THEME TWO 1. What were the developments during these 1500 years, after the phasing out of the Harappan civilization? 5. Evidence of early states called Janapadas, and 16 mahajanapadas, Ganas or sanghas called rajaya, empires. Political changes and new towns. Artisans guilds specialize in manufacture. 1. Rigveda composed by people living along River Indus. Evidence from Inscriptions on iron pillars, stones, pottery and metal plates, texts, coins and archtectural remains 2. Agricultural settlements in many parts of north and deccan India. Clearing of the denser forests in Ganga Yamuna doab was possible only with an iron axe and tools. 4. In Deccan and South India, evidence of pastoral settlements and megalith culture. Changes in disposal of dead, who were now buried with a range of iron tools and weapons. 3. Iron age replaces the Copper and Bronze culture and red pottery of Harappan. Furnaces with higher temperatures were needed to melt iron. Therefore, Polished Black Pottery emerged. 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 1
2. Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. 3. Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts were used for inscriptions. 4. Languages used were Pali, Prakrit, Tamil, Sanskrit. 5. Prakrit was the spoken language of the masses. Sanskrit was the language of the elite. 1. Janapadas 2. Sangha 3. Ganas 16 Mahajanapada where large areas in which people of one tribe settled permanently for agriculture. No single person was the head No single person or group was in control. Guild system was prevalent for all professions that developed the skills and trained youngsters. Was a smaller than mahajanapada. It was a more closely knit tribe that had not fully adopted to agriculture. Both Mahavir and Buddha belonged to ruling dynasty of their Sangha. Headed by a king. Vajji Sangha is recorded to have had a king who controlled resources on behalf of the tribe Were oligarchies. A small group controlled all resources and made all decisions. 'Gana' means 'people' who could be counted. It was the smallest of the three groups and partly pastoral. 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 2
Most frequently recorded of the 16 Mahajanapadas included 7. Avanti 1. Vajji 2. Magadha 6. Gandhara 3.Koshala 4. Kuru 5. Panchala Questions at the end of the Chapter Answer in 100 to 150 words: 1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities? Answer. Evidence of black polished pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish has been found from Early Historic Cities. Ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta have been found. Inscriptions from a number of early cities tell about people from various occupations, such as washing folks, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 3
teachers, merchants and kings. Craft production was organized in guilds that procured raw material, regulated production and quality, marketed the produce, paid taxes. They differ from Harappan cities in the wider range of products and organisation of production. (101 words) 2. Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas. Answer. The Mahajanapadas had the following salient features: a) They had clearly defined outer boundaries. With it a single tribe with a common culture had settled to practice agriculture. b) Each had a capital city as its seat of sangha or raja c) The capital city was fortified by an outer wall and the main gates were controlled. d) Punch marked coins of metals were issued by the mahajanapadas. e) There was an increasing use of iron and growth in trade and commerce. f) Each Mahajanapada had its own army to defend its borders and raid its neighbours. The administration collected taxes and carried out orders. g) Mahajapadas named in Jaina and Buddhist texts include Vajji, Magadha, Anga, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Vatsy, Matsya, Avanti and Chedi. h) Work was organized in artisan guilds. The guilds created work norms and specialized in one form of art. (144 words) 3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people? Answer. Historians reconstruct the social history of lives of ordinary people through a variety of archeological and literary sources. Inscriptions on rocks, stones, pottery, coins, sculptures and metal plates convey the maximum information. The range of metals and materials 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 4
used also convey the diversity of social life. How the raw materials would have been obtained indicates the trade links to other places. The quality of pottery indicates the growing distinction in society. Harappan red pottery was of the same in quality. This continued in early cities, when a new class of black polished pottery was found. This was glossy artistic and limited in number. This indicates that it was expensive and made only for the rich. From inscriptions of early cities, historians know that washing folks, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants and kings lived in these early cities. Craft production was organized in guilds. (148 words) 4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences? Answer. As per Source 3 the Pandyan chief was given gifts of ivory, fragrant wood, fans made of the hair of deer, honey, sandalwood, red ochre, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, coconut, mangoes, medicinal plants, fruits, onions, sugarcane, flowers. Areca nut, bananas, baby tigers, lions, elephants, monkeys, bear, deer, musk deer, fox, peacocks, musk cat, wild cocks, speaking parrots. As per source 8 the Danguna village produced flowers and milk, grass for animals and hides for seats, charcoal, salt, fermented liquors, mining products, and khadira trees. The similarities are that both lists include natural produce such as flowers, tree products and animal based products. The differences are that the Pandyan chief is gifted live animals as well and a wider range of natural produce. (123 words) 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 5
