PREHISTORY. of the British Isles

Transcription

1 PREHISTORY of the British Isles

2 5000 BC BC Britain becomes and island the arrival of several waves of invaders the Neolithic people and the Iberians kept animals and grew corn crops small, dark people from the Spanish peninsula use of stone and flint tools the Chalkland people circles of earth banks & ditches - henges Stonehenge - religious & cultural centre (1000 years)

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4 2400 BC THE BEAKER PEOPLE from north-west Europe, round-headed, strong build produced distinct pottery - hence the name separate graves instead of collective ones kept livestock metalworking - first of copper, later - bronze new cereal - barley used woven fabrics (trade?) power shifted to the Thames valley

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6 FROM 700 BC THE CELTS tall, fair-or red-haired, blue-eyed from central Europe or southern Russia, tribal technically advanced - ironwork - weaponry controlled the lowland areas of Britain more advanced ploughing methods - heavier soils hill-forts - economic centres; trade across tribes used iron bars for money, later coins like Romans ruled by warrior class & Druids women much more independent than later cleanliness; wore striped or checked cloaks & pins

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8 55 BC AD THE ROMANS invaded because they were helping Celts from Gaul Britain became an important food producer / trading centre development of town (-caster) & roads & bridges (London Bridge) reading & writing; Christianity as it spread through Britain (St. Alban) Britain - Greco-Roman word Pretani 55 BC - First expedition of Julius Caesar 54 BC - Second expedition of Julius Caesar 43 AD - proper conquest by emperor Claudius 123 AD - Hadrian s wall built (didn t manage to invade Caledonia) 407 AD - last Roman garrison withdrawn 410 AD - Rome falls prey to barbaric tribes

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10 ANGLES, SAXONS & JUTES 446 AD - Vortigern invites the Jutes (military aid) - granted Kent; other Anglo-Saxon tribes begin to settle (130 years) Celts driven to the highlands (Wales, Scotland, Cornwall) Weallas - the land of the foreigners Roman influence destroyed except for roads & London s importance information from Bede s history and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 516 AD - Battle of Mount Badon - last Celtic resistance? king Arthur? 545 AD - Welsh monk Gildas Book of Lamentations 731 AD - Venerable Bede Ecclesiastical History of the English people 757 AD - Offa comes to the throne of Mercia 829 AD - Egbert, king of West Saxons, conquers Mercia

11 CHANGES... England - the land of the Angles settle the most fertile lands, savage the Celts days of the week named after Germanic gods: Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor (Thursday), Frei (Friday) -ing (family villlages); -ham (farm); -ton (settlement) Kings s Council - the Witan - senior warriors & chuchmen land divided into shires, or counties (shire reeve - sheriff) introduced a heavy plough oxen to pull - division into two/three large fields & then long strips (one field for planting spring crops; one for autumn crops, third left to rest for a year - basis for English Agriculture for a millenium) settled previously unfarmed areas - cut down forests, drained the wet land a manor in every district (manorial system) - paying taxes, justice, singing up for the army, the FYRD lords (aldermen) - local officials, then by 11th c. - warlords (Danish - earls) - class system Roman church vs. the Celtic church (663AD - Synod of Whitby) (increased literacy) export of woollen goods, cheese, hunting dogs, pottery and metal goods

12 HEPTARCHY Northumbria Mercia Wessex (West Saxons) East Anglia (East Angles) Kent (Jutes) Essex (East Saxons) Sussex (South Saxons)

13 BRETWALDA Ethelbert of Kent (toward the end of the 6th century) ---- the first overlord with this title ---- more ceremonial function than actual power ---- powerful King Offa of Mercia (757-96) who bulit a powerful dyke along he Welsh border to keep away the Celts

14 THE VIKING INVASIONS Vikings from Norway & Denmark - only raided at first 789 AD - first recorded Viking attack in Dorset 793 AD - attack the monastery of Lindisfarne, Northumbria 795 AD - attack the island monastery of Iona, Scotland 865 AD - invade Britain (quarrelling Anglo-Saxon kingdoms) 867 AD - kill rival kings of Northumbria, capture York 875 AD - only king Alfred of Wessex held out (878 - decisive battle won) made a treaty with the Vikings - recognised in the east & north of England - the Danelaw - land where the Danes ruled walled settlements built - burghs (now: borough) -- prosperous market towns around Danegeld - the tax to pay the Danes by then Cnut controlled much of England; chosen king by Witan, who feared disorder

