A. To help students recognize preconceived attitudes they may bring toward the OT. 1. The phrase Old Testament itself is interpretative.

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1 I. LECTURE DESCRIPTION 1 A. This lecture attempts to develop a focus on how Old Testament criticism, hermeneutics, and homiletics, of the Old Testament apply to the Christian community and ministry. B. The major areas of the Old Testament are explored and discussed in the context of exploring how the Old Testament may be used properly in the life of the Christian community, e.g., education ministry, counseling, evangelism, and many others. II. LECTURE OBJECTIVES A. To help students recognize preconceived attitudes they may bring toward the OT 1. The phrase Old Testament itself is interpretative. 2. We all carry ideas, and possibly ideals, that were generated by sermons, Bible lessons, etc., from the Old Testament. 3. We need to test the validity of all of these. B. To help each person struggle to develop an approach to understanding the message of the Bible and specifically the OT 1. How is the Old Testament approached individually and congregationally? 2. What is the relationship of the Old Testament to the rest of the Bible? C. To point out ongoing problems that one faces in trying to determine the meaning and message of any Biblical text, including OT texts. 1. The material is old and deals with people long ago. How may it be used in st the 21 century? 1 This is a general revision of an older lecture used in a doctor of ministry program. The data is somewhat dated and needs more recent materials, but for the purposes of exploring how the Churches of Christ relate to an application of the Old Testament, the general ideas it contained may still be of some use. 1

2 2. Under what conditions can the Old Testament be used and for what purposes? D. To provide students with a rigorous and practical method of exegesis and preaching OT texts. 1. What methods are available to the student for exegesis, application, and preaching of the Old Testament? 2. Are there unexplored areas? E. To help students determine the unique characteristics of different OT genres and forms so that they may be appropriately used 1. The OT contains hundreds (thousands?) of genres and sub-genres of literature. 2. Each has its own particular function which might be employed in various types of ministry. F. To encourage the proper use and application of OT texts 1. We must learn the proper use and application of the OT texts. 2. We cannot use them indiscriminately 3. Even the NT provides general parameters for its use (Rom 15:4; 1 Cor 10:6, 10), as well as an example of its use (The Book of Hebrews). 4. To this may be added the countless thousands of examples of how the inspired NT writers made use of OT texts. G. To facilitate the development of a legitimate methodology for Christians' use of the Old Testament III. ATTITUDES IN CHRISTENDOM A. Attitudes among various Christian groups have been mixed; though generalization is always dangerous, the following may be observed: B. The name itself expresses certain connotations. 2

3 1. It is the Old Testament implying that somehow it is different from the New Testament. 2. This difference has been a source of puzzlement and confusion. C. Some argue that it has just as much authority as the New. I aver that the Old and New Testaments are essentially the same as to obligation, and stand in the same relation to each other and to us, as different parts of the New Testament to each other. 2 D. Others argue that it has been superseded or replaced by the New. E. People of both extremes contradict themselves in practice: 1. Many who argue that the OT has been superseded cite it as authority. 2. Those who say it is authoritative fail to study it adequately or implement all of its commands. F. The problem is compounded when the HCM is factored in with the above. 1. The conservative vs. liberal approach to the OT cuts across various protestant groups. 2. There are representatives of both camps in nearly all groups. IV. ATTITUDES AMONG THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST A. Churches of Christ have responded to all of the above by making a sharp distinction between New Testament and Old Testament. The following phrases are common: 1. In times past, God spoke to the prophets, but today he has spoken through his Son, Heb 1:1 2 Semple, a protestant theologian; regrettably I no longer have the documentary data for this quotation. 3

4 2. You have been set free from the law, Gal 5:1 3. The Old Testament was nailed to the cross, Col 2: To follow the Old Testament is to follow an inferior covenant, Heb 8:6 5. Based on the misinterpretation of the above statements such as the following have been stated, misunderstood and repeated: a. The Christian age replaced the Mosical age, which replaced the Patriarchal. b. The Old Testament is inspired, but the New Testament is our rule of faith and practice today. B. Elmer Fritz's Master s thesis on The Old Testament and the Disciples of Christ, concluded that those embracing the Restoration Movement have used the Old Testament 3 ways, and to which a 4th may be added. All of the four may be applied to all Christian groups: 3 1. Concern for details of the OT for their own sake 2. To illustrate or explain NT references 3. Citations of OT passages believed to predict the coming of Jesus 4. With the rise of HCM came an interest in critical matters. C. Much of the blame has been incorrectly assigned to Campbell s sermon on the Law 1. The influence of this sermon cannot be denied 2. Yet the sermon is not so much to blame as the Restoration Movement adherents application of its hermeneutical principles. 3 Tony Ash, "Old Testament Scholarship and the Restoration Movement," RQ 24:4 (1982):

