ANCIENT INDIA IAS BEE PT-2018 Page 0
TABLE OF CONTENTS SL NO: CHAPTER PAGE 1. THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 2 2. PREHISTORIC INDIA 6 3. THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION 9 4. THE VEDIC AGE 16 5. MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDA 24 6. THE EVOLUTION OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 29 7. THE AGE OF MAURYAS 35 8. POST-MAURYAN INDIA 40 9. EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA 45 10. THE GUPTA EMPIRE 49 11. POST GUPTA PERIOD 55 12. SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY 63 13. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA 65 Page 1
Page 2 1. THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY Broadly, the sources for ancient India's history can be classified under two main categories. The first is the literary and the second archaeological. The literary sources include Vedic, Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and other literature besides foreign accounts. Under the broad head of archaeology we may consider numismatic, epigraphic and architectural remains besides archaeological explorations and excavations which have opened great vistas of new information. Mound is an elevated portion of land covering remains of old habitations. These mounds are of different types: single-culture, major-culture and multi-culture. When these mound sites are dug vertically they provide a chronological sequence of material culture. Excavations at these mounds showed various material features like brick structures, stone structures, layout of settlements, coins, tools, weapons, pottery etc. TECHNIQUES OF DATING IN ARCHEOLOGY Archeologists use techniques like Stratigraphy (study of different horizons of soils), Typology (comparison of reference objects with objects found at the site), Radiocarbon dating (analysis of C 14 in fossils), Dendrochronology (study of rings of tree trunks) and Thermoluminescence (uses the physiochemical property of certain minerals present in the objects). Also study of plant residues, pollen analysis, components of metal artifacts help in understanding the history of climate, vegetation and cultures of a site. COINS Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, and related objects. Ancient coins were made of metal copper, silver, gold or lead. Our earliest coins contain a few symbols, but the later coins mention the names of kings, gods or dates. Since coins were used for payment, donations, medium of exchange, they throw considerable light on economic history. Portrayal of gods, religious symbols and legends throw light on the art and religion of the time. Following are important points related to coins in Indian history. Punch marked coins also called as Karshapanas or panas are the early type of coinage in India dating back to 6 th century BC. The Arthashastra, mentions minting of punch marked coins. Early coins of India (400 BCE 100 CE) were made of silver and copper, and bore animal and plant symbols on them. Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die-struck coins. With the coming of Indo-Greeks, gold coins were issued for the first time. Coin moulds of burnt clay have been discovered in large numbers. Most of them belong to Kushan period. Kushanas issued the largest number of copper coins. Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the Sangam age issued coins of gold and copper, but not of silver. Pon, Kasu and Kanam were the words used for gold coins. Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins which indicates that trade and commerce flourished.the percentage of gold in Indian coins under the reign of Gupta rulers showed a steady financial decline over the centuries as it decreases from 90% pure gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a mere 75-80% under Skandagupta. Post Gupta period only a few coins have been found indicating decline of trade and commerce. INSCRIPTIONS Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. Study of old writing used in inscriptions and other old records is called Paleography. Inscriptions convey evidences like royal orders, decisions regarding social, religious and administrative matters, land grants, donative records to temples, priests etc. Early inscriptions were recorded on stone, copper plates, walls of temples and served as permanent records. The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals of Harappa and the pictographic script used in it is not deciphered yet.
Some notable inscriptions of ancient India: Ashokan inscriptions used Brahmi scripts in the whole country except for north-west India where Kharoshti script was used. Nagarjuna hill cave inscription of Dasarath talks about the declaration of caves to Ajivikas. Junagarh inscription mentions that one of Chandragupta Maurya s governors, Pushyagupta, was responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawar at the order of the former. Sarnath inscription highlights the achievements of Kanishka, the Kushana ruler. Besnagar pillar inscription from Vidisa talks about the pillar constructed by Heliodorus in honor of god Vasudeva. Hathigumpa inscription in Prakrit in Udayagiri hills of Orissa records achievements of Kharavela. Mehrauli Iron Pillar credits Chandragupta with conquest of the Vanga Countries, conquest of Vakatkas. This pillar was established by Chandragupta-II of Gupta dynasty as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu. Allahabad pillar inscription issued by Samudragupta and was composed by Harisena. It mentions about the conquests of Samudragupta and boundaries of the Gupta Empire. Eulogy of Harisena described Samudragupta as hero of 100 battles, performer of Ashvamedha Yajna and as Kaviraja for his patronization of arts. The achievements of Gutamiputra Satkarni were mentioned in Nasik Inscription that was composed by his mother Gautami Balasri. LITERARY SOURCES The ancient literature and the religious books are important sources of information for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history. Their classification is simple religious, secular and historical literature, and foreign accounts. a) RELIGIOUS LITERATURE The literary sources depict the social and mental conditions of the people. India s religious literature is very extensive. It incorporates the Hindu Puranas, great epics such as Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the Upanishads and the Vedas.The religious writings of the Buddhists and the Jainas are also extensive. They include the Angas and the Jatakas and so on. b) SECULAR LITERATURE There are