YHWH Will Be Your Everlasting Light:

Transcription

1 YHWH Will Be Your Everlasting Light: יהוה יהיה לך לאור עולם A Motific Analysis of Light and Darkness in Isaiah OT 561 The Suffering Servant December, 2011 William A. Ross

2 Table of Contents I. Critical Methodology..3-8 II. Rhetorical Methodology A. Terminology 9 B. Identification of Imagery C. Analysis of Imagery III. Textual Analysis Isaiah 2: Isaiah 8:20, 22-9:2.16 Isaiah 29:15-19, Isaiah 42: Isaiah 60:1-5, IV. Evaluation and Proposals V. Appendix A: Methodological Diagram 35 Bibliography William A. Ross - 2

3 The prophetic book of Isaiah is structurally complex due to the apparent multiplicity of voices throughout the book, each seeming to presuppose a different historical stance in Israel s history. In addition to the structural difficulties in Isaiah is the presence of theologically charged atonement language, which is often rhetorically tied to given historical circumstances presented in the book. As a result, innumerable scholars have contributed to the now staggering corpus of studies that attempt to interpret Isaiah. As complex as the book of Isaiah itself is, and as challenging as interacting with scholarship associated with it is, undertaking even a brief study is nonetheless a rewarding enterprise that to the cautious and humble interpreter will no doubt yield fruitful results. It is the aim of the present author to engage in such a study, which will give particular attention to the rhetorical use of light and darkness language, as well as the development of the themes arising therefrom throughout Isaiah. Given the length of the book and prevalence of the light and darkness language in it, such an undertaking will be admittedly only preliminary. Instead of an exhaustive survey, the study will aim to consider key texts with an eye towards proposals for further research based on the results reached herein. Still, by use of redaction and rhetorical criticism, it will be shown that Isaiah s light and darkness motif develops significantly throughout the book, ranging from a characterization of the conditions of one who keeps tôrâ, to a portrayal of the eschatological fulfillment of the Day of YHWH. This development gives significant insight into the thematic unity and trajectory of the theology of Isaiah, particularly in view of diachronic developments. I. Critical Methodology: Even a cursory reading of the book shows recurring words, images, and ideas present throughout the book of Isaiah, applied towards conveying particular messages in particular texts. Only recently, however, have scholars begun to do studies to William A. Ross - 3

4 analyze these literary features in view of Isaiah as a whole. 1 Part of the reason for this is due to B. Duhm s source critical work in the late 19 th century, which has had a lasting effect in Isaianic scholarship. 2 In an effort to explain the presence of a seemingly undeniable variety of voices, Duhm, and after him much of Isaianic scholarship, focused upon a historically reconstructionist approach to the book. 3 This approach, however, some would say by nature yields highly speculative conclusions as to the characteristics and background of Isaiah s proposed sources. 4 Moreover, early source criticism generally presumed that the perceived historically and literarily divergent voices within Isaiah would not share common rhetorical motifs over larger textual expanses. 5 After all, from the source critic s vantage point, different Isaianic authors speaking at different times and under different circumstances, only compiled by later editors, would certainly not share conceptual literary frameworks. As a result, no rhetorical themes per se were of interest beyond what light they might shed on a given text or textual unit. Scholarly work eventually developed form criticism, which aimed to respond to source criticism s perceived interpretive insufficiencies. 6 Pioneers of the method like Gunkel and Koch 7 1 Intertextuality has become a major focus in the study of Isaiah. From the perspective of the critical stance described below, it is a dominant feature of [Isaiah] as themes are woven and interwoven throughout it to form networks which provide reflective puzzlement for modern readers (Robert P. Carroll, Blindsight and the Vision Thing: Blindness and Insight in the Book of Isaiah, in Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah: Studies of an Interpretive Tradition, vol. 1, edited by Craig C. Broyles and Craig A. Evans, [Leiden: Koninkllijke Brill, 1997], 79). 2 Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia (HKAT, 3.1; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rpurecht, 1892). Duhm s source critical approach divided Isaiah into three sections (chs. 1-39; 40-55; 56-66), which became so widely accepted that, as Ronald Clements points out, often Isaiah is taken apart before the question of whether it belongs together as a unity is ever considered ( A Light to the Nations: A Central Theme of the Book of Isaiah, in Forming Prophetic Literature: Essays on Isaiah and the Twelve in Honor of John D.W. Watts, edited by James W. Watts and Paul R. House, [Sheffield; Sheffield Academic Press, Ltd., 1996], 57.). 3 Marvin A. Sweeney, The Book of Isaiah in Recent Research, CR:BS 1 (1993) , H.G.M. Williamson, Isaiah 1-27, vol. 1, The International Critical Commentary (Cornwall: T&T Clark International, 2006), 7. Williamson points out that, in general, many historically reconstructive commentaries begin with the posited earliest material in the book and work forwards, leading to questionable conclusions. 5 John S. Kloppenborg, Source Criticism, in Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, edited by Stanley E. Porter, (New York, NY: Routledge, 2007), Kenton L. Sparks, Form Criticism, in Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, edited by Stanley E. Porter, (New York, NY: Routledge, 2007), 111. William A. Ross - 4