5 a. Campbell s sermon logically points to the differences between the Mosical Law and the Gospel of Christ. b. Since the sermon focuses on the Law and not the entire Old Testament, it does not address how the Old Testament as a whole might be used by Christians. c. Since the sermon does not address how the Old Testament as a whole might be used by Christians, it does not develop a hermeneutical methodology as Paul mentions in Romans 15:4 and 1 Cor 10:6, 10, and as the Book of Hebrews illustrates. d. Yet because many who do not comprehend these differences share common feelings with its conclusions, much confusion, ignorance and bad hermenutic have been produced. D. Examples of exclusionary attitudes toward the Old Testament: 1. "Why study the Old Testament?" a. "We are living under the New Testament 'dispensation'" b. "Those events were so long ago. I find it so difficult to understand." 2. Some actions by people indicate certain exclusionary attitudes: a. Dr. Jesse Long and I were students at Drew University for several years as Old Testament students. b. During that time the only Old Testament Sunday School class either of us ever taught was one I designed and volunteered for myself! c. Other actions are beyond belief: (1) As when one told me capital punishment was wrong because the Bible said, "Thou shalt not kill," Exod 20:13-- (NRSV--"not murder") 5

6 (2) When I pointed out that a few verses from that verse (Exod 21:12-17) and other passages authorized capital punishment," she replied, "But you are quoting the Old Testament." 3. Tony Ash has observed 5 periods in which subtle changes in attitude may be observed: 4 a : study followed the lines outlined by Fritz b : increased interest in critical studies, largely apologetic in nature c : McGarvey's Biblical Criticism published and sides chosen d : (1) split between Disciples and Churches of Christ (2) was a difference in views relative to the Bible and critical studies (3) McGarvey's Authorship of Deuteronomy published e : published many conservative articles which repeated McGarvey's arguments f : (1) Renewed interest in OT scholarly studies (2) approximately 50 people received Master's Degrees in OT (3) received Doctorates 4 Ash, "Old Testament Scholarship,"

7 g : 4 at Drew University alone and 1 at Hebrew Union 5 4. What produced such renewed interest is only a matter of conjecture. E. While we may never answer that question, the other, more significant questions and astute comments are raised by Ash: 6 "What has this meant for the life of the church?"... Certainly the genius of the Restoration Movement gives us ample mandate for the serious study of the Bible. But what of the popular approach to the Old Testament? First, we should ask whether anything in the background of our movement offers a specific mandate for Old Testament study. Just how can a "New Testament people" be concerned about the Old, or can they? No one seems to be able to bring the Old Testament before the brotherhood as a matter of deep and abiding interest in any way that has had staying power. Hence, we need a rationale to demonstrate why and how we must be concerned with the Old Testament. Isn't it interesting that the minister who preaches that we are bound today by the New Testament, not by the Old, will, in a later sermon, quote a proof text from Proverbs or Isaiah with as much weight as that given to a text from the Sermon on the Mount? And I have had divorced people argue that they could not return to a previously divorced mate because of the prohibition in Deuteronomy 24:4. Thus we need a rationale. Someone needs to forge it and place it before the brethren for consideration...how can it be used in preaching, in personal devotional life, in making ethical decisions, in teaching? Then the results of serious Old Testament study needs to be communicated to the church in a palatable and attractive way...people need to be exposed to the latest scholarship in textual commentary, theological exploration, and word studies. They need to be told, in a popular way, about the issues involved in the relation of the testaments. The question of the authority of the Old Testament must be explored at the lay level. What is the value of the Old Testament within itself? How does it speak a binding word of God to us? Even critical issues must be faced, for they will eventually be faced in the life of the church. People need to be shown how critical matters can be discussed within a framework that does not threaten the elements of a conservative faith. 5 The figures for this period do not represent scholarly conclusions; only personal observations and knowledge of the author. Research on the matter will probably indicate higher figures. 6 Ash, "Old Testament Scholarship,"

