shorter element may come before. You probably do it intuitively. Examples: Do you go out with your friends EVERY WEEKEND? Do you go out EVERY WEEKEND with all of those really noisy friends of yours?! Adverb Order [after V/O] MANNER + PLACE + TIME (often, TIME SUBJECT+VERB MANNER + PLACE) F.A. go just before the main verb, like also (seldom, hardly ever, always) Comment/Viewpoint & Connecting Adverbials. C1. Initiate the sentence, followed by a comma. Presumably*, Certainly*, Clearly*, Undoubtedly*, Obviously*, As might be expected, Sadly, Oddly enough, Interestingly enough, Generally speaking, Wisely, Wrongly, To my disappointment, To my surprise, To be honest/fair, To put it simply, On average, Financially, Ideologically, Morally, Politically, From a technical point of view, Personally, As a result, Similarly, Unlike * Degree of certainty ) * 7 Certainly, they worked hard / They certainly worked hard / They worked hard, certainly. 5

6 Sentence Connectors Credits: based on Prof. Campbell, Prof. Buckhoff, and John A. Dowell s work. Linking words help you to connect ideas and sentences, so that people can follow your ideas. This section is particularly interesting to expand your knowledge and use of connectors when you read and write articles and essays at the advanced level, but as you will probably see, they are used all the time, in every kind of text! Do this: as you read articles and essays, try to notice the use of these devices, and jot down a List of Useful Language with connectors whose use in specific sentences you understand and think you will remember. Connectors: I m highlighting some of the ones you should be good at using at this level Stating point or topic: ABOUT, SPEAKING ABOUT (THIS), CONSIDERING (THIS), REGARDING (THIS), WITH REGARDS TO (THIS), AS FOR (THIS), CONCERNING (THIS), THE FACT THAT, ON THE SUBJECT OF (THIS), THE FOLLOWING (FOR LISTS, E.G. THE FOLLOWING PEOPLE HAVE BEEN CHOSEN TO ) Expressing similarity & comparison: SIMILARLY, IN THE SAME WAY, BY THE SAME TOKEN, IN A LIKE MANNER, EQUALLY, LIKEWISE [also see Contrast, e.g. In contrast for Expressing difference] Clarifying: I.E., THAT IS (TO SAY), I MEAN, (TO) PUT (IT) ANOTHER WAY, IN OTHER WORDS Exemplifying: SUCH AS, AS, PARTICULARLY, INCLUDING, AS AN ILLUSTRATION, FOR EXAMPLE, LIKE, ESPECIALLY / IN PARTICULAR, FOR ONE THING, TO ILLUSTRATE, FOR INSTANCE, NOTABLY, BY WAY OF EXAMPLE Highlighting, giving emphasis: EVEN MORE, ABOVE ALL, INDEED, MORE IMPORTANTLY, BESIDES, NAMELY, SPECIFICALLY Adding points/info: AND, IN ADDITION, AS WELL AS, ALSO (as in Also, we need to consider = Además, tenemos que considerar), ALSO/TOO, FURTHERMORE, MOREOVER, APART FROM, IN ADDITION TO, BESIDES Signalling contrast, opposition, conflict, contradiction, concession BUT, EVEN SO, (AND) YET, ALTHOUGH, EVEN THOUGH, HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS = NONETHELESS (= IN SPITE OF THAT / ANYWAY), DESPITE (+N.), DESPITE THE FACT THAT (+ S+V), NOTWITHSTANDING (THIS), IN