5 sought out a more authentic message of prophetic books by identifying the stereotyped speech patterns or genres that determined the forms of [prophetic] oral expression, and then stripping away the inferior work of later redactors who corrupted the original speech-forms of the prophets. 8 Such a critical approach, however, can be even more speculative than source criticism, as it attempts to go behind any literary structure to oral pre-history of the texts, to establish a potential sitz im leben. More recently, certain form critics have developed a different approach in their textual analysis, taking elements from both source and form critical approaches. These scholars do not presume that the original message of prophetic works lies in unadulterated oracular forms, which need somehow to be freed. 9 Nor do they erect literary and historical walls between sources perceived within a text. Critics like Sweeney, Clements, and Williamson instead incorporate elements of redaction criticism into their interpretive approach. 10 They recognize that, although the structure of Isaiah suggests various sources and compiled oracular units, the Hebrew Bible itself makes no delineation between the original and the later redacted elements of its books. Thus, these scholars maintain that it is in the [final] form of the prophetic book that the prophetic message lays a claim to religious authority and interpretation [and] must therefore 7 See Herman Gunkel, The Prophets as Writers and Poets, in Prophecy in Israel: Search for an Identity, edited by David L. Petersen (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1987); and Klaus Koch, The Growth of the Biblical Tradition: The Form-Critical Method, translated by S.M. Cupitt (New York, NY; Scribner s Press, 1969). Cited in Marvin Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39: with an Introduction to Prophetic Literature, The Forms of the Old Testament Literature, Vol. XVI, edited by Rolf P. Knierim and Gene M. Tucker (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996), Ibid, emphasis added. Sweeney humorously ridicules this approach, saying early source criticism saw editors as scissors and paste men, who may add irrelevant and dull comments to their material, frequently distorting its message, but who had very little of theological worth to say (Isaiah 1-4 and the Post-Exilic Understanding of the Isaianic Tradition [Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Col., 1988], 2). 9 Sweeney points out that the early form critical approach presuppose[d] that the primary object of research is the word of the prophet him- or herself, and that the later editorial additions and literary supplements to the original prophetic collections stand as obstacles to the recovery of the prophetic word (Isaiah 1-39, 11). 10 For a useful summary of the scholarly developments that led to this approach, see Sweeney, Isaiah in Recent Research. William A. Ross - 5

6 stand as the basis for form-critical exegesis. 11 Isaiah, in fact, is viewed as a redactional unity, which instead of following Duhm s structure generally divides Isaiah into two sections: chs and The former of these units literarily anticipates and necessitates the latter. 13 Although such an approach allows for less speculation, the diachronic elements are not left aside entirely. Interpreting Isaiah s final, two-part form does not negate the need to determine the history of the book s composition. Indeed, the history of a book is what produces its final form, and also entails that it was preserved, supplemented, and transmitted by later editors in light of their respective contexts. 14 In short, says Sweeney, [prophetic books ] redactors are not simply mechanistic editors; they are authors whose work ultimately gives unity to the book s final form. 15 The recognition of the authorial role of redactors lends credence to a more literary examination of Isaiah, rather than an exclusively oral or historical focus. 16 Sweeney contends that each text is a unique composition that employs its own vocabulary and concepts, using genre as a tool of sorts within a larger text to convey a certain point. 17 This development has 11 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 11. Williamson, making a case against a historically reconstructive approach, likewise points out that what Isaiah presents is a finished form that was worked on by various redactors, thus making it difficult to be sure of the original setting and context even of authentic material (Isaiah 1-27, vol. 1, 7). 12 In the analysis of this structure, scholars generally recognize the transitional nature of chapters 36-39, which form a bridge between the two major parts of the book of Isaiah, the Assyrian section in chapters 1-35 which anticipates a judgment by Assyria followed by a restoration, and the Babylonian section in chapters which presupposes a judgment by Babylon and announces that the restoration is about to take place (Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 32; So also Ackroyd, Clements, and Delitzsch [see his fn. 32].). 13 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 5. He goes on to state that because the structure of Isa anticipates Isa , the concerns of the second part of the book are the dominant factor in determining the structure of the first part In short, Isa is a structural sub-unit of Isa (6, emphasis added). 14 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, Ibid, 13. In particular, Deutero-Isaiah s are developed from those of Isa Yet [his] understanding of those themes is not determined exclusively by their context in Isa. 1-39, but in relation to the historical events and theological impulses of his contemporary situation (Isaiah 1-4, 6). Likewise, B. Childs maintains that the process of Fortschreibung, or editorial expansion, took place as expansions to the text emerged as a response to the coercion of earlier texts within the context of interpreting new communal experiences (Isaiah [Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001], 216). 16 This rhetorical literary approach was pioneered by James Muilenberg in his essay Form Criticism and Beyond, Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 88, No. 1 (Mar. 1969): See especially p Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 14. William A. Ross - 6