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16 SAXON MONARCHS and Danish Invaders

17 KINGA OFFA ( ) Offa seizes the Kingdom of Mercia after the murder of his cousin Aethelbald Defeats the men of Kent at Otford Offa defeats Cynewulf of Wessex at Bensington in Oxfordshire Offa defeats the Welsh. Around this time work on Offa's Dyke is started marking the border with Wales Egbert son of Ealhmund of Kent flees to Wessex and then to exile in the Frankish court of Charlemagne First recorded Viking raids on England Beorhtric of Wessex marries Offa's daughter Eadburgh Aethelred king of Northumbria marries Offa's daughter Aelfflaed St Albans Abbey founded. Offa annexes East Anglia and joins it to the kingdom of Mercia Vikings raid the Christian monastery on Lindisfarne Vikings raid the monastery on Iona in Scotland Offa's dyke is completed. The death of Offa marks the end of Mercian supremacy in England. His son Ecgfrith reigns for less than 6 months

18 1. EGBERT OF WESSEX ([802] ) son of Ealhmund of Kent married Redburga [3 children] father of Æthelwulf Known as the first King of All England, he was forced into exile at the court of Charlemagne, by the powerful Offa, King of Mercia. Egbert returned to England in 802 and was recognized as king of Wessex. He defeated the rival Mercians at the battle of Ellendun in 825. In 829, the Northumbrians accepted his overlordship and he was proclaimed "Bretwalda" or sole ruler of Britain.

19 2. ÆTHELWULF ( ) son of Egbert and Redburga; father of Æthelbald, Æthelbert, Æthelred I & Alfred married: (1) Osburga [6 children] & (2) Judith of Flanders Æthelwulf was the son of Egbert and a sub-king of Kent. He assumed the throne of Wessex upon his father's death in 839. His reign is characterized by the usual Viking invasions and repulsions common to all English rulers of the time, but the making of war was not his chief claim to fame. Æthelwulf is remembered, however dimly, as a highly religious man who cared about the establishment and preservation of the church. He was also a wealthy man and controlled vast resources. Out of these resources, he gave generously, to Rome and to religious houses that were in need. He was an only child, but had fathered five sons, by his first wife, Osburga. He recognized that there could be difficulties with contention over the succession. He devised a scheme which would guarantee (insofar as it was possible to do so) that each child would have his turn on the throne without having to worry about rival claims from his siblings. Æthelwulf provided that the oldest living child would succeed to the throne and would control all the resources of the crown, without having them divided among the others, so that he would have adequate resources to rule. That he was able to provide for the continuation of his dynasty is a matter of record, but he was not able to guarantee familial harmony with his plan. This is proved by what we know of the foul plottings of his son, Æthelbald, while Æthelwulf was on pilgrimage to Rome in 855. Æthelwulf was a wise and capable ruler, whose vision made possible the beneficial reign of his youngest son, Alfred the Great.

20 3. ÆTHELBALD ( ) son of Æthelwulf and Osburga married: Judith of Flanders (his father s widow) While his father, Æthelwulf, was on pilgrimage to Rome in 855, Æthelbald plotted with the Bishop of Sherbourne and the ealdorman of Somerset against him. The specific details of the plot are unknown, but upon his return from Rome, Æthelwulf found his direct authority limited to the subkingdom of Kent, while Æthelbald controlled Wessex. Æthelwulf died in 858, and full control passed to Æthelbald. Perhaps Æthelbald's premature power grab was occasioned by impatience, or greed, or lack of confidence in his father's succession plans. Whatever the case, he did not live long to enjoy it. He died in 860, passing the throne to his brother, Æthelbert, just as Æthelwulf had planned.

21 4. ÆTHELBERT ( ) son of Æthelwulf and Osburga unmarried; no children Very little is known about Æthelbert, who took his rightful place in the line of succession to the throne of Wessex at around 30 years of age. Like all other rulers of his day, he had to contend with Viking raids on his territories and even had to battle them in his capital city of Winchester. Apparently, his military leadership was adequate, since, on this occasion, the Vikings were cut off on their retreat to the coast and were slaughtered, according to a contemporary source, in a "bloody battle."

