LECTURE 5: The Elizabethan Age ( )

LECTURE 5: The Elizabethan Age (1558-1603) When Mary I died in 1558, the country was relieved and welcomed her sister Elizabeth to the throne. Elizabeth s aim was to achieve a long-lasting religious settlement which would put an end to the nation s religious uncertainty and change; Anglo-Catholic under Henry VIII, Protestant under Edward VI and Roman Catholic under Mary I, the people of England needed stability. During her 45-year reign, Elizabeth would give them just that; her impact upon the nation s political, religious and cultural identity was such that she gave her name to this Settlement (the Elizabethan Settlement) and to an entire age (the Elizabethan Age), which has become synonymous with an English golden age. She was a true English rose, the embodiment of Englishness. A moderate Protestant, she had learned much from her sister s mistakes: for one thing, she would never take a husband and she declared herself married to England. I - A divided religious picture A - Recusancy and the continuity of English Catholicism To begin with, Parliament and Elizabeth s advisers were particularly concerned with the problem posed by the not negligible numbers of Catholics who remained in England. Although the queen herself declared she had no wish to make windows into men s souls and claimed she would be satisfied with outward conformity, her largeness was not shared by her advisors who saw English Catholics as possible dissenters and people whose allegiance was shared between the monarch and the pope. The situation was aggravated by the fact that in 1570, the pope published a Bull (a papal declaration) which excommunicated Elizabeth I. This Bull declared the queen illegitimate: because Rome never recognised Henry s VIII divorce from Catherine of Aragon, it never recognised his marriage to Anne Boleyn either. To the pope, Mary was Henry s only legitimate child and Elizabeth was simply a bastard. Therefore, her authority on the throne of England was usurped, since she was not a true heiress of the Tudor line. In his declaration, Pope Pius V not only excluded Elizabeth from the Church and condemned her soul to hell (which she probably did not mind too much since she was not a Catholic) but he declared her rule null and void, he deposed her and encouraged her subjects to challenge her authority, rebel and overthrow her. The religious threat of excommunication was an insult, but the papal deposition was a direct political attack against the queen and a call to insurgency: in this context, English Catholics were caught in a very delicate situation and became more alienated than ever. Parliament felt the crown was threatened by their very presence in England. 1

Before 1570, Catholicism in the country had been a matter of private faith. In counties which were remote from London and from the centralised power of the courts, families and even sometimes priests continued to observe the rituals and practices which had been traditional for centuries. They observed the Catholic calendar with its rhythm of fasts and feasts, honoured Saints days, prayed or attended Mass in Latin, believed in transubstantiation, went to confession more importantly did not attend the Sunday service of the Anglican Church (or if they did, they did not take communion there as a sign of their reserve). In areas such as Lancashire and Yorkshire (the North tended to be more Catholic than the South of the country), all this was possible because the Justices of the Peace themselves were sympathisers of the old faith and therefore did not really apply the law against Catholicism: they did not prosecute their fellow believers very actively. This is called the phase of survivalism, when Catholicism merely survived privately and not assertively. Around 1570, a second phase called revival began: instead of simply observing their faith in the quiet of their own private practice, Catholics became organised in recusant networks (a recusant was a person who refused to go to the services of the established Church). Recusant families chose to inter-marry, to trade among themselves, and a real Catholic community started to emerge. Young men were sent to the Continent to train as Catholic priests in seminaries, and after completing their training, they would come back to England under cover and begin a missionary movement, giving Mass, hearing confessions, marrying people and even trying to convert the population back to the old faith. These priests risked their lives in their mission: if they were caught, they would be found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death. Their executions would be horrible: first, they would be hanged by the neck, but they would be let down before they were fully strangled; while they were still alive, they would be disembowelled, then their bodies would be cut into quarters. The quarters were usually put on spikes and displayed at the city gates, as an example and a deterrent. As a result of Pius V s Bull and of the revival of a new, more active type of recusancy, Catholicism became stigmatised as an abomination: no Catholic could be trusted in England, they were perceived as the enemy within. B - The radicalisation of Protestant sects If government and Parliament in particular were concerned about papists, Queen Elizabeth herself became increasingly worried about the new agitators at the opposite end of the religious spectrum: the zealous Protestants. While the North of the country had a tendency for Catholicism, the South of England was open to the influence of the Continent, particularly in counties where ports allowed exchanges and trade on a daily basis. Between the beginning of the Continental Reform with Martin Luther s 95 theses (1517) and the days of Elizabeth, Protestantism had 2