7 allowed interpreters to evaluate a literarily and rhetorically unified book that consequently has (an) identifiable message(s) that spans its entirety. Ronald Clements, among others, has done much work emphasizing Isaiah s unity, and has identified themes throughout the book. Moreover, these themes are of theological concern and therefore aid in discerning the purpose of the book. 18 For Clements, the unity of Isaiah is, in important ways, a literary and theological unity, which can be appertained by analyzing thematic development that resulted from careful and intentional redactional activity. Along this line of interpretation, the rhetorical themes, by virtue of their being deliberately read, shaped, reapplied, and developed by redactors of the original manuscripts in light of their contemporary events, provide a theological window into the book of Isaiah as a literary unit. 19 Following in that vein, this paper aims to survey and analyze the motif of light and darkness in Isaiah primarily synchronically as a final, canonical book, but also diachronically as a book that engages in inner-biblical exegesis upon itself by virtue of later redactorial activity. Rhetorically, the themes and motifs in Isaiah will carry at least the same cognitive weight no matter what the historical setting; but the theological weight will have varied over the historical course of redactorial activity. 20 Moreover, the theological import will not necessarily develop diachronically side by side with the literary structure of Isaiah. Literary themes in Isaiah will highlight theological concerns, which will in turn shed light on the overall aim of Isaiah (the 18 Clements, Light to the Nations, 57. Also see The Unity of the Book of Isaiah, Int 36 (1982): ; Beyond Tradition History: Deutero-Isaianic Development of First Isaiah s Themes, JSOT 31 (1985): H.G.M. Williamson, Isaiah 1-29, vol. 1, By cognitive weight I mean that the rhetorical usage of linguistic imagery will necessarily trigger particular cognitive responses in a hearer/reader of a text no matter how developed the theological import of that imagery. Even if light and darkness imagery were employed early in the diachronic setting of Isaiah, before much or any theological connotations were associated with it, there is a least common denominator of cognitive understanding that will be conveyed by the very use of such imagery. It is the growth of how the theological aspect of light and darkness imagery that this paper pursues. This idea is developed further below. William A. Ross - 7

8 primary interest of this study). 21 But the diachronic development of the theological import may not be directly deduced from the thematic literary development. Instead, the diachronic aspect of theological development may only be uncovered by evaluating apparent inner-book exegesis. 22 Original diachronic evaluation is complex and beyond the acumen of the present author. 23 In order to engage the text, then, the author proceeds using M. Sweeney s diachronic redactional history. In brief, this view acknowledges an oral tradition originating with Isaiah ben Amoz, later inscripturated by him or (a) later disciple(s), and added to by at least one redactor, whose work augmented and interpreted the initial text in light of significant historical events. 24 II. Rhetorical Methodology: Before beginning a rhetorical analysis of light and darkness language in Isaiah, some clarification of terminology will prove helpful in guiding the 21 Clements, Light to the Nations, The diachronic aspect of a synchronic motific analysis is complex, and would require further work in order to properly diagnose. Conceivably, although deliberate development of the light/dark motif would be most likely with only one main redactor (so Williamson) or close group of redactors, it is possible that even several more spread-out redactors (so Sweeney) engaged in deliberate motific development. An argument might be made for this along the lines of attempting to prove the conventionality of imagery, described below. 23 Sweeney himself acknowledges limits to reconstructing composition history, saying it is only a possible hypothesis for the interpreter (Isaiah 1-39, 14). Going further, B. Childs proposes a greater complicating factor in reconstructing redaction history, namely that editors who shaped the literary collection had little interest in preserving a historical record of the sequence of prophetic proclamations, but felt free to retroject later oracles into earlier passages in order to bring [theological] clarity and deeper understanding to the context of the original oracles (Isaiah, 216). Elsewhere Sweeney says redactional interpretations will not necessarily correspond to the intent of the original author (Isaiah 1-4, 6). These issues make diachronic analysis very difficult. While there are scholars attempting a solely literary survey of prophetic literature (B.A. Bozak, who undertakes literarytheological analysis, and D.G. Hagstrom, who does a simple literary analysis ), it seems unavoidable to take the diachronic into consideration. 24 In his analysis, Sweeney states well that Because prophetic books are literary form criticism requires redaction criticism to identify [what] constitutes the object of its research. But redaction criticism also requires form criticism to identify earlier material [and] to provide the basis for understanding the later literary formulation Only after the form, genre, setting, and intention of the final form of the text have been defined can the exegete look to the earlier forms that may or may not be present within that final form (Isaiah 1-39, 13). Sweeney proposes a two-part form of Isaiah in chs. 1-39, (Ibid, 39-40), and identifies the overall genre as Prophetic Book due to the singular superscription pertaining to Isaiah ben Amoz (Ibid, 48-49). He places the final setting in the 5 th century B.C. as a part of Ezra-Nehemiah s reforms (Ibid, 51), and appertains various intentions based on the four main editions of Isaiah he sets forth, which culminate in the need for the people to adhere faithfully to the covenant with YHWH (Ibid, 61-62). William A. Ross - 8