22 5. ÆTHELRED I ( ) (the third) son of Æthelwulf and Osburga married: Wulfrida [3 children] Anglo-Saxon king of Wessex, and son of King Æthelwulf, who ruled England during a time of great pressure from the invading Danes. He was an affable man, a devoutly religious man and the older brother of Alfred the Great, his secondin-command in the resistance against the invaders. Together, they defeated the Danish kings Bagseg and Halfdan at the battle of Ashdown in 870.

23 6. ALFRED THE GREAT ( ) (4th) son of Æthewulf and Osburga; father of Edward the Elder; married: Eahlswith [six children] Youngest son of King Æthelwulf, Alfred became King of Wessex during a time of constant Viking attack. He was driven into hiding by a Viking raid into Wessex, led by the Dane, Guthorm, and took refuge in the Athelney marshes in Somerset. There, he recovered sufficient strength to be able to defeat the Danes decisively at the Battle of Eddington in 878. As a condition of the peace treaty which followed, Guthorm received Christian baptism and withdrew his forces from Wessex, with Alfred recognizing the Danish control over East Anglia and parts of Mercia. This partition of England, called the "Danelaw", was formalized by another treaty in 886. Alfred created a series of fortifications to surround his kingdom and provide needed security from invasion. The Anglo-Saxon word for these forts, "burh", has come down to us in the common place-name suffix, "bury." He also constructed a fleet of ships to augment his other defenses, and in so doing became known as the "Father of the English Navy." The reign of Alfred was known for more than military success. He was a codifier of law, a promoter of education and a supporter of the arts. He, himself, was a scholar and translated Latin books into the Anglo-Saxon tongue. The definitive contemporary work on Alfred's life is an unfinished account in Latin by Asser, a Welshman, bishop of Sherbourne and Alfred's counsellor. After his death, he was buried in his capital city of Winchester, and is the only English monarch in history to carry the title, "the Great."

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25 7. EDWARD THE ELDER ( ) son of Alfred the Great & Eahlswith married: (1) Ecgwynn [3 children] (2) Aelffaed (Elfleda) [10 children] (3) Edgiva (Eadgifu) of Kent [4 children] father of 3 kings: Athelstan the Glorious, Edmund I the Magnificent & Eadred took the tile of King of the Angles and Saxons Son of Alfred the Great, Edward immediately succeeded his father to the throne. His main achievement was to use the military platform created by his father to bring back, under English control, the whole of the Danelaw, south of the Humber River. He is buried in Winchester.

26 8. ÆLHELSTAN THE GLORIOUS ( ) the first monarch of All England? first son of Edward the Elder & (1)Ecgwynn The grandson of Alfred the Great, Æthelstan succeeded his father, Edward the Elder, to the throne of Wessex. He was the first English sovereign ever to be crowned on the King's Stone at Kingston-upon-Thames in 925. Incorrectly claimed by some to be the first King of All England, Æthelstan was a great warrior, nonetheless, whose fame stemmed from his conquests in Cornwall and Wales, and his defeat of a combined force of Scots, Welsh and Vikings at the battle of Brunanburh in 938. Æthelstan was a patron of monastic communities and especially supported the monastery at Malmesbury, where his tomb can be found, today.

27 9. EDMUND I THE MAGNIFICENT ( ) second son of Edward the Elder & (3) Edgiva of Kent married: (1) Elgiva (Ælfgifu) of Shaftersbury [2 children] (2) Æthelflaed of Damerham father of Eadwig All-Fair and Edgar The Peaceable Son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his half-brother, Æthelstan, with whom he had fought at Brunanburh. Combated the Norse Vikings in Northumbria and subdued them in Cumbria and Strathclyde. He entrusted these lands to an ally, Malcolm I of Scotland. Edmund met his death when he was killed at Pucklechurch, in Gloucestershire, by a robber.

