Spirituality in the Workplace: Contributions from a Māori Perspective

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1 Spirituality in the Workplace: Contributions from a Māori Perspective Rachel M Wolfgramm (PhD) Dept. Management and International Business, University of Auckland, Auckland, NZ r.wolfgramm@auckland.ac.nz Cheryl M Waetford (BCom Honors) Mira Szászy Research Centre for Māori and Pacific Economic Development, University of Auckland, Auckland, NZ oceaniahuman@gmail.com Preferred Stream: Stream 15 Profile: Dr Rachel Maunganui Wolfgramm Rachel is a lecturer in the Department of Management and International Business, University of Auckland Business School. Rachel continues to disseminate research nationally and internationally and works actively in private, community and public sector environments. Rachel s primary research interest is in spiritual efficacy and institutional renewal. Her portfolio of research activity and interests also include spiritual capital in the creative industries, Māori and Indigenous enterprise, strategic leadership, sustainable enterprise, gender and diversity. Cheryl Moana Rowles Waetford With an extensive portfolio career in the private sector, Cheryl has now taken definitive steps in the direction of academia. She is currently completing her Masters dissertation with a view to moving into advanced level studies in a PhD programme in the Department of Management and International Business. Cheryl is an assistant researcher for the Mira Szászy Centre for Māori and Pacific Economic Development and her interests include organisational change and innovation, spiritual capital in enterprise, and relationships between entrepreneurship and workplace spirituality. Presentation Abstract This presentation will outline literature that examines spirituality in the workplace from the fields of management and organisation studies. We then consider Māori perspectives that offer contributions to these areas drawing primarily from Wolfgramm (2007). We note the transferability of such emerging knowledge to broader literature in economics, business and management. 1

2 Spirituality in the Workplace: Contributions from a Māori Perspective ABSTRACT Ontological tensions and theoretical challenges encountered in the literature on spiritual capital and spirituality in the workplace are highlighted in this paper. We note differentiation of the terms spirituality and religion and consider a variety of different perspectives emerging that reflect both critical and post modernist positions. Given the subjective nature of spirituality, the critical issue of how to capture and measure its significance is noted as an ongoing challenge for empirical based research. The primary purpose of this paper is to offer contributions to literature on spiritual capital and the more recent literature on workplace spirituality from a Māori perspective. We note Māori scholars who have advanced philosophical orientations of a Māori worldview and who are researching interactions between the spiritual and the secular in organisation dynamics. More specifically we consider Wolfgramm s (2007) metaphorical framework and outline transferability of concepts to the wider literature. We argue the contributions of this paper will advance both Māori understandings of their roles in the discourse of spiritual capital and spirituality in the workplace literature and suggest transferability of such emerging knowledge to broader literature in economics, business and management. Keywords: Spirituality, organisational change and sustainability, organisational culture/values THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE Interest and research in spirituality in the workplace is not new in management literature. Neither is the concept of secular spirituality. The term vocation itself derives from the latin vocare and has always implied something that is inherently both secular and spiritual in nature (Furnham 2003). Organisation theory also emerges from a strong tradition of scholarly consideration given to aspects of the sacred and the secular. Whilst there are many different ways to theorise and conceptualise the phenomena of work 1, Furnham (2003) argues work itself is generally associated with productivity and material advancement and is a social endeavour, whereas, spirituality is linked to intrinsic rewards and is considered a personal endeavour. Both consolidation and growth of scholarly based research activity in workplace spirituality is evident in academic communities around the globe and includes such initiatives as the MSR (Management, Spirituality and Religion) within the North American Academy of Management and the Metanexus Institute. However, scholars generating and articulating theories of spirituality in organisation note the area still remains relatively underdeveloped. Arguably, this is, in part, due to a lack of distinction between populist beliefs or soaring rhetoric and substantive based epistemological inquiry (Sass (2000) in Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003)). Further to this, distinctions and refinements need to be made on many levels, including levels of analysis, before engagement in more explicative dialogue is 1 See Work, Self and Society, After Industrialism, Casey (1995). In particular chapters one and two for a comprehensive theoretical overview that also signals implications of theorising work that arise within different schools of thought. 2