8 The Sermon on the Law needs to be reexamined, since it has been so influential. How is Campbell to be understood? Have we been true to his insights? Do we even agree with Campbell at this point? Is it time to register a protest against some of the teachings of that sermon and to suggest alternatives? Perhaps the historians among us should investigate this point, showing the historical consequences of what Campbell said, and to offer further direction. Finally, there is merit in the suggestion that those in the church who are serious about Old Testament studies might have periodic meetings to discuss their studies and to forge ways material of value can be channelled to the church at large. F. The questions and issues raised by Ash are indeed challenging: 1. His questions restated are: a. Just how can a "New Testament people" be concerned about the Old, or can they? b. How can it be used in preaching, in personal devotional life, in making ethical decisions, in teaching? c. What is the value of the Old Testament within itself? d. How is Campbell to be understood? Have we been true to his insights? Do we even agree with Campbell at this point? Is it time to register a protest against some of the teachings of that sermon and to suggest alternatives? 2. This lecture is designed to explore these challenges. 3. We hope hope to in some of the gaps that Ash has noticed and may refine some of the issues Dallas has raised. V. HERMENEUTICS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT THE HCM A. The rise of the historical critical method inaugurated a new hermeneutical method based on secular understanding of history, which is now generally accepted by 8

9 most scholars and religious bodies, and which even crosses liberal vs. conservative philosophical lines. 7 B. The method contains two major presuppositions: 1. Divine things can be historically and rationally described 2. Faith is not dependent on the historic accuracy of the material. C. While the first leads to a completely scientific investigation of biblical material, the second is actually Calvinism reincarnated. D. The biblical historian seeks to hear the text apart from the mass of biblical interpretation that has been laid over it in the history of its use. E. There are many different types of criticism used by biblical scholars, both liberal and conservative. 1. Textual Criticism--the study of the text. It attempts to understand the use of the various versions, translations, manuscript evidence, etc. in the study of a biblical text. 2. Philological Study--essentially word studies. Attempts to study vocabulary, morphology, and syntax of words and their combinations in a particular text. 3. Source (literary) Criticism--Usually used by liberal scholars in their discussion of the various supposed sources of the literature as we now know it. 4. Form Criticism--Classifies oral material and relates it to its presumed sociological setting. It seeks to identify the genres of literature that are found in the text to understand the oral stage of development. 5. Redaction Criticism--Used largely by liberal scholars in connection with their theories regarding various sources. 6. New Literary Critical School 7 Edgar Krentz, The Historical-Critical Method, (Phila-delphia: Fortress, 1975), 1. 9

10 a. View all received texts as wholes. b. Acceptance of the work as intentional production of single author (some ignore this - not concerned). c. Bible as literature on synchronic level - for its own sake. d. Key to meaning in logic intrinsic in form - rather than historical situation. e. As a result the method is more interested in readers than authors. F. The new literary critical method provides a healthy alternative to the above, but it has assumptions all its own. 1. Its emphasis on the texts as wholes, while useful to conservative scholars, is actually a means of ignoring much needed and useful information for a correct hermeneutic. 2. "In some sense, the Bible must be regarded as a record of salvation history; it is not just stories about the acts of God that form the basis of our faith; it is the acts themselves. This literature must have some referential function if it is to serve as scripture." 8 G. Conclusions. 1. "Historical method is in its general axioms at best not hostile to theology, at worst a threat to the central message of the Scripture.... Historical criticism is not a threat to the Scriptures because it is congruent with its object, the Bible. The Bible is an ancient book addressed to people of long ago in a strange culture, written in ancient languages. Historical criticism respects this historical gap and uses a method to determine as precisely as possible the significance of the words for the people then. Historical criticism sets the Bible squarely into our history and makes the `full brightness and impact of Christian ideas' shine out. 9 8 Powell, "The Bible," Krentz,

11 2. "Historical criticism is used because the Bible gives a witness to an historical event; it raises a claim to historical truth. To refuse to use historical criticism in the face of the Bible's claim would deny that the history told is true history, make impossible intellectual demands on faith, and separate history from the Bible that stresses its importance. It would be a form of the docetic heresy." The historical critical method which grew out of the rationalism of the Enlightenment has now begun to recognize that the Bible may contain the answers after all; hence, the evolution of the new literary criticism. 4. This focuses directly on the problem of the authority of the Old Testament. a. The HCM can be used to come to an understanding of what the text meant and its history of interpretation by peoples of faith. b. But the problem is how to transfer that understanding via a correct hermeneutic into today's world. c. Indeed, this is one of the major areas of investigation for this course, "Just how may the OT be appropriately used by Christians today?" VI. RELEVANCE A. Without relevance there is no application; here is the place where the message often derails. B. The application must contain to foci: situation of the text and the situation of the hearers. C. The text cannot be made relevant, but must contain the relevancy in it. D. The one who applies the passage must show the relevancy that is inherent in the text. 10 Ibid.,

