The Art of India
Early Indian culture Indus River Valley earliest village, (Mehgarh) 6,000 BCE Harappan culture (c 3500-1750 BCE) (at height 2,500 1,900 BCE) -writing and counting
Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and 2,500 other cities -had brick-lined sewers, public baths, multi-storied buildings -traded with Mesopotamia & pre-persian cultures (Iraq & Iran)
Steatite Seals Unicorn Bull and Manger Brahmani Bull Rhinoceros
Priest-king or deity. 2000-1750 BCE
Mother Goddess First religion in Indus River Valley & India Linked with natural world Later incorporated into Hindu religion
Mother Goddess as a Yogini (late 9 th -early 10 th c)
Aryan ( Civilized People ) conquest from central Asia c. 1500 BCE (Harappan empires collapsed over time) Brought class (caste) system, social structure Had elaborate palaces and arts Brought religious worship (centered upon sacrifices to personified nature deities (including Indra, the god of heavens who threw thunderbolts, Varuna, who created the cosmic order and maintained it, Agni the god of fire, Surya the Sun God, & Yama the god of death) Wrote the Vedas, religious texts that form the basis of Hinduism, including the concept of an endless cycle of rebirths
The Vedas Religious texts ( books of knowledge ) brought as oral literature from Aryans The basis of Hinduism Originally too sacred to put into writing; about 1,500 BCE written down in Sanskrit Sanskrit is only written now, but the sounds of the Vedas are still memorized and recited (syllable by syllable) by Brahmins (priestly caste), learned from fathers
Rig Veda Tells of war-like tribes that invaded India (the Aryans) Tells of Aryan gods (not originally Indian gods) Explains the four classes of society, as ordered by the gods
Caste Systems Class system, which became hereditary Brahmins, priests (highest caste) Warriors (Kshatriyas) Merchants (Vaisyas) Servants (Sudas) Untouchables, outside the caste system (Achutas)
Brahmins. Highest caste of Hindus. (1947)
Prince Siddhartha Gautama (lived 566?-486 BCE), the historical Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama (the historic Buddha) as a prince before becoming Buddha, before rejecting the world; lived happily but confined to palatial splendor until shocked by Four Sights that opened his eyes to suffering in the world: an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a begging monk
Buddha Realized all beings experience suffering, and no material thing brings satisfaction Left palace and wandered for 6 years as an ascetic (severe fasting and austerities) When failed to reach enlightenment, relaxed ascetic disciplines, ate, and sat beneath bodhi tree, vowing not to move until reached enlightenment
Buddha as ascetic
Buddha s Enlightenment Revelation: Way of Salvation & 4 Noble Truths Life is suffering Desire is the cause of suffering Cessation of desire means cessation of suffering Suffering can be ended by following the Eight-fold Path Leads in time to nirvana, cessation of desire and liberation from cycle of rebirth
Buddha s first sermon Buddha s death (4 Nobles Truths) bodhisattva Wheel of Law flanked by deer (in the Deer Park) Buddha s last convert
Buddhism Much of the Buddhist art in India is from early Indian periods, Mauryan empire (322-185 BCE) Andhras (c 32 BCE 320 CE) Guptas ( 320-480 CE)
Stupa at Sanchi, late 1 st c BCE early 1 st c CE
Points to reliquary casket inside mound Stupa: funerary mound reliquary for Buddha s ashes symbol of life and teachings of Buddha
Torana gate to Sanchi Stupa Scenes of Buddha, winged lions, sun spirals, yakshi
Classical and Medieval periods in India (3 rd -13 th centuries) Hinduism was dominant religion in India (Buddhism ignored caste system & was eventually absorbed into Hinduism in India)
Brahmins. Highest caste of Hindus. (1947)
Hinduism & Brahman The only real existence is Brahman. Brahman is changeless and eternal, present in all things, the energy that sustains the universe. Brahman is the undifferentiated principle of existence. Brahman is illusory. Goal of HInduism: discover the true nature of self (atman) and Brahman and see them as one, without differentiation or separateness. (Reunify them.)
Hinduism & Release (moksha) The soul of the self (atman) is reborn (reincarnated) over and over, in a continuous cycle of lives (samsara). Future lives improve if religious duties are carried out faithfully and if one behaves righteously. (karma) Goal: To find a release (moksha) from this unsatisfactory existence Moksha is achieved when one discovers that atman (the self s soul) and Brahman are one.
A Hindu s main goal Transcendence of the world of the senses to unification with the Absolute (Moksha) Reached through ritual, self-control, and meditation, throughout many life-times
The four goals in a Hindu s life Spiritual transcendence Righteousness Acquisition of material property Enjoyment of refined, worldly pleasures
Uses of Art in Hinduism For instruction (teaches, indirectly, how to attain the 4 goals in life; helps man experience and therefore understand) For pleasure (suggesting transcendental ecstasy)
Hindu Gods All Hindu gods are aspects (parts) of Brahman, the only absolute reality. The primary personified gods are: Brahma, the creator god Vishnu, the preserver god Shiva, the god of destruction
"Only the unlearned deem myself (Vishnu) and Shiva to be distinct; he, I, and Brahma are one, assuming different names for the creation, preservation and destruction of the universe. We, as the triune Self, pervade all creatures; the wise therefore regard all others as themselves. ~ Vishnu explains the Nature of the Trinity (trimurti)~
Each of these gods inhabits the world in several separate avatars or manifestations, and in both male and female aspects.
Standing Vishnu. The Preserver, the sustaining god; the protector; Maintains and restores dharma, moral order.
Standing Vishnu. 4-armed; Rigid, upright pose: Sturdy axis of the universe upright pillar that joins earth to the heavens
disc/wheel/chakra, refers to the sun; Returns to owner, cyclical Conch. Om, first sound of Creation, Vishnu s breath Chin mudra: realization of the absolute Standing Vishnu. Lotus. Fertility, purity and water. Brahma comes from Lotus growing in Vishnu s navel.