3 advanced. Arguably, the scientific study of workplace spirituality is hampered by lack of an accepted conceptual definition 2, inadequate measurement tools, limited theoretical development, and legal concerns (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz 2003). Added to this, are underlying ontological and epistemological tensions made salient for example by the introduction of the notion spiritual capital to economics by economic romanticist 3 Adam Muller ( ) (Briefs (1941) in Waetford (2007)). Austrian economist Schumpeter ( ) out-rightly rejected such abstract concepts arguing that notions such as spiritual capital were inoperative metaphysical conceptions (Schumpeter (1954: 421) in Hart (1986: 644)). Irrespective of this, in the study and analysis of organisations as workplace institutions in societies, philosophical and scholarly gazes have inextricably been drawn to analysis of both religious and spiritual dimensions of human activity and this is also currently reflected in spirituality in the workplace literature. In Toward a Science of Workplace Spirituality, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) provide comprehensive tables that capture and identify definitions and theoretical developments emerging in literature. Firstly, A Representative Sampling of Definitions of Spirituality in the Literature, (Table 1.1: 7) notes spirituality is variously defined as: a personal expression of behaviour, a subjective experience, a search for the meaning of existence, or as an animating force or capacity. Secondly, they offer The Dimensionality of Spirituality, (Table 1.2: 8) that outlines ten discrete dimensions of spirituality: Spiritual well-being, spiritual transcendence, spiritual development, spiritual wellness, spiritual needs, spiritual distress, spiritual intelligence, spiritual (religious) self-consciousness, spiritual growth, and spiritual health. An outline of Manifestations of Spirituality Attributes Versus Activities, is also offered (Table 1.3: 14) by Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003), as well as tables suggesting Interdisciplinary Links to Workplace Spirituality (Table 1.4: 18), and Hypothetical Connections between Workplace Spirituality and Areas of Organisational Interest (Table 1.5: 21). Whilst indicating contemporary trends and growing interest in the area of spirituality in the workplace, there are several key issues to note. The general tone inherent in definitional frameworks outlined in Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003) tables reflect ontological and epistemology assumptions (or commitments to) a certain degree of universalising. However, this could be linked to Biberman and Whitty s (2003) argument that the potential to proselytize and dictate dogma in scholarly discourse of spirituality in the workplace will present an on-going challenge. In spirituality in the workplace research, the unit of analysis is not always well defined. Nevertheless some general themes emerge. At an individual level the notions of interconnectedness, an individual s quest for meaning and purpose in life, a sense of self transcendence and a search for positive fulfilment beyond the secular centricity of a workplace environment are important. 2 They note Naisbitt (1982) who, more than two decades ago, identified spirituality as an amorphous megatrend. 3 According to Briefs (1941: 279,340) romanticists give primacy to organic intellectual reasoning and to notions of dynamic subjectivism and subjective dynamism. 3