9 conversation. In order to detect usage of the motif, or theme, of light and darkness imagery 25 it is necessary to do more than a mere lexical search of the text of Isaiah. 26 While doing so would reveal in part the import of this type of language to Isaiah, 27 thematic imagery is not bound strictly to lexical stock. Words only contribute to rhetorical themes insofar as their meaning is determined to do so by virtue their relationship with other words; their context. 28 To get at imagery, non-literal usage of words is of primary interest, rather than literal or conventional usage. Accordingly, a simple word search will not suffice towards this end, as it cannot distinguish between the light of the moon (Isa. 13:10) and the light of Israel (Isa. 10:17). A. Terminology: Within the category of non-literal language, or imagery, there are two main rhetorical possibilities: metaphor and symbol. 29 Broadly, metaphors convey meaning by coordinating two realities, the more abstract clarified by the more concrete. 30 Symbols, on the other hand, rearrange conceptual relations in one reality or semantic field. 31 Similar to metaphor, 25 Henceforward light/dark motif. I use motif and theme interchangeably to refer to a recurring concept in a given work of literature, in this case the book of Isaiah. See leitmotif and motif in J.A. Cuddon, A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, 3 rd ed. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Inc., 1993), 485, 558 respectively. 26 In doing so, however, אור comes up 35x, while צלמות appears only once, and ח שך 21x (including feminine and nominative forms). The lemma ערב appears 4x, but is arguably translated grow dark (Qal) only once (24:11). Naturally, not all of these occurrences will be examined. The lemma ערב appears 4x, but is arguably translated grow dark (Qal) only once (24:11). 27 Henceforward, Isaiah refers to the final-form book, not the prophet or a particular redactor, unless otherwise noted. 28 Moisés Silva, Biblical Words and their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics, revised edition (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1983), especially ch. 6 Determining Meaning, pp Much of the following distinction comes from work done by Øystein Lund, Way Metaphors and Way Topics in Isaiah (Göttingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), Lund points out further possibilities, such as hyperbole, irony, and metonymy, which he says are mostly varations of metaphors or symbols. 30 For aspects of a cognitive metaphor, see George Lakoff and Mark Turner, More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1989), Also see Charles Forceville, Metaphor, in The Encyclopedia of Semiotics, ed. Paul Bouissac (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), An example of cognitive metaphor would be life is a journey, conveyed by the phrase after getting a college degree, he was really on his way to getting a great job. Here, the man s life (the more abstract concept, commonly referred to as the target domain in cognitive linguistics) is portrayed as a journey (the more concrete concept, called the source domain ) on which his college degree will aid him to progress. Lakoff and Turner note that for [a] metaphor to work, we must find or impose some correspondence between the ways that a particular [source] agent acts and our knowledge of the kinds of events [or attributes] typical of the target domain (39). In other words, metaphors must operate using consistent, shared knowledge in order to communicate meaning. 31 Lund, 41. William A. Ross - 9

10 symbols serve to coordinate realities; when a text employs a symbol, the symbol activates its sphere of reality and all that relates to it in the mind of a reader. In this way symbols omit the clarifying, more concrete aspect of a metaphor because that aspect is cultural convention, thus unnecessary. 32 Since both metaphors and symbols can coordinate meaning within one imagery theme, both will be considered in this survey of the light/dark motif. 33 B. Identification of Imagery: The question then arises as to exactly how the imagery at work in the passages to be considered has been identified. In pursuit of heuristic devices by which to do so, Lund identifies two features of language which point to non-literality. The first is incongruence, or the feature of language which leads the reader to judge that a symbolic reading is to be preferred. This preference is based upon the patent falsity or incoherence of [a] literal reading, or the banality of that reading s truth. 34 Others have called this tension between an expression and its context so that their irreconcilability demonstrates its non-literal nature. 35 Secondly is Conventionality, or use of language that commonly depicts symbolic ideas accepted in a culture. Conventionality is an often implicit linguistic feature, and automatically connects the source and target domains of a cognitive metaphor in the mind of the reader. 36 Merely detecting incongruence is not sufficient to identify imagery, then; conventional symbolic 32 Ibid, Thus, the symbol and its syntagmatic field of reality can be related to the metaphor s source and target domains, respectively. As mentioned, culturally conventional syntagmatic fields go unmentioned in symbols. Lund offers The Cross as an example, as it symbolically represents a field of reality known well enough within a particular culture to automatically convey meaning (42). 33 As a result, the light of the moon in Isa. 13:10 could in fact by symbolic and therefore contribute to the light/dark motif. In order to say so, however, one would have to prove sufficiently that such an interpretation of that particular verse would be the best reading. 34 Max Black, More About Metaphor, in Metaphor and Thought, edited by Andrew Ortony, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), Black notes that every criterion for a metaphor s presence, however plausible, is defeasible [sic] in special circumstances. Cited in Lund, Lund, Ibid, Vital to connecting source and target domains is that the reader is able to establish a connection between the imagery and the immediate context [otherwise] it will seem as if the text and the context speak of two different things (48). Also see Lakoff and Turner, 131. William A. Ross - 10