5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists. Answer. The epigraphists have first to locate and interpret the equivalent alphabets in the modern scripts with ancient scripts. Most of the modern Indian scripts have been derived from Brahmi script in which the edicts of Emperor Ashoka have been inscribed. The assumptions made by epigraphists also matter. For example, the earliest scripts are in Prakrit, but scholars assumed them to be in the early version of Sanskrit, because most of the texts that have survived were in Sanskrit. As such a wrong assumption can also become an obstruction. The script to be deciphered has also to be compared with other ancient scripts. For example the Kharosthi script used in Ashoka inscriptions in the North-west was similar to script on coins of Indo Greek kings. Names of the kings on coins facilitated the deciphering of Kharosthi, only after it was seen to be Prakrit and not Sanskrit. Write short essays of about 500 words on the following: (147 words) 6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied? Answer. The Magadha Mahajanapada emerged as the first empire in ancient India under King Chandragupta Maurya. He extended his control from Rajgir to Afghanistan and Baluchistan. His grandson, Emperor Ashoka extended the empire further to Kalinga and beyond into South. Such a vast empire needed a regular administration for its functioning. At first, militia was maintained for security of the king who lived in a fortified settlement called Rajagaha or Rajgir. This separated the king and his administration from the people. As resources increased, 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 6
standing armies began to be maintained and the capital city of Magadha was shifted to Pataliputra. Two main functions dominated the organisation of the administration, one, collection of taxes and two, maintaining of the army. The administration of the empire was organized into five major administration centres mentioned in the rock and pillar inscriptions of Ashoka. These five centres were the capital city of Pataliputra, Taxila in northwest, Ujjaiyini in southwest, Tosali and Suvarnagiri in the southeast. These centres were on the major trade routes. Communication through land and rivers routes was important. The army maintained security on all channels of communications. Six branches of administration coordinated all military activities, transport and provisions for the army, and one each for foot soldiers, horses, chariots, and elephants. Spies were an important part of the administration and security of the empire. They were the only ones authorized to meet the king at any time of the day or night. As they reported directly to the king only, their role was secret. Rock and pillar inscriptions have been found at places where people gathered frequently such as transit points on rivers and roads. Special persons were appointed as dhamma mahamatta to spread the message of dhamma. One person was employed to read aloud the dhamma messages on the inscriptions. The inscription of Ashoka mention him as King Ashoka and by the term Piyadassi that means pleasant to behold or look at. This indicates that the Mauryan administration was headed by a King. The inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit and a few are in Pali language, but the script is Brahmi. Only in the north west Kharoshti script is used for the inscriptions. This indicates Prakrit to be the language of the 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 7
common people. Ajatasattu as the ruler before King Ashoka is mentioned. This shows that the kingship was dynasty based. The inscriptions also convey that the king and his administration collected taxes from the cultivators, traders, and artisans. Tributes were collected from pastoralists and forest peoples. In conclusion, it can be said that the administration was organized for the purpose of security of the king and of the empire. The requirements of army with its branches of horses, chariots, elephants, foot soldiers, spies, were seen by special branches of administration. Similarly, function of the river navy was organized. Roads and river routes of transportation were created and maintained. The second major function of administration was collection of taxes and tributes, The third function was communication and propagation of Dhamma across the empire. For this special officers were appointed and rock and pillar inscriptions were created. (515 words) 7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions. Discuss. Answer. Ashokan inscriptions are on natural rocks, part of which was polished to inscribe the message. The second group of inscriptions is on marble pillars. The inscriptions were essentially a means of communication between the ruler and the people. This is concluded from the fact that the Prakrit and Pali that were the languages of the ordinary people were used. The inscriptions were located on main routes and at places where people gathered frequently for transit or trade. All inscriptions taken together deal with various aspects of life, because they convey the message of Dhamma or dharma or faith Ashoka s Dhamma was based on the teachings of Gautam Budda who 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 8