4 At an organisational level, organisational culture and organisational citizenship behaviour are a feature of scholarly research and inquiry. For example, the development of corporate cultures purposively designed to capture and harness spirit, passion and creativity to advance organisational citizenship behaviour and attempts to institutionalize spirituality are captured by scholars such as Casey (1995). Kolodinsky, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2007) conceptualised workplace spirituality in three ways: As personal spirituality (micro level), as organizational spirituality (macro level), and as an interactive take on spirituality that reflects the interaction between an individuals personal spiritual values and the organisation s spiritual values. Stronger differientation between religion, religiosity and spirituality is also emerging. Vaughan s (1991) argument that spirituality is a subjective experience of the sacred is noted by Ashforth and Pratt (2003) who suggest that spiritual strivings are inconsistent with institutionalised settings. They argue spirituality is highly subjective, fluid, and often involves idiosyncratic processes, whilst religion is associated with symbolic ritual and institutionalised practices (Ashforth and Pratt 2003). The critical and cautionary position that Boje (2000a, 2000b) takes is also worth mentioning. In particular, evoking Weber s iron cage metaphor, Boje (2000a) notes that one person s spirituality is another s iron cage. Thus we could argue that one person s attempts to create a spiritual sanctuary in their secular or workplace environment could be viewed by other organisational members as an imposition. The organisation could in turn be viewed as an institutionalised spiritual prison of sorts particularly if normative based modes of behaviour are imposed on other organisational members. On this point, White (2003) argues that when spiritual beliefs develop into actual behaviour, conflicts in the workplace can arise. Drawing on historical facts that highlight ongoing tensions in relation to the evolution of religious rights and the separation of church and state, White argues the collision of values and beliefs becomes particularly salient when lines between the secular and sectarian beliefs become blurred and fuzzy. In this context confusion arises due to a lack of demarcation between spiritual beliefs and religious behaviour (White 2003). A post modernist turn linking the emergence of a new type of spirituality to a strong detachment from systematised beliefs and practices has been eluded to by both Possamai (2003) and Jameson (1991) and this in turn is associated with extreme forms of individualisation. Reflecting a type of cultural logic of late capitalism, consumption of spirituality is now fragmented, it is a la carte, eclectic, and somewhat kleptomaniac (Possami 2003: 35, 40). They argue what has become more evident are trends in patterns of individual consumption of spirituality that reflect a form of eclectic private symbolism in which individuals manipulate existing symbols, practices and rituals to create their own subjective experiences of the sacred. Symbolic inter-actionists would argue that this is not a new concept but is consistent with agentic forms of human engagement and expression across a range of spheres of social activity including religious, cultural and spiritual (Pargament 1997; Zinnbauer, Pargament & Scott 1999). However, in the context of current forms of globalisation and 4

5 glocalisation, the exponential growth in individualised spiritual consumption linked to forms of spiritual capitalism are a more recent phenomena (Lofton 2006; Zohar & Marshall 2004). Theoretical based study and interest is also evident in areas such as spiritual intelligence (Furnham 2003; Paloutzian, Emmons & Keortge 2003), spirituality and marketing (McKee 2003) and spirituality and ethics (Furnham 2003). Scholarship in areas such as spirituality and learning (Cochrane 2004; Senge 1990; Zsolnai 2004) and spirituality in leadership (Chakraborty 2004; Pruzan 2004; Senge 2003) are also increasing. Building on earlier works of Maslow, Barrett offered an exploration of the interface between organisational culture, corporate consciousness, and workplace spirituality. Barrett offers a somewhat linear seven stage process in the development of human consciousness 4 in making links to organisational consciousness (Barrett 2003: ). Various approaches to empirically measure workplace spirituality (also called spirituality at work) have made their appearance in the literature, with much discussion around dimensions of workplace spirituality that are appropriate and capable of being operationalized. Included is Mitroff and Denton s (1999) qualitative interview methods in their exploration of how corporate America might define the concept of workplace spirituality. Ashmos and Duchon (2000) developed a spirituality scale using a survey instrument based upon three components of spirituality at work (the inner life, meaningful work and community) along seven different dimensions of spirituality. Milliman, Czaplewski and Ferguson (2003) used structural equation modelling analysis to assess hypothesised relationships between spirituality and employee work attitudes and drew upon Ashmos and Duchon s (2000) work. Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2004) argued that workplace spirituality can be configured as a measurable aspect of an organization s culture and developed a framework using ten organizational values that are conceptually distinct in defining aspects of workplace spirituality: Benevolence, generatively, humanism, integrity, justice, mutuality, receptivity, respect, responsibility, and trust. Claiming consistency of the values with Pfeffer s (2003) four fundamental dimensions sought in the workplace (interesting work, meaningful work, sense of connection and ability to live an integrated life), Jurkiewicz and Giacalone (2004) link the importance of this construct to organizational performance by seeking to assess an organizations degree of spirituality along these value continuums. Moore and Casper (2006) sought a pathway through proxy measures of workplace spirituality reasoning the development of totally new measurements were unnecessary if existing established measures could be employed via profile models of multidimensional constructs. Benefiel (2003: 372) when mapping the terrain of research in spirituality in organizations referred to an unexplored new frontier consisting of philosophical work that [not only] heals the rift between the discourse of spirituality and the discourse of organizational science but provides philosophical scaffolding for new research methods which will take seriously the significance and 4 The seven stages are respectively: Survival, belonging, self-esteem, transformation, cohesion, inclusion and unity (Barrett 2003: 349). 5