11 language must simultaneously be at work in the text to determine if a non-literal reading is preferred. 37 The passages examined below have been determined to employ light/dark language that, by means of the heuristic devices just described, will be interpreted symbolically. 38 As such, no formal defense will be made as to this stance beyond the methodology described above. C. Analysis of Imagery: In analyzing imagery once it is identified, then, the following procedure will be employed. As mentioned, the aim of this study is not primarily philological. Drawing an analogy from philological studies may prove useful, however. Just as the semantic range of a given word is determined by observing various usages in different contexts in the Hebrew Bible, the cognitive and symbolic range of a motif may be observed in the same fashion. By surveying the text of Isaiah as a final form with presumed redactional modifications, the various senses of the light/dark motif will become evident and, following Clements, may be used as a means by which Isaiah is understood theologically. 39 This analytical method recognizes that linguistic meaning is formed by consistency, structure, and the rhetorical features of contrast, 37 Ibid. Admittedly, part of the endeavor of this paper is to see whether indeed there is conventionality to the light/dark motif in Isaiah. In other words, as the analysis of the motif progresses, a greater degree of surety as to the motif s conventionality will be established. In this way there is some circularity unless the light/dark motif is presumed to be conventional in Isaiah in at least some instances. Because of historical and cultural distance between author and critic, an attempt to make an argument for conventionality of a given image will not be undertaken here. Instead, analysis will show the manner in which the motif may have become conventional through diachronic use. 38 See Appendix A for a diagram of the interpretive rhetorical features just described. 39 To clarify further, the Held method of philology contrasts with James Barr s comparative philology as proposed in his Comparative Philology and the Text of the Old Testament (Missoula, MT: Society of Biblical Literature, 1977), which promotes taking etymological background study of a given word into account in translation. The Held method, in contrast, takes no etymology into consideration, but distinguishes semantic value inductively by observing its use in multiple contexts (For all four principles of the Held method, see Chaim Cohen, The Held Method for Comparative Semitic Philology, JANES 19 [1989], 9-23). For a helpful comparison of the Barr and Held methods, see Chaim Cohen, The Meaning of צלמות Darkness : A Study in Philological Method, in Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran, edited by Michael V. Fox, Victor Avigdor Hurowitz, et al., (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996). Worth considering is whether Barr s etymologizing philological method on the word level is also analogous to cultural background studies when it comes to elucidating meaning on the symbolic level. In other words, does linguistic correspondence of symbolic language between Isaiah and some contemporaneous piece of literature allow for enhanced understanding? William A. Ross - 11

12 range, and distribution, which allow reality to be interpreted. 40 The first two, consistency and structure, are wrapped up in the heuristic procedure laid out above, but the three rhetorical features of contrast, range, and distribution are what will be engaged in analysis of the light/dark motif. Moreover, it is in the analysis that the diachronic features of Isaiah will come into play. Since the critical stance adopted towards the book is one in which chronologically situated redactions have occurred, the contrast, range, and distribution of the light/dark motif will (should) develop in distinct ways as earlier Isaianic textual motifs are reinterpreted and reapplied by later redactors. In clearer diachronic cases this element of development will be discussed. Still, as helpful and fascinating as the imagery analysis may be, we do well to avoid hanging our diachronically historical conclusions upon a synchronically literary hook. 41 If anything, diachronic development will shine through the synchronic imagery analysis, but the latter is not a means by which to determine the former. 42 Any motific development mentioned in this study, then, does not necessarily invoke a strictly diachronic idea. Though the diachronic growth of Isaiah speaks to the more developed theological content to imagery language employed in later texts, there is also mutual formation going on between the text in any given stage of redaction and the robustness of the light/dark motif s theology. Attempting to pin down 40 Young, et al., Rhetoric: Discovery and Change (Ft. Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), 25-31, Consistency is the unit-izing of reality, and is the mechanism by which language and communication operate. Structure is the manner in which the consistent units are organized hierarchically. The rhetorical features interpret relevancy of information by analyzing a unit s 1) contrast to other units; 2) range of variation in itself; and 3) distribution in various contexts. 41 This is especially true as the author is, for the sake of brevity, taking Sweeney s redactional conclusions for granted. 42 I would contend that doing so would be historical equivalent to the linguistic category mistake pointed out by James Barr in his Biblical Words for Time, 2 nd ed. (Edinburgh: R. & R. Clark Ltd., 1969). Barr shows that theological deductions based solely on lexical observations wrongly assume that the results will show how the Scriptures think, or even how the author himself would have thought about a given subject. Just as variations in linguistic usage do not necessarily reflect variations of authorial cognition, then, variations (even development) in imagery motifs do not necessarily reflect an author s historical setting. William A. Ross - 12

13 exact details as to the manner of such a nuanced process is at least inadvisable, if not impossible, given the chicken-and-egg nature of such an inquiry. III. Textual Analysis: The texts examined in this section employ the imagery of the light/dark motif for which criteria were set forth above. As such, defense of the identification of language as metaphorical or symbolic will only be undertaken where there is clearly room for disagreement. A brief overview of the diachronic aspect of the text will be given prior to each motific analysis. In order to make this preliminary study more manageable, only five texts will be analyzed, although references to other texts which employ the light/dark motif will appear where helpful without motific analysis. Texts were chosen on the basis of the author s perception of the significance of their contribution to the light/dark motif, as well as their relatively even distribution throughout Isaiah. For convenience, passages will be given from the ESV, with relevant language boldfaced. Isa. 2:2-5 2 It shall come to pass in the latter days that the mountain of the house of the LORD shall be established as the highest of the mountains, and shall be lifted up above the hills; and all the nations shall flow to it, 3 and many peoples shall come, and say: "Come, let us go up to the mountain of the LORD, to the house of the God of Jacob, that he may teach us his ways and that we may walk in his paths." For out of Zion shall go the law [tôrâ], and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem. 4 He shall judge between the nations, and shall decide disputes for many peoples; and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war anymore. 5 O house of Jacob, come, let us walk in the light of the LORD. Sweeney identifies this passage as part of a larger block of chs. 2-4, in which the text presents an ideal portrayal of Zion s role as the center for YHWH s rule of all nations, and also William A. Ross - 13