changed and had become increasingly Puritan. The teachings of Luther had been updated by those of other great divines, and most importantly by Frenchman Jean Calvin; amongst other things, Calvinist doctrine was much more intransigent than Lutheran doctrine on the subject of the episcopacy. Puritans wanted to take their doctrine of the priesthood of all believers to its logical end: if priests were to be considered no different than the rest of the people, and if everybody had the right to know the scriptures, communicate with God and preach, then there was no need for a Church hierarchy. Calvinists therefore called for a further movement of reform in the Church and advocated the abolition of the episcopacy (the hierarchy of priests, bishops, archbishops, etc); there would be no priestly authority at all, the Church would be a family of equal rights. How did this affect England? Many English Protestants really became convinced that the Puritan view was what God wanted: a full, complete reform of the Church in which no abuse of power, no corruption would be possible. Importantly, there were many such Puritans amongst the ranks of Elizabeth s officials: in her English Church, the queen had appointed many Calvinist bishops (Calvinism was so popular that there were very few Lutherans left to choose from at that time) and in her Parliament, Puritans formed a very strong pressure group. Indeed, extreme forms of Calvinism were most popular amongst the gentry of the South and therefore found itself represented in large numbers in the House of Commons by gentlemen who were Members of parliament (MPs). The queen saw this Puritan challenge as a real threat: they were in government (whereas most Catholics were not and had little influence) and could pose a problem to the state. - Threat to the English Church: Although they worked from within the Church of England, Puritans proposed to reform it entirely, to get rid of the hierarchy of bishops (episcopacy) and function according to a Presbyterian system. The Church would be run at local level by local lay men (presbyters) who would be elected for their wisdom and knowledge of Scriptures. Then, at provincial level, there would be a synod, or provincial assembly; at the national level, there would also be a national synod. The system was meant to be democratic: each local presbytery sent up its elected delegated to the provincial synods, and each provincial synod sent up its own delegates to the national synod. Therefore, the system was a reversal of the traditional episcopal hierarchy: the power came from below, not from above! - Threat to the English state: Obviously, such principles represented a potential threat tot he very concept of monarchy. In a monarchy the state was ruled firmly from above, the masses were kept under control and were often under- represented. If the ideological principles of Presbyterianism were applied to the state, then power should come from the people; if bishops were abolished, so should kings and queens. Elizabeth was a sharp politician and she realised that the Puritan threat was 3

perhaps a more pressing one than the Catholic threat; although Catholics were a national figure of hate, Puritans were the ones in a position to challenge the very infrastructure of the realm. Therefore, while her government and Parliament were involved in controlling the Catholics and passing severe legislation to fine, imprison and even condemn to death any recusant who was suspected of treason, Elizabeth also made sure that they passed legislation and tried political and diplomatic ways to curb the power and influence of the rising Puritan group. Like Catholics, Puritans were refusing to attend established services and having their own services and sermons performed as they pleased. Like Catholics therefore, they had to become the object of penal repression. II - Enforcing the Elizabethan Settlement In early modern Europe, religion was not a matter of personal choice; every single subject in a country was required to adhere to the established Church, the Church recognised by his or her state. A country s religion was an international political statement to the rest of Europe but internally, it also acted as a very important national cement, uniting the people in shared culture and beliefs. Those who did not take part in the established religion were outsiders, dissenters, and easily perceived as possible threats or rebels. If they challenged the Church, they could one day challenge the authority of the crown as well. It was therefore of paramount importance for Elizabeth to find a religious formula which would be acceptable both to those with traditional Catholic leanings and to those with Protestant views. She was searching for a middle way which could satisfy nearly everyone and create real uniformity of religious practice in England. A - The new legislation for the middle way As soon as she sat on the throne, Elizabeth set out to re-define England s position in terms of national religion. Working with the Star Chamber, the Privy Council and Parliament, she brought forth a series of Acts which asserted her country s independence from the Church of Rome, reinforced the monarch (not the pope) as the leader of the English Church but also bolstered the uniformity of beliefs and practice so that everybody should conform to a pre-set form of religion. Thus, in 1559, Parliament passed several crucial pieces of legislation, and the act of Supremacy and Act of Uniformity are still today the basis of the Anglican Church: - The Act of Supremacy: Elizabeth s Act of Supremacy made her the Supreme Governor of the Church in England, the authority of the pope was abolished and the monarch took his place as ruler of the Church. But unlike her father Henry VIII, the 4