12 E. This means that the historical gap between the text of long ago and application today must be crossed. VII. THE HISTORICAL-CULTURAL GAP A. The challenge of the Gap 1. While this gap can be perceived as an obstacle to application, it need not be. 2. The gap itself is evidence that the word of God entered the world in a relevant (relevant then), which implies that it is relevant now. 3. The challenge is to allow this to happen so relevancy will not be diminished--the text will be as relevant to hearers now as then. B. Improper ways of bridging the gap 1. Allegorizing: searches beneath the literal meaning of the passage for the "real" meaning; e.g., Song of Solomon = Christ and the Church 2. Spiritualizing: application of the earthly, physical, historical reality of the text by use of a spiritual analogy in the present, e.g., the dreadful experience of Joseph in the pit applied to similar spiritual deprivation in the souls of people today--"in the pits." 3. Imitating Bible Characters: not using Bible characters for illustrative purposes, but selectively imitating them, i.e., choosing only certain parts of their character, actions, etc., to copy--having the faith of Abraham in Gen Moralizing: drawing moral conclusions in regard to conduct, but selectively choosing which characteristics to emphasize as a prescription for today--david, a man after God's heart, when the text also says he has an evil heart. VIII. CONSIDERATIONS FOR PROPERLY BRIDGING THE GAP A. Concentrate on the original message 1. Keeps one from being sidetracked into a faulty application 12

13 2. Only the intention of the original message can be applied to hearers today. 3. Whatever was meant then for the hearers is what may be meant now. 4. Here is a direct connection between the form critical intention in exegesis and the intention in application B. Recognize the discontinuity: 3 areas where changes may need to be made in the message 1. Progressive Revelation: Since revelation was progressive the theme needs to be read through the canon in order to insure that it is the same today (Cf. Isa 6, John 12, and Acts 28). 2. Stages of Kingdom History: a. The message of the text was directed at people living before Christ or just after his death. b. Now application is for the contemporary world. 3. Cultural Changes: a. 20th century America, or any other place in the world for that matter, is a long way from the near East of the 19th century BC or the 1st century AD b. This may not negate the original application but necessitates a transformation in light of present day culture. C. Recognize the overarching continuity 1. One Faithful God a. Though the history of God dealing with man has many discontinuous elements, his dealing with all men have been fair and merciful in their contemporary society. b. This continuity insures that the message of long ago can have application today 13

14 2. One Covenant People a. All of God's people are covenant people b. In a proper application of the text, we may seek to legitimately identify with covenant people in the past, even though our cultures are different D. Focus on the goal of the text 1. What is the question behind the text? 2. Redefine the specific issue in terms of analogous application for today. 3. Search for the underlying principle that produced a need for the text which can be legitimately applied today E. Identifying with Bible characters involves building legitimate bridges between application then and now. 1. This method is employed most by those doing Narrative exegesis. 2. Though it must be used with caution, it provides excellent results toward application when used correctly. 3. In the following excursus we summarize (a) the major exegetical tools and (b) the major applicatory techniques which may be employed IX. BIBLICAL NARRATIVE AND EXEGESIS A. Introduction 1. "...the paradoxical truth of the matter may well be that by learning to enjoy the biblical stories more fully as stories, we shall also come to see more clearly what they mean to tell us about God, man, and the perilously momentous realm of history." Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative (New York: Basic Books, 1981),

15 2. Biblical narrative can best be understood as history that is artfully told, i.e. narratized history. B. Minimal representation 1. "The suggestion of a thing may be more convincing than a detailed portrayal of it," creating "conditions of illusion." Surrounding information guides perception as the reader fills out the portrait. The Bible excels in this technique There is little embellishment or explicit commentary in Hebrew narrative Leaving gaps allows the reader to construct a picture that is more real than if it were drawn in detail. "Minimal representation can give maximum illusion. In many cases a minimal description of a character, especially of one outstanding trait, is that magic line of suggestion around which the reader fills in the picture." E.g., Saul's height and David's good looks. 14 C. Representation through dialogue 1. "As a rule, when a narrative event in the Bible seems important, the writer will render it mainly through dialogue." Contrastive dialogue, i.e., short vs. long, simple vs. elaborate, etc The reader is led with dialogue by oblique hints rather than explicit statements Adel Berlin, Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative (Sheffield: Almond, 1983), Alter, Narrative, Berlin, Poetics, Alter, Narrative, Alter, Narrative, Alter, Narrative,