14 explains how Zion should fulfill this role. 43 Coming early in the text of Isaiah, this passage is central to the broader message of the Isaiah as it introduces the latter days language germane to the book. 44 Here, the text casts a vision for a day when the nations will come to YHWH and peace will endure. Due to a number of tensions within chapters 2-4, such as the superscription in 2:1 to Judah and Jerusalem contrasting with the mostly Zion-centric character of what follows, this text may be ascribed to late-exilic or early Persian periods. 45 The postexilic editor may have seen that the ideal Jerusalem of 2:1-4 was still not realized in his time, and thus projected hope for salvation into the eschatological future. 46 By virtue of its idealization of Zion, as well as various genre considerations, the text, like many from chapter 2-35, may be composite. 47 Verse 5 is key in the transition between the passage and what follows, as it explains the punishment of Israel as the means to purify Zion for its role as the center for YHWH s world rule. 48 Although Sweeney places v.5 in structural contrast with the preceding four verses because they show no awareness of the House of Jacob, 49 the first person plurals of vv. 3 and 5 seem to coordinate the two sections. 50 Grammar at least points towards v.5 relating vv.1-4 with what follows. 51 This passage, then, has two exhortations which come in response to a prophetic reality, namely bayyôm hahû, or the Day of YHWH. First, at that time the nations will come to 43 Isaiah 1-39, Isaiah 1-39, Isaiah 1-39, For Sweeney, 2:5 is the key to determining the setting, as it links the parts to the whole, presupposing both the peaceful reign of Cyrus, but also the Day of YHWH s upheaval and continued suffering (95). Williamson agrees, positing Deutero-Isaiah as the redactor (Isaiah 1-29, 187). 46 Childs, Isaiah, Ibid, 89, 91. Sweeney notes, Unfortunately, chapters 2-35 do not lend themselves to easy analysis in determining the whole since these chapters contain much diverse material there is no consensus on the delimitation of all blocks of material (Isaiah 1-4, 35). 48 Isaiah 1-39, Isaiah 1-39, Sweeney states that 2:2-4 is distinguished from 2:5-4:6 by its use of 3 rd person language as opposed to the latter s 2 nd person language (Isaiah 1-39, 89). Yet both segments use 1 st person language that seems to join them. Although in a quotation, this language speaks either to or about the audience (cf. 2:3, 5), or about the nations (cf. 4:1). Brevard Childs maintains that v.5 is addressed to the house of Jacob and points both forward and backward (Isaiah, 31.). 51 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 139. William A. Ross - 14

15 Him. They are exhorted to go up to the mountain of YHWH where tôrâ is located (v.3b), so that they might learn His ways and walk in His paths. 52 Verse 3b explains that tôrâ and judgment will go out from Zion, and the section culminates in the exhortation of v.5 to walk in the light of YHWH as a response, although 2:6-22 shows Jacob-Israel s pride and resulting inability to accept the invitation. 53 As shown in bold, it seems that the two exhortational sections in this passage parallel one another, with the imploring,ל כ ו come. 54 Both exhortations are responses to the Day of YHWH vision introduced in this text. One response is by the nations on that day, one by the house of Jacob in the meantime. Verse 3 presents nations at Zion listening to YHWH s tôrâ and learning to walk in his ways. All this language is brought together by means of linguistic connections amongst the clauses;,עלה,הלך,יצא and ארח and דרך (translated path and way ). Verse 5, however, employs the light/dark motif with no linguistic links to YHWH s light, 55 pointing to rhetorical Incongruence and imagery at work. Thus, in v.5 a metaphor appears in which YHWH is a lamp to a path on which one walks. 56 Considering the coordination of verse 3 and 5 noted above, the passage in some ways describes just how YHWH is a lamp; namely through teaching his ways in tȏrâ. 57 In other words, the combination of the parallel imagery language in this passage allows two perspectives. On the one hand, YHWH is a lamp to a path in v.5. On 52 Lund s work is concerned with the Way metaphors in Isa , which he says serves to change the perspective of the addressee of these chapters to recognize YHWH s ability and right to establish their fate as a result of their not following His ways (303). 53 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 36. He observes that this sets the stage for the announcement that the Day of YHWH will set this situation aright as the people are cleansed (Isa. 3:1-4:6). 54 H.G.M. Williamson, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 1-27 in Three Volumes, vol. 1, Commentary on Isaiah 1-5, (New York, NY: T&T Clark, 2006), Ibid. 56 Lohfink and Zenger make the provocative suggestion that this would have triggered the metaphor of the Sun-god, who is a god of righteousness (The God of Israel and the Nations: Studies in Isaiah and the Psalms [Collegeville, MN: 2000], 39.). In my view, although this view may have some credence, it goes behind the text. 57 Williamson observes that the phrase light of the Lord seems to be the editor s way of understanding or characterizing the ways, paths, instruction and word of v.3 (Ibid). William A. Ross - 15