Thus does Vishnu describe himself: "The world rests as the lotus in the palm of my hand, the cosmos revolves around my finger like a discus. I blow the music of life through my conch and wield my mace to protect all creatures."
Hindu Universe Cyclical At the end of each cosmic age, it s destroyed by fire and dissolved in the ocean, then reborn again.
Vishnu, the preserver god, reclining on a serpent, floating on the waters of the cosmic sea, dreams up the universe at the beginning of existence. We are living Vishnu s dream. What we perceive as reality is actually an illusion.
Ananta, giant serpent Lakshmi, Vishnu s wife/female aspect Vishnu, the 4-armed preserver god.
Lotus -grows out of Vishnu s navel. -supports 4-headed God of creation, Brahma.
Hindu Universe Like an egg, separated into 3 regions: gods, humans, demons All battle for control in a cosmic struggle of order vs. chaos
Vishnu s 10+ avatars: Krishna (blue) most popular avatar of Vishnu Hero prince Rama rescued his wife, Sita, killed demon Ravana Lakshmi, female counterpart, goddess of prosperity and good fortune Varaha the boar, saved the earth from the flood Narasimha half lion, defeated a demon king Kurma the turtle, helped create earth by carrying it on its back Matsya the fish, helped save earth from the flood Parasurama the Brahmin, destroyed the warrior caste Vamana the dwarf, subdued demon king Bali Buddha the enlightened one Kalki the horse; yet to come
Boar Avatar of Vishnu (Varada) rescuing the earth goddess from the ocean flood lotus Earth goddess, Bhu Devi Naga, demon snake king
Vishnu as Varada (boar) rescuing the earth
Vishnu (Krishna) Garuda, his vahana, man-bird Gajendra, lord of the elephants, seized by a makara; trapped for 1,000 years!
Shiva
Rock-cut hall, Elephanta
Shiva the Destroyer Terrifying, protective, kind, and helpful Destruction he causes through fire makes way for creation to begin again; part of the necessary cycle
Shiva (as Mahadeva in 3 forms), Elephanta
(18 )
Fierce male; Destructive Aspect; (Bhairava) Female Shiva; Creative aspect; (Uma/Parvati) Benign Shiva
Fierce, destructive Shiva: with cobra, death s head on headdress Creative, feminine Shiva: with pearls and flowers in her hair, lotus bud in hand Benign Shiva: detached, otherworldly, serene
(Ardhanari) Androgynous composite of Shiva and his consort Shakti (Split down the middle); Showing how the female principle of God and the male principle of God are inseparable.
Durga ( She who is difficult to go against ) an 8-armed feminine aspect of Shiva) on her lion vahana Buffalo Demon
Ganges River descending to earth, (at Mamallapuram)
Shiva Skanda Uma
Shiva. Skanda. Uma/Parvati. Battle-axe, blackbuck. son. Shiva s consort. Fear not gesture. Citron. lotus. Lily. Identical mudras.
Shiva and Parvati On the Bull Nandi
Nandi, Shiva s vahana
Ganesha. One of Shiva s sons. God of auspicious beginnings, so invoked before every new undertaking.
Axe, used to remove obstacles Originally held book, Conch, or lotus bud Gesture of knowledge/ chinmudra bowl of sweetmeats Ganesha. Rat, his animal vehicle/vahana
Ganesha.
Shiva as the Dancing Lord (Shiva Nataraja) Shiva dancing within a ring of flame the ring is the cosmos, the flames symbolize destruction of the cosmos
Shiva as the Dancing Lord (Shiva Nataraja) Shiva dancing within a ring of flame the ring is the cosmos, the cosmos comes into being through creative Dance. Simultaneous creation and destruction.
Ganga (Ganges River) in hair drum: Rhythm, heart-beat Of the cosmos: Maya Single destructive flame; balanced by creative drum Flames all around circle= destruction of the universe
Skull Reassuring/ Abhaya mudra deadly cobra worn as ornament Gaja hasta mudra: Imitating elephant trunk Arm and legs point to dwarf of ignorance which Shiva crushes
All together shows: -the unbounded compassion and universal power of the dancing creator-destroyer God. -the promise of release (moksha) from sufferings (from maya, the endless rhythm of the cosmos)
18 arms (9 each side); Can depict all of 81 arm positions (2 arms at a time) in classical south Indian dance.
A Hindu s main goal Transcendence of the world of the senses to unification with the Absolute (Moksha) Reached through ritual, self-control, and meditation, throughout many life-times
The four goals in a Hindu s life Spiritual transcendence Righteousness Acquisition of material property Enjoyment of refined, worldly pleasures
Goodness and pleasure If it s morally uplifting, it gives pleasure If it leads to prosperity, it gives pleasure If it despoils one s character, it can t be enjoyable
Uses of Art For instruction (teaches, indirectly, how to attain the 4 goals in life; helps man experience and therefore understand) For pleasure (suggesting transcendental ecstasy)
Abhinava gupta and Tantricism Tantric sect Life-affirming, sensual emphasis Identify with the Absolute through meditation and through sensual rituals (smelling and hearing special scents and sounds, eating forbidden meat, drinking wine, having ritual sexual intercourse,etc.) Sexual intercourse becomes a metaphor for union with the Absolute (transcendental ecstasy) Art can give pleasure
Abhinavagupta
Rasa (major result of art) Emotional satisfaction one experiences in reaction to art State of a person immersed in experiencing a work of art taste, flavor, relish, delight, sensual pleasure Instantaneous experience of oneness between the viewer and the artwork (no boundary between self and the aesthetic response) and therefore all of creation