Text Sources Chapter 4 Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings Cultural CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS OVER A 1000 YEARS IDEAS expressed through 4. Oral traditions, dance, music and art forms 1. Debates and dialogues in Texts 3. Temple and Fort Architecture 2. Sculptures Monuments Inscriptions Jaina Buddhist Brahmanical 10x 10 Learning TM Page 1
3. Transformations in the period impacted political, economic, social and religious aspects. 1. Thinkers attempted to understand the cosmic relationship with humans. In India. The oral tradition of philosophy of Upanishads was converted into written form. The teachings of Mahavir and Buddha were compiled. 2. New political form of kingdom were replacing the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas.. Gender equality of janapadas changed to inequality as patriliny needed sons to inherit the throne. Kingdoms needed warriors for protection and expansion. 4.1. The social norm to confine daughters within the the security of their homes was adopted. 4.2 The notion of 'prestige killing' of girls taken away by soldiers and returned, began. 4.3 The norm of child marriage also got established because socially a married girl, even if raped, was accepted by her husband and in- laws. 3. Economic norms and trade content changed due to agriculture along major river valleys. Towns began emerging at transit points. 4. Socially, gender equality changed to inequality. Presence of warriors in villages made life insecure for girls as might became right. In times of uncertainty or frequent changes of kings, insecurity increased. 1. Many thinkers of 500 BCE tried to understand the mysteries of existence and relationship of humans with the cosmos. This was a worldwide phenomenon as in Greece Pluto and Socrates, in in India Mahavir, Buddha and multiple compilers of Upanishads were conceptualizing the same Truth. 10x 10 Learning TM Page 2
2. Political changes: This was also the time when new political forms were emerging and Mahajanapadas were growing into kingdoms and later into Mauryan Empire in India and the Greek Empire under Alexander. Greek armies reached the north western limits of India and many Greeks settled there as deputies of Alexander. 3. Economic norms were changing due to agricultural settlements along the valleys of major rivers. The extension of agriculture provided the surplus of grains that enabled towns to grow. In towns many new professions developed and organized in form of Guilds. This brought in specialization of skills and preservation of knowledge in guilds for metallurgy, architecture, yarn making and cloth weaving, goldsmiths, silversmiths and other crafts. Trade began to flourish along river routes. Kings encouraged trade as it was a source for taxes and revenue. 4. Social norms were changing with gender equality of tribal stage being replaced by preference for sons and an unequal status to daughters. This was due to the new concept patriliny. Sons were needed to inherit the landed property of the family to consolidate it. The kingdom needed sons to inherit the throne and secure the kingdom. Kingdom needed warriors to fight battles for protecting and expanding the kingdom. However, the availability of arms with warriors made them more powerful than the farmers. The growth of the warrior caste made life less secure for women. Girls therefore began to be confined to the households. Answer in 100-150 words 1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers different from those of the fatalists and materialists? Give reasons for your answer. Answer. The Ajivikas had a fatalist philosophy because they believed that everything was pre-determined. Neither the wise nor the 10x 10 Learning TM Page 3
foolish to could rid of their karma, by penance. Pleasure and pain cannot be altered The materialists Lokayatas believed this world is nothing beyond the material it is made of. Therefore, the next world did not exist. Humans were made from four elements, namely, earth, water, air and fire. After death, each element returned to its original state. group of elements and the senses pass on into space. As nothing survives death, it is all made of material that gets destroyed. These ideas differed from the Upanishads that say that the real human self was as tiny as a grain of rice or millet. It was placed in the human heart. Due to it the human heart was greater than the surrounding spaces. True sacrifice is invisible like the sacrifice of the life giving wind that blows. (157 words) 2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism. Answer. The central teachings of Jainism are the sum total of teachings of the 24 Tirthankara, last of whom was Mahavira. They guide men and women across the river of existence. The most important idea of Jainism is that the entire world is animated. Stones, rocks, water also have life. Therefore, no living being should be injured or harmed. This is the principle of Ahimsa or non-injury to any plant, animal or human being. Other teachings include always speaking the Truth, not accumulating more than one need, not stealing or desiring what belongs to another person and observing purity of conduct in life. (102 words) 3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal in preserving the stupa at Sanchi. Answer. The begums of Bhopal provided money for preservation of the Sanchi Stupa. When a French collector wanted the permission of the Begum to take away the Eastern Gate of the Sanchi Stupa to display in the museum 10x 10 Learning TM Page 4
in Paris, the Begum refused to part with the original. She got plaster cast copies made of the original and gave those to the collector. Later on the British collectors was also given similar copies that were carefully made. The Begums also founded the museum at the site along with a guest house. (90 words) 4. Read this short inscription and answer: In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (a Kushana ruler), in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was set up at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati, the sister s daughter of the bhikkhuni Buddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the female pupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows the Tipitaka, together with her father and mother. a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription? Dhanavati dated her inscription as per the year of the rule of a Kushan ruler, the month of the summer season and its eight day. b) Why do you think she installed an image of the Bodhisatta? She installed an image of the Bodhisatta because she knew the Tipitaka, and therefore, she wanted to show her respects towards the teacher. c) Who were the relatives she mentioned? The relatives mentioned are sister s daughter, father and mother. d) What Buddhist text did she know? She knew the Buddhist text called Tipitaka. e) From whom did she learn this text? She had learnt this text from bhikkhu Bala. 10x 10 Learning TM Page 5