28 10. EADRED ( ) third son of Edward the Elder & (3) Edgiva of Kent; unmarried; no children King of Wessex and acknowledged as overlord of Mercia, the Danelaw and Northumbria. A challenge to Eadred, which serves to illustrate one of his chief qualities, developed in the north, in the early 950's. Eric Bloodaxe, an aptly named, ferocious, Norse Viking who had been deposed by his own people, established himself as king of Northumbria at York, apparently with the fearful acquiescence of the Northumbrians. Eadred responded by marching north with a considerable force to meet the threat. He proceeded to ravage the Norse-held territories, then moved back to the south. He was attacked on the way home by Eric's forces. Eadred was so enraged that he threatened to go back to Northumbria and ravage the entire land. This prospect frightened the already frightened Northumbrians into abandoning Eric Bloodaxe. It must be that they viewed Eadred as more formidable than a bloodthirsty Viking, who had been thrown out of a society known for its bloodthirstiness, because he was too bloodthirsty and tyrannical for them. In any case, according to the "Anglo Saxon Chronicle", "the Northumbrians expelled Eric." As to his personal side, William of Malmesbury provides some illumination. He says that Eadred was afflicted with some lingering physical malady, since he was, "constantly oppressed by sickness, and of so weak a digestion as to be unable to swallow more than the juices of the food he had masticated, to the great annoyance of his guests." Regarding his spiritual side, apparently the pillaging, ravaging and laying waste that he did, had no deleterious effects on him. As Malmesbury states, he devoted his life to God, "endured with patience his frequent bodily pains, prolonged his prayers and made his palace altogether the school of virtue." He died while still a young man, as had so many of the kings of Wessex, "accompanied with the utmost grief of men but joy of angels."

29 11. EADWIG ALL-FAIR( ) son of Edmund I the Magnificent & (1) Elgiva; married Elgiva (not his mother...) [no children] On the death of Eadred, who had no children, Eadwig was chosen to be king since he was the oldest of the children in the natural line of the House of Wessex. He became king at 16 and displayed some of the tendencies one could expect in one so young, royalty or not. Historians have not treated Eadwig especially well, and it is unfortunate for him that he ran afoul of the influential Bishop Dunstan (friend and advisor to the recently deceased king, Eadred, future Archbishop of Canterbury and future saint), early in his reign. An incident, which occurred on the day of Eadwig's consecration as king, purportedly, illustrates the character of the young king. According to the report of the reliable William of Malmesbury, all the dignitaries and officials of the kingdom were meeting to discuss state business, when the absence of the new king was noticed. Dunstan was dispatched, along with another bishop, to find the missing youth. He was found with his mind on matters other than those of state, in the company of the daughter of a noble woman of the kingdom. Malmesbury writes, Dunstan, "regardless of the royal indignation, dragged the lascivious boy from the chamber and...compelling him to repudiate the strumpet made him his enemy forever." The record of this incident was picked up by future monastic chroniclers and made to be the definitive word on the character of Eadwig, mainly because of St. Dunstan's role in it. Dunstan was, after that incident, never exactly a favorite of Eadwig's, and it may be fair to say that Eadwig even hated Dunstan, for he apparently exiled him soon after this. Eadwig went on to marry Aelgifu, the girl with whom he was keeping company at the time of Dunstan's intrusion. For her part, "the strumpet" was eventually referred to as among "the most illustrious of women", and Eadwig, in his short reign, was generous in making grants to the church and other religious institutions. He died, possibly of the Wessex family ailment, when he was only 20.

30 12. EDGAR THE PEACEABLE ( ) son of Edmund I the Magnificent & (1) Elgiva married: (1) Æthelflaed [1 son] (2) Ælfthryth [2 sons] Edgar was made King of Mercia and Northumbria in 957 and succeed to the throne of Wessex at his brother, Eadwig's, death in 959. With this, Edgar was King of Mercia, Northumbria and Wessex (the three most powerful kingdoms in England at that time), simultaneously and could be considered the first ruler of a United England. Some of his predecessors were Kings of All England by virtue of being King of Wessex and, at the same time, enjoying a temporary military ascendancy over the other kingdoms. He was formally crowned in 973 and received the ceremonial submission of all the other kings in Britain. He wisely recalled (St.) Dunstan from exile and made him Archbishop of Canterbury and his closest personal advisor. His reign was prosperous and peaceful and he is generally credited with the revival of the English church.

31 13. EDWARD THE MARTYR ( ) son of Edgar the Peaceable & (1) Æthelflaed; unmarried; assassinated Elder son of King Edgar, he succeeded to the throne as a boy of 12, and in so doing, aroused rival claims on behalf of his even younger half-brother, Æthelred II the Unready. He was murdered by members of Æthelred's household at Corfe Castle in 978.