SPITE OF (+N.), IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT (+ S+V), REGARDLESS (OF THIS), IN CONTRAST, BY WAY OF CONTRAST, ON THE OTHER HAND, ADMITTEDLY, WHEREAS (OFTEN WHILE*), THOUGH (FINAL POSITION), WHEN IN FACT, CONVERSELY, STILL (STILL, ONE HAS TO CONSIDER), BE THAT AS IT MAY, UNLIKE, IN THEORY IN PRACTICE, Expressing dismissal: EITHER WAY, WHICHEVER HAPPENS, IN EITHER EVENT, IN ANY CASE, AT ANY RATE, IN EITHER CASE, WHATEVER HAPPENS, ALL THE SAME, IN ANY EVENT Replacement: (OR) AT LEAST, (OR) RATHER, INSTEAD, OTHERWISE Signalling cause/effect, reason/result, consequence, conclusion: Cause/Reason: BECAUSE, BECAUSE OF, BECAUSE OF THE FACT THAT, FOR THE (SIMPLE) REASON THAT, BEING THAT, FOR, IN VIEW OF (THE FACT), INASMUCH AS, SEEING THAT, OWING TO (+ N.), OWING TO THE THE FACT THAT (+ S+V), DUE TO (+ N.), DUE TO THE FACT THAT (+ S+V), GIVEN THESE POINTS, IN THAT, AS AND SINCE (AS/SINCE WE LOST IT WE LL HAVE TO DO WITHOUT IT), FORASMUCH AS Effect/Result/Conclusion (deduction): AS A RESULT (OF THIS), CONSEQUENTLY, HENCE, THEREFORE, THUS, FOR THIS REASON, BECAUSE (OF THIS), IN CONSEQUENCE, IN CONCLUSION, ACCORDINGLY, AS A CONSEQUENCE, SO THAT (WITH ADJ), SUCH A THAT (SING.), SUCH THAT (PL.), SO (NOT SO THAT = PURPOSE), THIS MEANS THAT Consequence: UNDER THOSE CIRCUMSTANCES, THEN, IN THAT CASE, THAT BEING THE CASE (See also Cond) Condition: ON (THE) CONDITION (THAT), GRANTED (THIS), GRANTED (THAT), IF, IF SO, PROVIDED THAT, IN CASE, IN THE EVENT THAT, AS/SO LONG AS, UNLESS, OTHERWISE, GIVEN THAT, GRANTING (THAT), PROVIDING THAT, EVEN IF, ONLY IF Expressing purpose: SO AS (NOT) TO, FOR THE PURPOSE OF, IN THE HOPE THAT, FOR FEAR THAT, SO THAT, WITH THIS INTENTION, TO THAT END, TO THE END THAT, IN ORDER TO/THAT, LEST, WITH THIS IN MIND Digression: TO CHANGE THE TOPIC, INCIDENTALLY, BY THE WAY Resumption: TO GET BACK TO THE POINT, TO RESUME ANYHOW, ANYWAY, AT ANY RATE, TO RETURN TO THE SUBJECT, AS I WAS SAYING THE FORMER, THE LATTER (NOT LATER ) also in Sequential transitions Summarizing/Summarising: IN SUMMARY, ALL IN ALL, TO MAKE A LONG STORY SHORT, AS I HAVE SAID, TO SUM UP, OVERALL, AS HAS BEEN MENTIONED, THEN, TO SUMMARIZE, TO BE BRIEF, BRIEFLY, IN A NUTSHELL, IN ALL, ON THE WHOLE, AS HAS BEEN NOTED, IN A WORD, TO PUT IT BRIEFLY, IN SUM, ALTOGETHER, IN SHORT, [THE CONCLUSION- DEDUCTION CONNECTORS CAN ALSO BE USED HERE] SO, IN CONCLUSION, HENCE, THEREFORE, THUS Sequential Transitions signal a chronological or logical sequence. Numerical: IN THE (FIRST, SECOND, ETC.) PLACE, INITIALLY, TO START WITH, FIRST OF ALL, THIRDLY, TO BEGIN WITH, AT FIRST, FOR A START, SECONDLY, Continuation: SUBSEQUENTLY, PREVIOUSLY, EVENTUALLY, NEXT, BEFORE (THIS), AFTERWARDS, AFTER (THIS), THEN, AS WAS PREVIOUSLY STATED, Conclusion (end): TO CONCLUDE (WITH) (NOTICE TO CONCLUDE IS NOT IN CONCLUSION ), AS A FINAL POINT, EVENTUALLY, AT LAST, LAST BUT NOT LEAST, IN THE END, FINALLY, LASTLY w For Transitions, see Writing Workshop: Story- telling 6