f) Why do you think women and men joined the sangha? Answer. Women and men joined the sangha to seek answers for the problems of life. The Buddhists texts record 64 schools of thought prevailing in the Sangha. The followers of each school debated to convince the opposing school on the validity of their philosophy. Whoever, lost the debate became the follower of the winner. For this reason the membership of various schools fluctuated. Many of the Sangha teachers including Mahavir and Buddha challenged the authority of the Vedas. They emphasized on equality of all men and women as individual. This was opposite of the Vedic emphasis on individual s existence being determined by caste of his birth or the gender he was born into. Moreover, the system of sacrifices and yagna as a means of salvation, propagated by the Vedic school was too expensive for the common person. On hearing Sangha debates, the people began to prefer the path of ahimsa or no harm to any living being and middle path of dhamma. Therefore they joined the Sangha. Write a short essay (about 500 words) on the following: (166 words) 5. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhist literature help in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi? Answer. The knowledge of Buddhist literature helped in the understanding of the sculpture at Sanchi, just as much as the Sanchi Stupa helped in a better understanding of Buddhist literature. Similar to the Vedic tradition Buddhist literature was in the oral tradition. There were 64 schools of thought in the Sangha and debates and discourses were held continually between them. 10x 10 Learning TM Page 6
These debates were on the various paths open or possible for humans to seek salvation from the sorrows of life. These debates were open to common people to attend. One of the panels at Sanchi depicts this. The villagers came to hear the different views of the learned monks and discussed them. They adopted the ideas that appeared to be most acceptable in their folk art and music. In this way the oral tradition was preserved and continued. After the nirvana of Buddha, a council of elders or senior monks met at Vaishali, in Magdha, to compile his teachings. These compilations were called Tipitaka meaning three baskets to hold different types of texts. The Tipitaka were initially transmitted orally through the monks who travelled from place to place. Later, these were converted into written form according to subject matter and length. Sutta Pitaka contains the teachings of Buddha, Vinaya Pitaka the rules and regulations of monastic order, and Abhidhamma Pitaka with philosophical matters. A panel around the Stupa also depict the council. Several chaityas are mentioned in Buddhist literature and one is depicted in a panel at Sanchi. By providing the details about what is possible depicted in the carved panels around the stupa, the Buddhist literature has made it easier to interpret the sculptures of Sanchi Stupa. It is clear that the Stupa was among the places that were regarded as sacred. It is possibly the place where the remains of the Buddha were cremated and buried. Sutta Pitaka narrates an episode about the time when Buddha lay dying. His pupil Ananda, sought Buddha s advice on what he wished to be done with his remains. Buddha foretold that at the four crossroads, a thupa or stupa would be erected for the Tathagata, namely Buddha. Whoever would visit the Thupa and place garlands or perfume or make salutation there or become calm in his heart, would profit and be happy. 10x 10 Learning TM Page 7
In conclusion, Buddhist literature helps in interpreting the scenes depicted in the sculptures correctly. They all pertain to the various stages of the life of Buddha and the society of its time. The stupa in turn provides architectural evidence that verify the records and descriptions provided in the literature. (428 words) 6. Figs. 4.32 and 4.33 are two scenes from Sanchi. Describe what you see in each of them, focusing on the architecture, plants and animals, and the activities. Identify which one shows a rural scene and which an urban scene, giving reasons for your answer. Answer. In Figure 4.32 is a scene in which animals are being slaughtered. There are two heads of beheaded bulls or bullocks or cows are lying on the ground in front along with one corpse of a man or a woman. Two soldiers are standing with bows and arrows. Behind the soldiers sheep and goats are standing perhaps waiting to be slaughtered. Behind the animals are three men and two women. Two small huts with one person each sitting in the doorway are depicted. In front of the huts are two women. One woman has brought water in a container that she is supporting in her left hand while her right hand is flung backwards on her right shoulder to hold the pot at its brim. She is in a posture ready to pour the water to bathe the richer woman standing in front of her. The richer woman is wearing jewellery on her forehead and ears. In the corner of the panel in front of the first hut is a medium sized tree on which nine small pots are hung, perhaps containing something left out to dry in the Sun. This is a rural scene as confirmed by the small huts and animals and soldiers with bows and arrows, who have come to collect tributes or taxes from the villagers. 10x 10 Learning TM Page 8