16 the other hand, tôrâ is YHWH s map in v.3. These two metaphors combine to form the concept that one walks in YHWH s ways by means of following his tôrâ map. Doing so is considered walking in his light. 58 Clear navigational language appears, then, primarily around the association of tôrâ and the light motif. That v.3 is part of the Day of YHWH vision for the nations, however, also implies that v.5 s exhortation is a means by which the house of Jacob is to be a witness to the nations in the meantime. It is the knowledge given by the tôrâ of Isaiah, which in 2:2-5 allows the house of Jacob to carry out that task. Early in Isaiah, then, metaphorical imagery is employed to create, or at least recognize the symbolic, although not exclusive, association of light with tôrâ in a priestly role. 59 It is notable that this passage unveils, or at least rhetorically establishes, the symbol of light. A strict metaphorical image complete with clarifying source domain is therefore not strictly necessary to trigger the concept of tôrâ when the light motif is employed. 60 Isa. 8:20, 22-9:2 8:20 To the teaching [tȏrâ] and to the testimony! If they will not speak according to this word, it is because they have no dawn 22 And they will look to the earth, but behold, distress and darkness, the gloom of anguish. And they will be thrust into thick darkness. 9:1 But there will be no gloom for her who was in anguish. In the former time he brought into contempt the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the latter time he has made glorious the way of the sea, the land beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the nations. 2 The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light; those who dwelt in a land of deep darkness, on them has light shined. 58 Interestingly, Lohfink and Zenger point out that the Targum of Jonathan uses the repetition in verses 3 and 5 of as the impetus to interpret the image of the light of YHWH in 2:5 through instruction of the law of ל כ ו YHWH, which also contrasts with learning war in 2:4 (God of Israel, 40, fn. 16). For similar instances in other biblical literature, see Geza Vermes, The Torah Is Light, VT 8 (1958) I am using tȏrâ deliberately in place of law or instruction, etc. since much scholarly discussion has gone into determining the nature of tȏrâ in Isaiah. For just a few possibilities, see Childs, Isaiah, Again, when a symbol is used linguistically, that which is symbolized (corresponding to the target domain [in this case tȏrâ]) will be known to a reader who knows the culture and the conventions, even if this object is not explicitly mentioned in the text (Lund, 41). Thus, in texts like Isa. 5:20 the light motif is employed symbolically so that tȏrâ may be assumed even without clear metaphorical clarification. In this verse, we see development of the light motif in that the darkness motif is introduced. Here, by virtue of its rhetorical (and cognitive) contrast with light, darkness symbolically acquires the notion of non-tȏrâ, or darkness is absence of YHWH s tȏrâ. William A. Ross - 16

17 On the basis of considerations of 8:1-15, Sweeney regards this passage as composite, and locates it just after Ahaz s decision to request Assyrian assistance in the Syro-Ephraimite War. 61 No disaster is presupposed in the text, thus it likely lies before the actual Assyrian invasion. The thanksgiving psalm thus envisions the enthronement of a new Davidic king, namely Hezekiah. 62 In the context of a looming invasion, the intention of this text is to propose an opportunity for the Davidic line in that invasion might remove Pekah and Rezin, and thus encourage loyalty and reliance on YHWH. 63 Clements regards this text as one of the latest additions to Isa. 1-12, yet suggests it was in place early enough that the author of Isa knew and was influenced by it. 64 Important to note is that this passage is part of a large textual unit, beginning with the call of Isaiah in 6:1-3 and proceeding through the names given to his children in 7:1-8:4 who are signs of the coming Assyrian invasion depicted in 8: The psalm-like section in 9:2-6 forms the culmination to this textual block. 66 In 8:16-18, Isaiah has proclaimed he and his disciples will wait for YHWH as signs and portents given Ahaz s actions, boldly challenging the contention that reliance should be upon sorcerers instead of YHWH (v.19). 67 The text contrasts two groups; those who do not rely on YHWH s tôrâ (8:20b-22), and those who do (9:1[8:23]-9:6). 61 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, R.E. Clements, Beyond Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaianic Development of First Isaiah s Themes, in The Prophets, edited by Philip R. Davies, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press Ltd., 1996), For a discussion of this text s placement in Isaiah s Denkschrift, see Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4 pp , where he makes a case again for a final-form perspective. It is worth noting that in 6:1-8:15, YHWH says he will judge Judah for Ahaz s rejection of Him. That event corrupted the nation s relationship with YHWH, who has made the people blind and deaf (6:10) (Sweeney, Isaiah 1-4, 43). 66 Clements, Light to the Nations, Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 179. William A. Ross - 17