16 4. Narration often provides a chronicle or summarizing overview of actions essential to the plot. It may also convey information ancillary to the plot or may confirm statements made in direct discourse Smaller pieces of information may be withheld for an appropriate moment in the narrative. 6. The Scale of Means 19 a. Narrator's voice - certainty b. Inward speech - relative certainty c. Dialogue - weighing claims d. Actions or appearance - inference D. Narrative analogy and character contrasts 1. Narrative analogy/oblique commentary, where one part of a story provides commentary on another, is a commonly used technique Characters are in part developed through contrast with another character, with earlier actions of the same character, or perhaps with the expected norm. 21 E. Repetition 18 Alter, Narrative, Alter, Narrative, Alter, Narrative, 21, Berlin, Poetics, 40,

17 1. Key words/motifs tie scenes together and carry with them meanings acquired in earlier texts. This is one of the most common narrative techniques in the OT Even small changes in repeated dialogue may be significant. 23 F. Character and characterization 1. Character types include full fledged characters and agents who are important only for purposes of plot. 2. Characters are developed through character description, speech and actions, inner life, and character contrasts. 24 G. Point of view Point of view is the position or perspective from which a story is told. 2. Hebrew narrative is like film in that stories are often told from various perspectives and like film is scenic--sequence of scenes where events dominate. 3. "The presentation of multiple points of view gives the narrative depth, and, to a large extent, makes it good narrative. Two major effects of the use of multiple points of view are ambiguity...and irony." "In biblical narrative the narrator moves constantly between external and internal presentations, sometimes stepping back for a panoramic view and 22 Alter, Narrative, 91, 93-94, Alter, Narrative, 97, Berlin, Poetics, Berlin, Poetics, Berlin, Poetics,

18 then moving close in to a character to view things through his eyes, even reactions." A character's point of view may be conveyed through his own words or through the words of the narrator. 6. Point of view may also be indicated by naming, inner life, and repetition with a variation. H. Conclusion 1. "To the extent that we understand the medium of the biblical artist--his language and how he uses it, his literary techniques and how he manipulates them--we will be able to see what he represented." In using this method of application we hope to see what the biblical artist represented in order not only to appreciate his artistry but also so that we might be led to spiritual growth. 3. See handouts: Worksheet on Narrative Exegesis, 1 Sam 1-3, and Sermon on 1 Sam 1-3. X. BIBLICAL NARRATIVE AND APPLICATION 29 A. Finding Enjoyment in the Story 1. We derive a great deal of pleasure from a good story which is well told. 2. If Robert Alter is right in saying that "our religious tradition has by and large encouraged us to take the Bible seriously rather than to enjoy it," he is also right to add that "the paradoxical truth of the matter may well be that by learning to enjoy the biblical stories more fully as stories, we shall also come to see more clearly what they mean to tell us about God, man, and the perilously momentous realm of history." 27 Berlin, Poetics, Berlin, Poetics, The following is taken from Paul's Riemann's, An Outline For an Exegetical Essay,

19 3. Is there enjoyment to be derived from this story as story? Have you observed anything about the artful way it is told which would help others to enjoy it more fully? B. Finding Confirmation in the Story 1. Often something about a story, perhaps many things about it, evokes in us a sense of recognition. 2. This is the world as we know it, this is a situation people find themselves in, this is the way they respond to it and to each other, this is the way things turn out. 3. It is not only "realistic" stories about ordinary people and everyday situations which evoke this sense of recognition in us--we see ourselves an our world reflected in stories of many kinds (including myths and science fiction!). 4. It is important to us to have our sense of what is real and possible confirmed in this way, and we revel in it, perhaps all the more so if the situation is extraordinary, the persons and setting exotic, the time and culture different from our own. 5. And it is by sharing a story and our responses to it that we confirm our common sense of what is real and possible in this "perilously momentous realm of history." C. Practicing Living with the Story 1. We continually practice living in our imaginations, and stories provide us with grist for the mill. 2. They are important to us because the range of our personal experience is necessarily narrow and our own capacity to generate new imaginative situations is limited. 3. And they are important also because stories can be shared, and this allows us to compare our responses to those of others, and how we may expect others to deal with us. 19