32 14. ÆTHELRED II THE UNREADY ( ) or Æthelred II The Redeless second son of Edgar the Peaceable & (2) Ælfthryth married: (1) Ælfgifu of York [9 children] (2) Emma of Normandy [3 children] Æthelred succeeded to the throne after the murder of his half-brother, Edward II, the Martyr, at the age of ten. His reign was plagued by poor advice from his personal favorites and suspicions of his complicity in Edward's murder. His was a rather long and ineffective reign, which was notable for little other than the payment of the Danegeld, an attempt to buy off the Viking invaders with money. The relentless invasions by the Danish Vikings, coupled with their ever-escalating demands for more money, forced him to abandon his throne in He fled to Normandy for safety, but was later recalled to his old throne at the death of Svein Forkbeard in He died in London in 1016.

33 15. EDMUND II IRONSIDE (1016) son of Æthelred II the Unready & (1) Ælfgifu of York married Edith of East Anglia [2 children]; father of Edward the Ætheling/Exile, and the grandfather of Edgar the Ætheling Edmund was King of England for only a few months. After the death of his father, Æthelred II, in April 1016, Edmund led the defense of the city of London against the invading Knut Sveinsson (Canute), and was proclaimed king by the Londoners. Meanwhile, the Witan (Council), meeting at Southampton, chose Canute as King. After a series of inconclusive military engagements, in which Edmund performed brilliantly and earned the nickname "Ironside", he defeated the Danish forces at Oxford, Kent, but was routed by Canute's forces at Ashingdon, Essex. A subsequent peace agreement was made, with Edmund controlling Wessex and Canute controlling Mercia and Northumbria. It was also agreed that whoever survived the other would take control of the whole realm. Unfortunately for Edmund, he died in November, 1016, transferring the Kingship of All England completely to Canute.

34 16. SVEIN I HARALDSON FORKBEARD (1014) son of Harald Bluetooth & Gyrid Olafsdottir married: (1) Gunild (Gunhilda) of Poland [7 children] (2) Sigrid the Haughty [1 daughter] After deposing his father, Harald Gormsson, Blue-Tooth, from the throne, Svein became king of Denmark in 985. From 994, on, he made a career out of attacking England and received the notorious Danegeld paid by Æthelred II. In 1013, Svein returned to England, not for more Danegeld, but with the idea of capturing the throne. On this expedition, he took with him, his son, Knut Sveinsson, who would later rule England as Canute I. The thought of engaging Svein and his son, Knut, in battle apparently did not thrill Æthelred, and caused him to vacate his throne in favor of a safe haven in Normandy. The vacant throne was seized by Svein, who held it for a mere five weeks. He died in February, 1014.

35 17. CNUT I THE GREAT ( ) Son of Svein Forkbeard & (1) Gunhilda of Poland married: (1) Elgiva of Northampton [2 children] (2) Emma [2 children], previously the second wife of Æthelred II The Unready, daughter of Richard I Duke of Normandy With the death of his father Svein Forkbeard, Canute (Knut Sveinsson) withdrew from England to Denmark. There, he gathered his forces, came back to England in 1015 and took control of virtually the whole country, except for the city of London. At the death of Æthelred II, in 1016, the Londoners chose Edmund II as their king, but the Witan had chosen Canute. A series of engagements with Edmund followed, with Canute defeating Edmund at Ashington, Essex. A treaty was made between them calling for a partition of England, which would continue in force until one of their deaths, at which time all lands would revert to the survivor. Canute had only a month to wait to become king, since Edmund II died in November of Canute consolidated his power by eliminating all claimants to the throne from the House of Wessex, through either banishment or execution. He had a son by his English mistress Ælgifu, Harald Harefoot, who would be regent at Canute's death and then, king for a short time. Canute got rid of his mistress and took Æthelred's widow, Emma, to be his lawfully wedded wife. Their union produced a legitimate son, Hardicanute, who would later rule as Canute II. Canute's reign was a strong and effective one. He brought with him security from foreign invasion and he ruled justly and well. He was considered a friend of the English church and was generous toward it. At his death, he was buried in Winchester Cathedral.

36 18. HAROLD I HAREFOOT ( ) an illegitimate son of Cnut I & (1) Elgiva of Northampton; married Aelgifu (1 son) Harald Harefoot was Regent and King of England, and the son of Canute and Ælgifu. He assumed regency at the death of Canute in the stead of his half-brother, Hardicanute, who was then King of Denmark and the legitimate heir to the throne of England. In 1037, Harald was elected king and ruled until he died in 1040, just when his half-brother was preparing to invade England to claim his rightful crown.