18 Immediately symbolic imagery is at work in this passage. In 8:20, those who do not speak according to tôrâ have no dawn.( שחר) Here, dawn is substituted metonymically for the light motif. While in 2:1-5 tôrâ represented a path on which one walks (thus also walking in YHWH s light), in this passage it represents something by which one speaks. The light motif, then, is developed by way of rhetorical contrast, to recall our analytical categories. 68 Increased range is seen as well in that light is symbolically one step further away by use of the indirect category of dawn. Motific distribution occurs in that this context is not one of the Day of YHWH, as was 2:1-5, but an imploring statement by the prophet Isaiah to withdraw from public debate on the Syro-Ephraimite War to await YHWH s action. 69 In what follows, distribution also occurs in that those who lack light for that very reason not only see distress and darkness in their land, but will be thrust into thick darkness (v.22). If 2:2-5 showed the result of walking in the light of YHWH, this passage shows the result of lacking light, namely judgment. In this sense, the darkness motif also receives further contrast and range compared to its first appearance in 5:20. Darkness is not only the lack of tȏrâ, but leads to and is itself judgment and distress (v.22). Those who do abide by YHWH s law are thus led to sing what Sweeney categorizes as a thanksgiving psalm in vv.1-6. The psalm develops the light/dark motif in significant ways. 70 A change in genre again contributes to the motif s rhetorical-contextual distribution. Additionally, while the navigational sense of the light/dark motif is established in 2:1-5, v.2b further develops rhetorical contrast by 68 See fn Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, 177. He identifies the genre at work as Instruction, more specifically Commands (179). 70 This passage is complex in both translation and redactional considerations. Clements says 9:2-7 is probably among the most contested passages of the entire corpus of prophecy ( Light to the Nations, 65.). Williamson, for instance, sees much of the light/dark motif as a product of Deutero-Isaiah redaction (The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah s Role in Composition and Redaction [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994], 73.). As such, he sees in 9:1 [8:23b] connected directly to Deutero-Isaiah s use of the light/dark motif in chs (74). William A. Ross - 18

19 depicting dwelling in a land of deep darkness. Note that the stationary image of dwelling is placed in poetic parallel with the navigational walking sense of the symbol. By so doing, range of the dark motif is also developed, as it is confined not only to darkness is the absence of YHWH s tôrâ in a person or group, but here seems to be a characteristic of a place. Perhaps darkness is the abode of the condemned would be appropriate. Accordingly, a different symbol seems to be at work in this text. A strict application of tôrâ or non-tôrâ to light and darkness respectively is not likely the best reading of the imagery here. After surveying several opinions, Sweeney proposes that the former/latter time language in 9:1 [8:23a] corresponds to the two positions mentioned; those who rely on YHWH s tôrâ (v.23aa) and those who rely on sorcerers (vv.20b-22). 71 When considering the thanksgiving psalm amidst the broader context, then, 72 the former one will be he who endures the coming Assyrian invasion, while the latter one will recognize and praise YHWH for His plan to install a Davidic king, which is the contents and hope of the psalm. 73 The light/dark motif s contrast and range, then, are greatly developed, as it now pertains to not only theological concerns (as in 2:2-5), but geopolitical concerns, if theologically charged at that. The joy which comes to the people of the psalm is evidently a result of vv.3-4 portraying the destruction of military combat symbols, and announcing the birth of a new king who will usher in peace (v.6). 74 The light of v.2 which people now see and which is shining on them is a thus person. Moreover, this person is one upon whom hopes of deliverance are fixed. 71 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, Sweeney locates this passage just after Ahaz s decision to request Assyrian assistance in the Syro-Ephraimite War. No disaster is presupposed in the text however, thus it likely lies before the actual Assyrian invasion (Isaiah 1-39, ). Clements proposes that the psalm in 9:2-7 envisions the enthronement of Hezekiah ( Light to the Nations, 66). 73 Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39, William A. Ross - 19

20 It is important to note that the rhetorical development that takes place in this passage does not override what was seen in 2:2-5, but builds upon it. 75 In this sense, light represents a quasimessianic figure and loyalty to YHWH s tôrâ. Likewise the darkness symbolizes geopolitical judgment and infidelity to or lack of YHWH s tôrâ which gave way thereto. The passage integrates the light/darkness imagery heretofore seen so that one reading does not exclude, but implies the other. The theological import of the theme is thus developed so that, on the one hand, notions of deliverance to come from the kingly figure are inferred, while on the other hand the light motif also symbolically import notions of tôrâ. As a result, what appears to be in view is more than political deliverance, but theological (even cosmic?) deliverance. Clements makes the point that the very force of Isaiah the prophet s mission is that of blinding Israel (6:10). The light in view in 9:2-7 then corresponds to the spiritual darkness which afflicts the nation, and liberation from it will take the form of a new deliverer-king who walks in the light of YHWH The theme is built in a theological sense synchronically construed. Given Sweeney s late date of 2:2-5, this passage (8:20, 22-9:2) cannot build upon the light/dark motif diachronically. Below, further consideration will be given to the likelihood of a mutual-influence between early and late Isaianic texts in terms of the motif, which both shaped and were shaped by historical concerns of the redactor(s). 76 Light to the Nations, 65. Thus Clements links the messianic claims of the line of David to light imagery. In 10:17 the light of Israel that devours the thorns and briars alludes to 9:2, which itself alludes to 5:6 where agricultural imagery is introduced (66). Elsewhere Clements maintains that Isa. 29:18, which links the darkness motif with blindness, alludes to 8:23. William A. Ross - 20