6 validity of spirituality in and of itself. In concluding comments of their article, Giacalone and Jurkiewicz (2003: 22) state The scientific study of workplace spirituality may bring forth a new development in the organisational sciences, one hopefully unfettered by legal and religious phobias. The potentially groundbreaking nature of this research leaves no doubt that if significant relationships are discovered, a new understanding of workplace could emerge that could redefine our ontological stance. CONTRIBUTIONS TO SPIRITUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE FROM A MĀORI PERSPECTIVE In spirituality in the workplace literature, Māori and indigenous perspectives have been given a somewhat cursory glance (Wolfgramm, 2007). We argue in this paper that this is surprising given that indigenous organisations have a longstanding history of including many facets of spirituality in social, secular and organisation dynamics. 5 We make the point of noting some of the scholarly contributions that add impetus and emphasise why indigenous perspectives are an important and relevant consideration. Elucidating the ontological relevance of this, scholar Māori Marsden argued Māori conceives of it (the universe) as a two-world system in which the material proceeds from the spiritual, and the spiritual which is of a higher order interpenetrates the material physical world of Te ao Marama In some senses, I suspect the Māori had a three-world view, of potentiality being symbolised by Te Korekore, the world of becoming portrayed by Te Pō, and the world of being, Te Ao Mārama (Marsden 2003: 20). Implicit framing of the dynamics of both ontological and epistemological within a particular worldview is further articulated by Marsden who argues The worldview is the central systemization of conceptions of reality to which members of a culture assent and from which stems their value system. Therefore, cultures pattern perceptions of reality into conceptualisations of what reality is perceived to be; of what it is to be regarded as actual, probable, possible or impossible. These conceptualisations form what is termed the worldview of a culture (Marsden 2003: 56). In capturing spiritual dimensions of a Māori worldview made salient by scholars, several themes emerge that highlight the primacy given to spirituality from a Māori perspective: I nga wa o mua, a temporal and spatial orientation that values both linear and non-linear, holistic, plural, multidimensional and sacred notions of time 6 ; open knowledge systems that encourage eclectic and creative knowledge gathering and learning; historic demonstrations of spiritual capital; interactions of spiritual dimensions in social activity; and interconnectedness of spiritual, human and physical worlds. 5 See for instance Native Science, Natural Laws of Interdependence, Cajete (2000). 6 See Eliade s study of ancient belief systems. 6

7 Fundamental concepts evoke facets of spirituality and these include wairua, tapu, mana, mauri and hau (for a comprehensive explanation see Henare 2003). These dimensions are sustained and upheld by a matrix of beliefs that include: Tikanga te ao marama (Wholeness and cosmos), Tikanga te ao hurihuri (Tradition and change), Tikanga wairuatanga (Spirituality), and Tikanga hau (Spiritual basis of reciprocity in relationships). (Barlow, 1998; Durie 1994, 1997, 1998; Henare 2001, 2003; Henry & Pene 2001; King 1977; Marsden 2003; Mead 1986, 2003; Metge 1976; Salmond 1985; Walker 1992; Wolfgramm & Henry 2006; Wolfgramm 2007). We argue various manifestations of a Māori worldview are evidenced in a range of cultural, social and organisational activity, including those relating to spiritual dimensions in the work place. Given this, we suggest that considerations of indigenous perspectives have the potential to add value to research seeking to elucidate spirituality in the workplace. Methodology In this paper, we draw primarily on Wolfgramm s (2007) research which is based on over four years of participant action research operationalised by a kaupapa Māori methodology (Bishop 1996; Ruwhiu and Wolfgramm, 2005; Henry and Pene 2001; Pihama & Henry 2005; Pihama, Smith, Taki & Lee 2004; Smith G 1996; Smith LT 1999; and others). Wolfgramm s primary case study was Pou Kapua (Cloud Pillar) Creations. This organisation created a unique Māori indigenous taonga or sculpture; the largest of its kind in the Southern Hemisphere. The community of commitment, interest, engagement and practice included many tribes, corporate philanthropists, business trusts, artistic communities, academic, regional, national bodies and extended from local to global groups. Wolfgramm (2007: 11, 56, 3) found evidence of the force and scope (Geertz 1973) of a Māori worldview in the dynamics of this organization. She argued that facets of a Māori worldview were actively interpreted in the organising dynamics providing a sense of spiritual efficacy. Combined with innovative uses of whakapapa that moved beyond the immediacy of kin or genealogical links, ancestral efficacy was affirmed, renewed and constantly regenerated. Spiritual efficacy and ancestral efficacy combined with a range of heuristic narratives actively and purposively interpreted to align with organisational strategic objectives created a transformative and enabling organisational and workplace environment. Drawing on a range of scholars (Barlow 1998; Henare 2001, 2003; Marsden 2003; Metge 1974; Mutu 2005; Tate 1995; Walker 1991, 1992; White 1998; and others) she argued that in a project oriented workplace setting, a Māori worldview provided an important ontological, epistemological and paradigmatic orientation that drew on many facets of spirituality. Discussion In articulating manifestations of spirituality in a workplace setting, Wolfgramm argued that Māori organisations simultaneously reflect a range of orientations that make salient interactions 7