20 4. For the most part we do this immediately and intuitively, but it is possible to do it self-consciously and intentionally. 5. This would mean placing ourselves in imagination in the role of each of the characters, and perhaps in the role of the narrator as well. 6. Does your passage invite imaginative participation in this way? If it does, what could be learned from it? D. Finding a Moral in the Story 1. There are few stories in the Bible which explicitly moralize, but many biblical stories have been used at one time or another for moralizing. 2. Perhaps the simplest...way to do this is to read the narrative as an "example story" which provides a norm for conduct, modeling good behavior to be emulated or bad conduct to be avoided (or both). 3. Does your passage present itself as an "example story"? What would happen if someone responded to it as though it were? Does it involve you in making moral judgments yourself? Of what sort? E. Finding Oneself Disconcerted by the Story 1. Stories may leave us unsatisfied, bewildered, or perplexed. 2. They may even leave us disconcerted and confounded. 3. There is no reason to think that stories in the Bible will be exempt from this, and when it happens no good purpose is served by denying it or by hiding it from others with whom we are sharing the story. 4. Of course it may only indicate that we have not done all our homework; in that case we need to identify the problem and dig more deeply. 5. It may also be the result of our distance from the story, and hinge on a crucial problem in the text or on something the story assumes which we no longer understand. 20

21 6. But it may also be intrinsic to the story itself, which leaves us with an enigma to ponder, or confronts us with an essential paradox, or raises for us some possibility we do not wish to acknowledge. 7. Stories which do this do not necessarily prompt us to growth, but they may. 8. Have you found this passage disconcerting in some way? If you have what is it that disconcerts you, and what do you think is the reason? F. Finding Oneself Changed by the Story 1. Stories--perhaps especially those which are at least initially disconcerting--have a potential for inducing change. 2. They may call to our attention what we have never really noticed, crystalize for us what had been only vague and diffuse impressions, bring to awareness what had been below the level of consciousness, make us face what we had not been willing to acknowledge, force us to reconsider what we had previously rejected, or open us to possibilities we had never allowed. 3. These may touch our deepest hopes and fears, our most basic sense of identity and reality, our sense of what is most fundamentally true of God, ourselves, and the world in which we live. 4. Can you image your passage functioning in this way? Has it functioned in this way for you? XI. POETIC EXEGESIS A. Introduction 1. We are exegetically unsound when we read poetry like narrative 2. Poetry is the language of emotion 21

22 a. When emotions come to the forefront and we try to vent them, or describe them, we "stretch for" words to describe it. 30 b. For example, "I feel like a dog," says more emotionally about our present health than does, "I have a high fever, with aches and pains, as well as dizziness, and an upset stomach." c. The latter is reserved for our physician to help him diagnose our problem while the former generates sympathy/empathy (emotions) relative to our state of being accounts of killing of Sisera, Cf. Judges 4:17-21 with 5: Much has been written. We will focus only on parallelism. B. Parallelism of Members 1. We need to move past the structuralism of the old methods of understanding to see how parallelism helps us identify with the emotional elements inherent in Hebrew poetry 2. Kugel and Alter have done this by showing a correspondance between the two parallel statements. a. Kugel denies that parallelism is a mere restatement, but rather B goes beyond A in such cases--"a is so, and What's more B is so." (1) Thus the pause between the two lines is not an equal sign, as a mere restatement would seem to imply, but rather a double arrow, "for it is the dual nature of B both to come after A and thus add to it, often particularizing, defining, or expanding the meaning, and yet also harken back to A and in an obvious way to connect it. One might say that B has both retrospective (looking back to A) and prospective (looking beyond it) qualities)" (8). 30 This can happen even when emotions are not involved as in this sentence where I am attempting to say, "we attempt to find words stored in our vocabulary that adequately describe our emotional state." 22

23 (2) Thus B has an emphatic character, a going one better, "a kind of progression" (9). (3) In wisdom literature A and B take on a didactic function which adds to its "sharpness": "A is so and B is so"; "Just as A, so B also"; etc. b. Alter on Parallelism (1) "There would seem to be some satisfying feeling of emphasis, for both the speaker and his audience, in stating the same thing twice, with nicely modulated variations. Like rhyme, regular meter, and alliteration in other poetic systems, it is a convention of linguistic `coupling' that contributes to the special unity and to the memorability (literal and figurative) of the utterances, to the sense that they are an emphatic, balanced, and elevated kind of discourse, perhaps ultimately rooted in a magical conception of language as potent performance" (9). (2) They are not "thought-rhymes" as Robinson asserted (9). Rather a movement from the first line to the second, in which the parallel does restate the first but with a different emphasis. Similarly, poetry "abhors complete parallelism" (10). (3) Component parts for this movement include: synonymity; synonymity with verbatim repetition; complementary; focusing, heightening, intensification, specification; consequentiality; leitwöter, etc. (29). Uses 2 Sam 22 as example (30ff). (4) Leitwörter: certain key words or synonymns repeated throughout a poetic piece for the purpose of emphasizing a certain concept, etc. (32). (5) Intensification: the introduction in the second verset a term that is stronger than its counterpart in the first (33). (6) Specification: usually of place, action, agency in the second verset, accomplishes similar purpose to 23