In Figure 4.33 an urban scene is depicted. This is clear from the four pillars in ornately carved balconies on two floors of a castle or a fort. While in the rural scene the two persons were sitting on the steps of the doorway, in this urban scene the two persons between the three pillars are sitting on stone seats that are carved with motifs. There is a royal umbrella held above their heads, by one woman standing behind each of the two seated figures. A second woman is holding an ancient chawar or a fan that is a symbol of royalty and is waved from time to time to drive away flies and pests and to freshen up the air during the hot season. This is common in the scenes on both the floors. However, there is a difference in the third group in the panels. In the first floor balcony, next to the two royal person on seats, is a group of six women, four of whom are squatting on the ground and two in the last row are standing. The first two women appear to be watching some event that is happening on the ground in front of them. The two middle women seem to clapping or playing some musical instruments. One of the two figures standing behind the four seated women has both the hands raised in a posture of dancing. In the second floor panel there are only five women in place of six. The first four are playing musical instruments and one in the last row is dancing. Next to the dancing woman is a pillar that is supporting a vine plant. Its large leaves are clearly visible. (504 words) 7. Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Answer. Vaishnavism and Shaivism developed as part of Puranic Hinduism. These were the Hindu ideas developed in two different ways. In Vaishnavism Vishnu is worshipped as the principal deity, while in Shaivism Shiva is the chief god. Partly 10x 10 Learning TM Page 9
due to the influence of Jainism and Buddhism there was a growing emphasis on the worship of one chosen deity. This choice established a personal bond between the devotee and the god. The architecture for these two branches of faith within the Hindu fold, developed through the temples for Vishnu and Shiva. Ten major avatars of Vishnu indicate that perhaps these originated and developed in different parts of India and were assimilated into a single tradition subsequently. The avatars were explained as forms taken by the deity at different times to save the existing order from destruction. The avatars could also have been the recognition of local deities into one tradition. Sculptures of some of these avatars of Vishnu have survived till modern times. Shiva has been most often represented by the Shiva linga sculpture and occasionally in human form. Complex symbolisms and ideas were developed about the deities and these were represented in sculptures through symbols held in their hands. The sculptures are decorated with head dresses, ornaments and ayudhas that were either auspicious objects such as rare shells, or weapons. To understand the sculptures the mythological stories about Vishnu and Shiva have to be known. Most of the stories are included in Puranic literature. They have travelled across the subcontinent through the oral tradition. Vasudev Krishna associated culture and sculptures, initially developed in present day Mathura region first extended south westwards to Dwarka in Kutch, and later across all Deccan. The Temple architecture that grew in the major river valleys of River Krishna, Cauvery, Mahanadi, and Godavari, took the sculpture and architectural traditions to their zenith as the regional kingdoms of Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas were great patrons of Vaishnavism and Shaivism. 10x 10 Learning TM Page 10
Alongside, temple architecture, the art of casting statues of gods, goddesses and kings and queens who donated land to have the temples built or extended, in metals developed in these kingdoms. (353 words) 8. Discuss how and why stupas were built. Answer. The Sanchi Stupa narrates a story in stone. Inscriptions have been found on its railings and pillars that record the donations made for its building and decorations. Some donations were from the Satavahana kings who ruled in western parts of Deccan and controlled major trade routes at the time. Other donations came from various guilds such as those of ivory workers. Many donations were made by ordinary men and women, bhikkus and bhikkunis whose names and places they came from are inscribed. The stupa was a simple semi -circular mound of mud, called the anda. Gradually it was evolved into a more complex structure by balancing the circular and the square shapes. Above the anda was the harmida, that was a balcony like structure representing the abode of the gods. From it rose a mast called the yashti, surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. A railing was built around this mound to separate the sacred space from the secular world. The stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut initially had a plain railing, similar to a bamboo or wooden fence. At four cardinal points of East, North, West and South richly carved gateways were installed later. Worshippers entered through the eastern gateway and walked clockwise around the mound keeping the mound at their right hand side. The subsequent stupas at Amaravati and Shahji-ki-Dheri were elaborately designed and sculptured. In sum to answer the question how the stupas were built, it is stated that the core of the stupa layout was built in a simple 10x 10 Learning TM Page 11
manner. As its importance grew and fame spread, the number of visitors grew and they contributed for its decoration with sculptures and gateways. This is how stupas were built. Though there were many stupas, only four have survived the ravages of time. To answer the question as to why the stupa were built it is stated, in the first millennium BCE there was a widespread quest to search for answers on questions of human place and links to the sun, moon and stars visible from earth. Thinkers wanted to know the right path of human faith and belief. No single religion or faith appeared to be correct or complete. Therefore, open debates of about 64 schools of thought are on record during the time of Buddha. Each was headed by a teacher. The debates were held between followers of two opposing thought schools. Whoever lost the debate had to become the follower of the teacher of the school to which the winner belonged. As such the strength of the schools kept fluctuating. Stupas were built to honour the teacher and as a mark of respect of the pupils for their departed teacher. Buddha too headed one such school of thought, and the Sanchi Stupa was built in his honour. (463 words) 10x 10 Learning TM Page 12