conveyed the eight fold middle path for attaining nirvana or moksha from the cycle of rebirth. For this reason, Asoka as the ruler attempted to communicate the truth of his faith to his people. He sought their welfare in all forms, physical, financial and religious. After his deep felt remorse at the loss of lives in the Kalinga war, Ashokan inscription give details of the loss as well as the booty captured and brought back to Pataliputra. In the earliest inscriptions the communication with the people is political to convey the strength of the Mauryan Empire. The Dhamma messages on inscriptions, that deal with social and economic activities come after his sense of remorse on realizing that the military might is transitory. The change that came in his mindset from a valorous king to a renouncer of violence is conveyed through the inscriptions. In the inscriptions, Ashoka is not referred to by name, but by two titles of dvanampiya meaning beloved of the gods and piyadassi meaning pleasant to behold. The inscriptions were matched for content, style, language, and paleography it was concluded that they were all inscribed by the same ruler. (301 words) 8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-mauryan period. Answer. The chiefs and kings in the south who had become a part of the Mauryan Empire during the reign of Ashoka, developed new notions of kingship after Ashoka s death. During the post Mauryan period, Tamilakam was the region extending from present day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas emerged as three separate and powerful kingdoms in this region. The first new notion was that of the Chiefs and Chiefdoms. The chief was a powerful man in a tribe or a group of villages. He performed many functions such as special rituals, leadership in 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 9
warfare, and settlement of disputes. He did not collect taxes but received gifts from members of his chiefdom. He re-distributed these gifts among his people. His post was not hereditary, and he did not maintain any standing army or militia group. In the present day Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan regions of the Mauryan Empire, tribal chiefs of Satavahanas and Shakas became prosperous as they carried out long distance trade with Central Asia. Due to their prosperity, in the post Mauryan period they were able to acquire political power and become kings. The second new notion was of Divine Kings. The status of chief of a chiefdom was not hereditary. But as their wealth and political influence grew, the chiefs began claiming higher status by aligning themselves with various deities. In the Tamilakam kingdoms, this led to the building of temples and establishment of traditions of associating the temple deity with the ruling dynasty through various rituals. This was possible through donation of land for development of agriculture. Agriculture was the prime source of revenue for these kingdoms. The archeological sites of major dynastic temple complexes built by the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas, still exist. In the Satvahana and Shaka kingdoms of western and central Deccan, more forts were built than large temples because their revenue came from long distance trade that needed to be protected. In the north western parts of the former Mauryan empire, the Kushan kingdom was established from Central Asia to north-west parts up to Mathura region. Kushans traded and controlled the Silk Trade Route trade and became prosperous. Their most important king Kanishka, adopted the title of devaputra or son of god, and built colossal stone statues of himself in a shrine in Mat, near Mathura. Statues of Buddha were built in present day Afghanistan region. The third new notion was that of the samantas who were controllers of local land revenues and resources. Powerful samantas 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 10
could become kings and kings could be dethroned to make them subordinate samantas. The next empire to rise was the Gupta Empire that had its beginning in a powerful Samanta. (455 words) 9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration? Answer. During the post Mauryan period there was no central authority to control or protect the ordinary people. Traders and cultivators were attacked by robbers at night and by tax collectors during the day. Therefore, many cultivators left their village and began living in the forests. Control by new kings and samantas, was uncertain and most wanted to accumulate wealth as quickly as possible to become more powerful. Therefore, they demanded very high taxes from cultivators as well as traders. Trades left towns and villages or changed their routes. As an increasing number of villages were abandoned, revenue from agriculture dried up. The frequently changing new kings and samantas therefore began adopting new strategies to resettle the villages and increase production. One of these was the use of iron plough in place of wooden ploughs. The iron or iron tipped plough was better suited in cultivating the thick alluvial soils in the valleys of River Ganga and River Kaveri. Cultivation of paddy was introduced in river valleys with a new method of transplantation. This increased agricultural production in the river valleys but the semi- arid soil regions did not adopt this new system. Another new technology in agriculture was the starting of field irrigation system through tanks and wells. Tanks were more popular in the three kingdoms of Tamilakam region. This was because new villages were created on land donated to temples. The tanks were 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 11
constructed as a part of the new villages. Well irrigation was more popular in other parts. Entire communities and richer individuals organized the construction of irrigation works. The kings and more powerful samantas have left metal inscriptions of such activities that were undertaken as part of their faith. (282 words) 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 12