queen was careful not to use the word Supreme Head of the Church. At the time, the difference was crucial since for many devout Christians there could be only one Head of the Church, Jesus Christ. By using the word Head, Henry had proclaimed himself equal to Christ, which by the time of Elizabeth would have undoubtedly alienated many Protestants who knew the Scriptures well and would have considered this title offensive. By choosing the title Governor, she showed her humility and her humanity: she was not claiming any divine status but was simply an administrator of the Church in her country. This was proof of her astute political mind and she would continue throughout her reign to be tactical and careful: her attempt to install a middle way required much diplomacy and tact. quote - The Book of Common Prayer: Like her brother Edward VI before her, Elizabeth realised the need for a Book of Common Prayer which would help the clergy to know exactly what to teach their congregations and would also help these congregations to know what to believe and how to practice. Her Prayer Book however, unlike Edward s, tried to compromise between old Catholic beliefs and traditions and new Protestant doctrine. It was meant to accommodate some Catholic beliefs and it was a bitter disappointment for the more extreme Puritans. It was proof of the queen s search for a middle way. In order to placate both sides, the meaning of the Eucharist was left to the individual conscience: the Book did not explain whether, upon to saying of the words of the Last Supper by the priest, the Bread and wine actually transformed miraculously into the body and blood of Christ or whether it was simply a commemorative act of remembrance, a symbolic ritual. quote On such sensitive issues, Elizabeth left much freedom to individual interpretation; she had no wish to open windows into men s souls. What they privately believed as a matter of personal spirituality should be allowed. On the other hand, she did insist upon clear and unconditional conformity: since the Book was so accommodating, you were supposed to adhere to it and those who did not were considered as threats and potential traitors. - The Act of Uniformity: This was meant to enforce conformity and uniformity on a national level. Every parish in the country was supposed to conform to the Prayer Book and use it; every subject was supposed conform outwardly and attend church every Sunday and was required to recognise Elizabeth as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Those who did not therefore showed that they were not true subjects to the queen, their allegiance was divided between her and the foreign power of the pope: they were traitors and could be punished by heavy fines and imprisonment. quote 5

B - Toleration and repression: the balance of the Settlement - 1563: The 39 Articles: Like under Edward VI, Elizabeth s Act of Uniformity made the Book of Common Prayer compulsory in all Church of England services. It also contained the 42 Articles of Religion which, in 1563, were reduced to 39. These 39 Articles still survive in today s Anglican Church and define its nature: all clergy must agree with them, and it is because of the queen s desire for a middle way that they contained such a mix of Catholic and Protestant ideas. On the Protestant side, the Pope's authority was of course denied. The Pope's authority was of course denied, services were in English (not Latin) and priests could marry. But elements of Catholic ritual such as altar rails and clerical vestments were kept, which caused great discontent amongst the Puritans, many of whom believed these things created a divide between clergy and lay people and wanted them abolished. Attendance at church on Sundays was made compulsory and a fine of one shilling per week (nearly half the weekly wage of a labourer) was levied on those who were absent if they had not been authorised. - Mary Queen of Scots: All this legislation in order to enforce Elizabeth s ideal of the English middle way was borne out of the reality of English life at the time, not simply out of the government s desire to control all. There were real threats to the crown, especially since in 1568, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, had fled her increasingly Presbyterian country to find refuge in England where Elizabeth, her cousin, offered her asylum. [Mary, believed to have murdered her husband in order to marry her lover, was deposed by the Scottish lords in 1567 and fled to England] But Mary s presence in England was a danger; some English Catholics considered that she had more right to be queen of England than Elizabeth (who was seen by some as a bastard, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, and not a rightful heir to the throne). For these reasons, Elizabeth showed herself to be kind and protected Mary, but she ordered her to remain confined in several places remote from court; the queen feared that rebellious Catholic could attempt to overthrow her and put Mary in her place. - The Rising of the North: In 1569, the Catholic Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland led a rebellion in order to re-establish the old religion, get rid of Protestant politicians and release Mary Queen of Scots from imprisonment. They initially did not mean to overthrow Elizabeth, to whom they declared their allegiance in a declaration, but they wanted to denounce those they called her evil counsellors, whom they blamed for the country s increasing turn towards Calvinism. Queen Elizabeth summoned the two Earls to courts, but fearing for their lives, they chose not to present themselves before her. Since negotiation was impossible, they resolved to use force: they marched on the city of Durham and seized it; they entered the Cathedral, symbolically overturned the Communion Table 6

(which replaced the traditional Catholic altar) and tore the English Bible and the Prayer Book. Their forces continued to march south but they were soon defeated by Elizabeth s army led by the Earl of Essex. The Earl of Northumberland was beheaded in 1572 and his head displayed by the gates of York for two years; Westmorland managed to escape to the Continent but most others were not so lucky and were put to death. - The Babington Plot: Elizabeth was in an uncomfortable position: she feared Mary's influence and the fact that her presence could motive her English subject to rally around her. On the other hand, she could not let a fellow queen be deposed and disgraced by her own people. Offering help was the only solution, but it was essential to keep Mary far from court. Even after the Rising of the North, the queen refused to have her cousin executed or even killed surreptitiously. However, the 1586 plot led by Sir Anthony Babington finally persuaded her because it presented her with undeniable proof of the complicity of Mary queen of Scots with the plotters discussing Elizabeth s murder. One of Elizabeth s closest ministers, Sir Francis Walsingham, spied upon the actions of English recusants and particularly the goings-on around Mary and discovered the plot. Babington was tortured and put to death and Mary Queen of Scots was found guilty of treason and executed. The Catholic threat within the realm was not to be tolerated any longer. 7