8 between the spiritual and the secular and which are influential in relation to institutional innovation, cultural and strategic orientations. Further to this, she found both strategic and cultural orientations reflected historical patterns of Māori settlement in Aotearoa New Zealand and the subsequent development of forms of social organisations and institutional development. However institutional innovation and active interpretation of culture were important features of adaptation to contemporary contexts. Wolfgramm (2007) developed a meta theory and articulated this via a metaphorical framework of Waka Aoturoa, Kainga, Marae, and Pa Taua. We outline this briefly below 7, and further, we offer a framework that makes salient some contributions to spirituality in the workplace literature. Waka Aoturoa The metaphor Waka Aoturoa 8 is designed to enable conceptualisation of the organisation as a vessel of exploration, adventure and discovery in a long standing world of pluralities (Wolfgramm 2007: 219) and has both cultural and strategic implications. In a paradigmatic sense, Waka Aoturoa views enterprise initiatives as a means of exploration and discovery of the world interconnected with spiritual and elemental aspects of the environment that are simultaneously enduring, complex and dynamic (Wolfgramm, 2007). Kāinga As a metaphor, Kāinga conceptualises the organization as an unbounded village. It is designed to simultaneously enable viewing an organisation as a corporate spiritual entity wherein multiple activities connected to the physical environment are undertaken in life long collaborative and networked relationships whanau (kin) and kaupapa (strategic objectives) based (Wolfgramm 2007: 218; see also Metge 1974, 1976). The term Kāinga, carries notions of: community, sustainability, mobility, home base, deference or respect to elders, cooperation, collaboration, support systems for resource development and accumulation, and building and maintaining wider links and relationships for both political and economic reasons. As a corporate spiritual entity, kāinga is also used to evoke notions of workplace activity and organisation. As kainga also refers to a place or places where many fires are lit and kept burning (Wolfgramm 2007: 241), when considered in this sense, communities of interest, engagement and practice are not localised but operate within a global kāinga. Marae As a metaphor, Marae highlights the importance of having a centre-point for reinforcing spiritual, symbolic and ritualistic aspects of the organisations worldview and ethos. In other words, it 7 A meta theory is no theory but rather a framework for structuring reflection (Alvesson and Skoldberg (2000) in Wolfgramm (2007: 213)). 8