37 19. HARTHACNUT - CNUT II ( ) son of Cnut I & and (2) Emma of Normandy, previously the second wife of Æthelred II The Unready, daughter of Richard I Duke of Normandy (greatgrandfather of later William the Conqueror); unmarried Hardicanute took the throne of Denmark at the death of his father Canute, in He was also the rightful heir to England's throne, but was prevented from coming there to claim it. Meanwhile, his illegitimate half-brother, Harold Harefoot, was made king in Hardicanute launched an expedition to claim the throne, but Harold died before he could arrive. Upon his arrival in England, he was elected king. Thereupon, he levied a punishing "fleet-tax" on the people to pay for the expenses of his unnecessary expedition. He was personally disliked and his reign was short and unsuccessful. He died of convulsions at a drinking party in June, 1042.

38 20. EDWARD THE CONFESSOR ( ) married: Edith(Eadgyth), daughter of Earl Godwin & (2) Gytha; the sister of later Harold II Godwinson The penultimate Anglo-Saxon king, Edward was the oldest son of Æthelred II and Emma. He had gone to Normandy in 1013, when his father and mother had fled from England. He stayed there during the reign of Canute and, at his death in 1035, led an abortive attempt to capture the crown for himself. He was recalled, for some reason, to the court of Hardicanute, his half-brother. Canute had placed the local control of the shires into the hands of several powerful earls: Leofric of Mercia (Lady Godiva's husband), Siward of Northumbria and Godwin of Wessex, the most formidable of all. Through Godwin's influence, Edward took the throne at the untimely death of Hardicanute in In 1045, he married Godwin's only daughter, Edith. Resulting from the connections made during Edward's years in Normandy, he surrounded himself with his Norman favorites and was unduly influenced by them. This Norman "affinity" produced great displeasure among the Saxon nobles. The anti-norman faction was led by (who else?) Godwin of Wessex and his son, Harold Godwinsson, took every available opportunity to undermine the kings favorites. Edward sought to revenge himself on Godwin by insulting his own wife and Godwin's daughter, Edith, and confining her to the monastery of Wherwell. Disputes also arose over the issue of royal patronage and Edward's inclination to reward his Norman friends. A Norman, Robert Champart, who had been Bishop of London, was made Archbishop of Canterbury by Edward in 1051, a promotion that displeased Godwin immensely. The Godwins were banished from the kingdom after staging an unsuccessful rebellion against the king but returned, landing an invasionary force in the south of England in They received great popular support, and in the face of this, the king was forced to restore the Godwins to favor in Edward's greatest achievement was the construction of a new cathedral, where virtually all English monarchs from William the Conqueror onward would be crowned. It was determined that the minster should not be built in London, and so a place was found to the west of the city (hence "Westminster"). The new church was consecrated at Christmas, 1065, but Edward could not attend due to illness. On his deathbed, Edward named Harold as his successor, instead of the legitimate heir, his grandson, Edgar the Ætheling. The question of succession had been an issue for some years and remained unsettled at Edward's death in January, It was neatly resolved, however, by William the Conqueror, just nine months later. There is some question as to what kind of person Edward was. After his death, he was the object of a religious cult and was canonized in 1161, but that could be viewed as a strictly political move. Some say, probably correctly, that he was a weak, but violent man and that his reputation for saintliness was overstated, possibly a sham perpetrated by the monks of Westminster in the twelfth century. Others seem to think that he was deeply religious man and a patient and peaceable ruler.