24 intensification (33). Both accomplished through parallelism of meaning or substitution of a more specific and/or more concrete term in the second verset (33-4). (7) When movement between lines occurs narrativity (metaphor) is the result. (8) Movement can be of various types (9) Chronology may involve two nonsimultaneous actions with the chronologically later action in the second verset, Ps 22:10 (10) Cause to Effect is another, Isa 1:31 (11) Linked Actions approximate equivalent actions which lead from one to the next (39), Job 16:9-14 to produce "motion" (40). (12) All of this is narrativity rather than pure narrative because metaphor (symbolic language) is used rather than describing a real event (39, 40)) XII. PENTATEUCH AND AUTHORITY A. The real question is, How may the Pentateuch be authoritatively used in ministry? In what areas it most useful? How may these be explored sufficiently? 1. For the narrative sections, much can be done with narrative exegesis. 2. The legal sections are good for study, as New Testament passages state (1 Cor 10; Rom 15, etc.). How can the Torah be used by the Christian? B. Other methodologies need to be developed in light of our hermeneutic XIII. HISTORY OF ISRAEL AND AUTHORITY A. The real question is, How may the historical books be authoritatively used in ministry? In what areas is it most useful? How may these be explored sufficiently? 24

25 B. Of course, narrative exegesis will come into play here, as well as other methods discussed above C. We need to see the biblical characters afresh, not as heroes of faith whose strengths we have long emphasized, but, as the Bible describes them, bad examples (1 Cor 10), who pale before the only good example--jesus Christ Our Lord XIV. PROPHETS AND AUTHORITY A. The real question is, How may the prophetic books be authoritatively used in ministry? In what areas is it most useful? How may these be explored sufficiently? B. The following might indicate the direction to take: 1. In exegesis of prophetic passage, form critical, literally, and poetic work must be done to determine the message, intent, structure, etc. of their oracles. 2. Any message applicable in their day may be applicable in our day provided none it is done in accordance with the general principles expressed in Part IV above. 3. Similarly, the prophets are to be perceived as other Old Testament characters; though there may be a greater tendency among preachers to identify with them than with other Old Testament characters. XV. PSALMS AND MINISTRY A. The real question is, How may the Psalter be authoritatively used in ministry? In what areas is it most useful? How may these be explored sufficiently? B. The Dynamics of Prayer Life: What Happens When We Pray? 1. This is the area in which the Psalter is perhaps most useful in ministry. 2. Will cover the whole range of emotions and thus is useful not only as a prayer-guide, but as counselor's text as well. 25

26 C. The people praying in the Psalter were real people, i.e., they had the same problems you and I have, and they furnish examples for us in our prayer life (cf. 1 Cor 10:1-14). 1. They realized and acknowledged adversity and misfortune in the universe. 2. To these people there was often a sense of resignation (ps 131). 3. There is a sense acceptance vs. rejection in their personal life (I/Thou). 4. Ideals such as loyalty and trustworthiness were paramount. 5. There was the assumption that if such personal concepts could be imposed on the individual, the reverse was also true--counter pressures could also be made on God. D. These views are in marked contrast to those of Calvin and Christianity as a whole. 1. Calvin's emphasis of the sovereignty of God caused him to anticipate the question, "does God not know, even without being reminded, both in what respect we are troubled and what is expedient for us, so that it may seem in a sense superfluous that he should be stirred by our prayers" (3:20:3). 2. His answer contained six reasons: a. Creates zeal in us. b. Awakens honorable desires and kills dishonorable desires. c. Makes us grateful. d. Causes us to meditate on God's kindness. e. Makes us thankful for answered prayers. f. Establishes our faith in God's providence. 3. He also stated that there are four rules for acceptable prayer (3:20:4). a. Reverence: Prayer is described as a conversation with God. Prayers rise to God and are answered only as far as God permits. 26