9 conceptualises a place wherein aspects of institutional stability are valued whilst innovative institutional adaptation occurs in the face of both internal and external change (Wolfgramm 2007: 218). Salmond (1990: 211) describes the history of marae as an institution that developed over time, as places of encounter with no beginning or end, both frontiers and boundaries. Henare (2003: 108-9) notes also that the institution of the marae was a place of encounter between locals and visitors, the living and the dead a timeless place where matters were considered and deeds done according to various institutionally developed rituals. Pā Taua As a metaphor, Pā Taua views the organisation as a larger complex with territorial boundary markers wherein spiritual and symbolic actualization is realised and activated. The organization asserts itself through individual and collective stances that are at once protective, defensive, aggressive and proactive. In a metaphysical sense, Pā is likened to a bolt of lightening that touches individuals and collectives reciprocally. The result activates a response in which forces, both positive and negative, combine their energies. Pā, as a force of light, can occur between individuals and collectives with either aroha (love) or aggression. Combining Pā with Taua in this instance draws from the heuristic narratives of the Māori god of war, Tumatauenga, and his sibling Rongo, god of peace (Wolfgramm 2007: 277). In considering Wolfgramm s (2007) metaphorical framework we suggest this material highlights, both elements of spiritual capital from a Māori perspective, and resonates with contemporary literature in spirituality in the workplace, organization change and transformation. Taken individually and collectively, the metaphors symbolise and highlight spiritual dimensions interacting within holistic organisational contexts in the manner of an organic intelligent learning system, one that is capable of constant institutional renewal. Below we outline and offer some insights derived from using this as a framework for structuring reflection. In particular we draw from Waetford s (2007) conceptual review of spiritual capital and spirituality in the workplace. She identified some twenty-three dimensions in total to advance Wolfgramm s (2007) metaphorical framework. 9

10 Table 1: Spirituality in the Workplace: Contributions from a Māori perspective Adapted from Table of Metaphors Dimensions of Spiritual Capital (Waetford 2007: 39-40). Metaphor Waka Aoturoa Dimensions of Spirituality/Spiritual Capital Dynamic subjectivity dimension Explorative learning dimension Temporal dimension Spatial dimension Enlightening dimension Active interpretation dimension Inner fire motivation dimension Stewardship/ guardianship dimension Potential Application Capacity and capability to factor in a world that stands in pluralities account for complexities using organic intelligence. Potential for new knowledge creation. Tool that recognizes enduring nature of world and can access past histories and ancient knowledge about the nature of man and his endeavours, i.e., draws upon a mature matrix of values and beliefs that moves research beyond faddish outlooks. Kāinga Personal identity dimension Collective identity dimension Connectivity dimension (Kolb) Strategic dimensions Entrepreneurial dimension (Malloch 2005) Orientating schema dimension Resource or capital accumulation & investment dimension Capacity and capability to make visible the interconnections and nuances of activities and collaborative and cooperative relationships while remaining anchored within innovative institutionalized systems Marae Innovation dimension Sustainability / adaptation dimension Stabililising dimension Centrality dimension Values and beliefs dimensions Institutional innovation Manifestations of spiritual dimensions institutionalized in art, rituals, symbols, and behaviour patterns Pā Taua Expanding proactive dimension Contracting defensive dimension Motivating action dimension Strategic orientations Decision-making Leadership Design of organisational structures for particular purposes at particular times In terms of transferability of these concepts, a contribution is made to the wider literature of management and organisational theory by helping make visible the invisible intangibles that exert influence upon organisations. For example, organisational rituals, behaviour patterns, and use of symbols can be viewed as tangible and institutionalized manifestations of spiritual dimensions interacting with secular activities within any particular organisation and we argue this is particularly salient in Māori and indigenous organisation. 10

11 CONCLUSION The philosophical tensions and theoretical challenges encountered in the literature on spiritual capital and spirituality in the workplace were highlighted in this paper. We noted scholars differentiated the terms spirituality and religiosity. Given the subjective nature of spirituality, the critical issues of how to capture and measure its significance remains a challenge for empirical research. In this paper we offered contributions to the area from Māori scholars who are beginning to consider dynamic interactions between the spiritual and the secular in organisation. More specifically, we considered Wolfgramm s metaphorical framework and outlined transferability of concepts to the wider literature. We argue the contributions of this paper will advance Māori understandings of their roles in the discourse of spirituality in the workplace literature and suggest transferability of such emerging knowledge to broader literature in economics, business and management. 11

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