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40 21. HAROLD II GODWINSON (1066) son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex and (2) Gytha; brother of Edith (Edward The Confessor s wife); married: Ealdygth Harold had become the Earl of East Anglia in Upon his father's death in April 1053, he succeeded to the Earldom of Wessex and from then on, was at the right hand of the king. In 1063, supported by his brother, Tostig, Earl of Northumbria, he commanded a brilliantly conducted campaign against the Welsh. He was successful in bringing them into submission, and by doing so, solidified his reputation as an able general. Harold acted as an emissary from Edward the Confessor to the court of William of Normandy in 1064, during which time he allegedly swore an oath of fealty to William, relinquishing any personal claim to the throne. This oath, which may have been given lightly, or possibly under duress, would figure directly in William's own claim, two years later. He would claim that the promise Harold made to him had been broken, giving William the right to challenge Harold in a battle for the crown. While on his deathbed, the Confessor named Harold as his successor, overlooking his grandson, the rightful heir, Edgar the Ætheling and ignoring a promise that he allegedly made (according to French sources) to William of Normandy. Upon Edward's death, Harold wasted no time securing ecclesiastical blessing on his claim by having himself crowned immediately. Harold's brother, Tostig, had been exiled since the autumn of 1065 and had joined with Harald Hardrada of Norway. A combined force landed in Yorkshire in September Until this time, Harold's attention had been directed toward the south and the invasion that he knew would come from Normandy. But, now, Harold had to break away and march north to meet the new threat that had come. He defeated the forces of his traitorous brother and the King of Norway decisively at the battle of Stamford Bridge on the 25th of September. Meanwhile, the favorable winds that the Normans had been waiting for had come and they had set sail across the channel, landing at Pevensey on the 28th. As soon as Harold heard this distressing news, he marched his force at top speed to the south. He reached London on October 5 and stopped to give his weary troops a rest and to gather reinforcements for the battle which lay ahead. The story of these events and the decisive Battle of Hastings has been presented exquisitely in the Bayeux Tapestry and it need not be repeated, here. Suffice it to say that William won the day, and with it, the kingdom. The English fought fiercely and well, since they understood that not only their lives were at stake, but their country, also. Perhaps, if the English had been fresh and at full strength, they might have won easily, but they were tired and depleted after Stamford Bridge and the subsequent march south. During his brief reign, the government continued to function as before, but there is no reliable way to judge what Harold might have been like as a king. He was certainly a capable field commander and a leader who inspired loyalty and confidence. His death has been recorded as coming in the midst of the final battle by way of a Norman arrow that penetrated his eye. Whether or not that is true, his memory lingers on as the last of the Anglo-Saxon kings and the last monarch of England to suffer defeat at the hands of a foreign invader.

41 EGBERT = Redburga ( ) Osburga, dau. of Oslac of Isle of Wight (1) = ETHELWULF = (2) Judith, dau. of CH ARLES THE BALD, King of the Franks ( ) Athelstan ETHELBALD = Judith, widow of ETHELWULF ( ) ETHELBERHT ( ) ETHELRED ( ) ALFRED = Ealhswith ( ) KINGS OF WESSEX AND ENGLAND (Note: Ealdorman w as a Shire O fficer w ho took part in the Witan, an early Saxon form of Parliament. The title later evolved into Earl.) Ethelflæ d = Ethelred, Ealdorman of Mercia Ecgwyn (1) = EDWARD THE ELDER = (2) Elfleda ( ) = (3) Edgiva, dau. of Sigehelm Ealdorman of Kent Elfrida = Baldwin II, Count of Flanders M atilda (6 th in descent) wife of WILLIA M I ATHELSTAN ( ) dau. = SIHTRIC, King of York Edgiva = (1) CH ARLES THE SIMPLE = Edgiva = King of the Franks (2) Herbert, Count of Meaux Edhilda = Hugh, Duke of the Franks Eadgyth (Edith) = OTTO I, Emperor of Germany Elgiva =? CO NRA D, King of Burgundy, or? Bolesla w II, Duke of Bohemia Elgiva (1) = EDMUND I = (2) Ethelfleda EDRED ( ) = dau. of Alfgar, Ealdorman of Wiltshire ( ) Edgiva = Louis, Prince of Aquitaine EDWY = Elgiva ( ) Ethelfleda, (1) = dau. of Ealdorman Ordmaer EDGAR = (2) Elfrida, dau. of Ordgar, Ealdorman of East Anglia ( ) Richard I, Duke of Normandy EDWARD THE MARTYR ( ) Elfgifu (1) = ETHELRED II THE UNREADY = (2) Emma ( ) (later married CANUTE) (deposed 1013/14) Richard II, Duke of Normandy EDMUND II IRONSIDE = Ealdgyth (A pr. Nov. 1016) Edward the Atheling = Agatha, dau. of STEPHEN, King of Hungary Alfred (d.1037) EDWARD THE CONFESSOR ( ) God win, Earl of Wessex = Eadgyth = (Edith) HAROLD II = (Jan. Oct. 1066) Goda = (1) Drew, Count of Mantes Goda = (2) Eustace II, Count of Boulogne Ealdygth, dau. of Alfgar, Earl of M ercia Edgar the Atheling (Oct. Dec. 1066) (chosen King by Witan on HAROLD II s death, but not crowned) MALCOLM III = Margaret King of Scots