27 Should pray only for those things which God expressly promises. God always knows what we need. b. Sense of want and penitence: We should desire ardently what we ask for. c. Yield all confidence in ourselves: Come penitently in prayer as a pure supplicant. d. Confident Hope: We should be animated with the hope of succeeding. 4. Often we find similar thoughts expressed by Christians: a. "Why pray at all if God knows everything?" b. "God's will must be done!" "Not my will but thy will be done!" c. Question: "Is prayer just an exercise for us to get our feelings and thoughts in line with God's will, or do we really believe that our prayers matter, that we can change God's mind?" E. As we have already hinted, the Pss have a different perspective (cf. Ps 30). 1. This Ps gives an idea of how the Psalter views prayer. F. Some observations. a. Does not consider penitence. b. The petition is phrased unconditionally. c. Does not moralize about why God changed his mind. d. Verse 10, self-importantly, states that if he died God would not be praised. The implication is that God needed him. e. Thus there is quite a difference in views between Calvin and those expressed in Ps

28 1. The Pss do not take it for granted that human interests and divine interests agree. 2. There is a keen sense of conflicting interests. 3. These can only be resolved through negotiation. 4. The gulf between the human and the divine is real. 5. The petitioners pray for a change in their welfare. 6. The petitioners realize that they often approach a line of rebelliousness. 7. The psalmist would probably be amazed that Calvin knew so much about God's will. G. All of the above indicates that the Psalter may be used as a Prayer-Guide, and/or Counselor s Manuel. 1. It can teach much relative to prayer when the attitudes of those in the Psalter are applied to supplicants today. 2. The book is also a resource (counselor's) manuel containing a wide range of emotion and how to deal with them. 3. The more an individual knows about the contents, emotions, desires, feelings, mental state, etc., reflected in the Psalter, the better that individual will be able to use the book to analyze his feelings and relationship to God. 4. The problem is to develop a hermeneutic that is broad enough in its application XVI. WISDOM AND MINISTRY A. The real question is, How may the Wisdom books be authoritatively used in ministry? In what areas is it most useful? How may these be explored sufficiently? B. Certain books in the OT stand apart from the rest due to their distinctive didactic character and literary style. 28

29 1. These include Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes in the canonical books, and Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon in the Apocrypha. 2. Their distinctive style includes such things as sayings, proverbs, admonitions and exhortations, as well as a kind of pragmatism. 3. Thus they are quite different from narrative, though they make special use of poetry. 4. Yet they have an affinity with the rest of the Old Testament. 5. However they are interpreted, we must admit that the wisdom literature provide an interesting insight in that they illustrate the interpretation of the law. a. They may offer examples of life conduct in accordance to the law. b. They may offer illustrations of disobedience to that law. C. Literary forms of Wisdom 1. Proverb either as a statement or as instruction. 2. Fables: of which there are no examples extant, despite the fact that Solomon is said to have written about animals, trees, fish, etc (1 Kgs 4:32-33).. 3. Allegories: two examples, Prov 5:15-23 (characterizes a wife as a cistern), and Eccl 12:1-6 (description of old age). 4. Hymnic passages are found in Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon; but these lie outside the canon. 5. Disputation: Job--anti-wisdom D. Wisdom's characteristics 1. Wisdom is a way of thinking, a way of offering explanation of the world in which man lives, an attempt at understanding life. 29

30 2. It has various tensions embedded in it. E. Wisdom today 31 a. There is a sense of questioning, desiring to know about the world. b. At the same time there is a sense of humility at just how inept man is at understanding and controlling his world, and how powerful and knowledgeable God is in running the universe. 1. Abuse of wisdom a. Read the wisdom books in part, without looking at the overall message. b. Misunderstand wisdom's categories and terms, misdefining the terms used, Prov 14:7--You mean we should not associate with the retarded? c. Fail to follow the line of argument in the discourse, trying to apply what was argued as incorrect, Job 15:20--You mean the rich and the wicked are really unhappy? 2. Recognize that the biblical definition of wisdom, refers not to knowledge and decision per se, but to a way of life. In this the genre should be most useful for application. 3. For the most part, wisdom has been taught in the home. This fact itself makes it most useful as a tool for parents. 4. As with all genres, the poetry of wisdom has some unique elements when compared to other poetic genres in the OT 5. Wisdom tends to be limited by its practicality, i.e. while God and divine things are mentioned occasionally such theological areas are not the focus of wisdom. 6. Kinds of wisdom 31 Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 188ff. 30

31 a. Ecclesiastes--cynical wisdom b. Job--Anti-wisdom and the problem of theodicy c. Proverbs--rules and regulations to live by d. Song of Solomon--Sex manual XVII. EDUCATION MINISTRY AND THE OLD TESTAMENT. (How does your educational program use the Old Testament?) XVIII. FAMILY COUNSELING AND THE OLD TESTAMENT. (How may counseling mak use of the Old Testament?) XIX. NEW TESTAMENT USE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (How did New Testament Writers make use of the Old Testament?P) 31