various types of non-religious or secular literature.the Smritis and the Dharmasutras which are known as the ancient Indian law books belong to this group.the Arthasastra by Kautilya is a well-known work. It speaks about the socio-economic system, polity and the state. Authors like Panini and Patanjali wrote about the Sanskrit grammar.the dramas of Bhasa, Vishakhadatta and Kalidasa provide us useful information about the society and the people.many other Chronicles and the biographical works also contain information about the history. c) FOREIGN ACCOUNTS To India came the Greeks, Romans and Chinese either as travelers or religious converts. They left behind accounts of the things that they saw. It is remarkable that Alexander s invasion finds no mention in Indian sources and it is entirely on the basis of Greek sources we have to reconstruct the history of his Indian exploits. Author Book Subject Magasthenes Indica Valuable information on Administration and socioeconomic conditions of Mauryas Page 3
Ptolemy Geography of India Geographical treatise on India in 2 nd Century AD Pliny Anonymous Fa-Hien Hiuen Tsang Naturalis Historia Periplus of the Erythrean Sea Record of the Buddhist Countries Buddhist Records of the Western World Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in 1 st Century AD Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in 80 A.D. Records the Gupta Empire in the 5 th Century AD Describes the social, economic andreligious conditions of India in the 5 th and 7 th Century AD. (Harshvardhan) ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORICAL SENSE Page 4 Table 1 Contribution of foreign accounts to Indian history Ancient Indians are charged with lack of historical sense. Indian historical writers are accused of being full of exaggerations and lack chronological sense. But, there are different eras used to record events in several texts. The Vikram Samvat began in 57 B.C, the Shaka Samvat in 78 A.D, Gupta era in 319 A.D, Harsha era began in 606 A.D, Lakshmana era of Bengal began in 1119 A.D, Saptarsi or Laukika era was used in Kashmir, Kollam era of Kerala begain 825 A.D. Indians displayed considerable historical sense in biographical writings. Some examples are Harshacharita by Banabhatta, Sandhyakara Nandi s Ramacharita (narrates conflict between Kaivarta peasants and the Pala prince Ramapala), Bilhana s Vikramanakadevacharita (describes the achievements of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyan king of Kalyan), Kalhana s Rajatarangini (biographies of kings of Kashmir). These works possessed several traits of current day history writing. MODERN HISTORIANS OF ANCIENT INDIA Colonialist View Modern research in history of ancient India started in second half of 18 th century because of needs of colonial administration set up by the British. Following are the notable contribution from colonial empire: Manusmriti was translated into English asacode of Gentoo Laws in 1776. Asiatic Society of Bengal was setup in 1784 in Calcutta by Sir William Jones. He also translated the drama Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Gita Govinda into English. Bhagvadgita was translated into English by Charles Wilkins. He also translated Hitopadesa. Bombay Asiatic Society was established in 1804. Asiatic Society of Great Britain was setup in 1823. F. Max Mueller published several works on Indological studies. He was the editor of book series called Sacred Books of East. Vincent Arthur Smith wrote Early History of India which was the first systematic study of Indian history in 1904. James Mill in his book History of British India was the first to periodise Indian history on communal lines. He classified ancient Indian history as Hindu history, medieval Indian history as Muslim history and the modern
Indian history as British period. This classification has deeply embedded in the consciousness of those studying India that prevails to this day. James Princep interpreted Brahmi script which helped in studying inscriptions of Ashoka. Alexander Cunnigham is considered as the Father of Indian Archeology. He was the first Archeological Surveyor of India. John Marshall was the Director General of Archeological Survey of India (ASI) in whose time period Indus Valley Civilisation was discovered. Max Mueller and other western historians made certain generalizations about the nature of Indian history. They stated that ancient indians lacked sense of chronology, accustomed to despotic rule, engrossed in problems of spiritual world rather than real world, are incapable of governing themselves etc. Such generalizations helped colonial administration. Nationalist Approach to Indian Historical Study A band of scholars took upon themselves to reform Indian society and reconstruct ancient Indian history in a manner to make a case for social reforms and self government. They were guided by nationalist ideas of Hindu revivalism or rationalist approach. Following are notable personalities in Indian historical study. Rajendra Lal Mitra published several Vedic texts and a book Indo-Aryans. He took a rational view of ancient society and produced proof for beef eating practice in ancient India. R.G. Bhandarkar published works on history of Satavahanas and history of Vaishnavism. He advocated widow remarriages and castigated the evils of caste system and child marriages. Panduranga Vaman Kane published History of Dharmasastra, an encyclopedia of ancient social laws and customs. Hemachandra Raychaudari reconstructed the history from the time of the Bharata (Mahabharata) war. He criticized British scholars at many points. He showed a streak of militant Brahmanism when he criticized Ashoka s policy of peace. R.C. Majumdar published a series entitled History and Culture of Indian People. A strong element of Hindu revivalism appears in his writings. K.A. Nilakanta is famous for his work A History of South India. When most writers ignored south Indian history he presented an elaborate side of south Indian history. Hindu Polity by K.P. Jayaswal showed that republics were present in ancient India. This exploded the myth of Indian despotism. Page 5
2. PREHISTORIC INDIA The earth is over 4000 million years old. The evolution of its crust shows four stages. The fourth stage is called the Quaternary, which is divided into Pleistocene (most recent) and Holocene (present). The former lasted between 2,00,000 and 10,000 years ago. Man is said to have appeared on the earth in the early Pleistocene, when true ox, true elephant and true horse also originated. Prehistoric period belongs to the time before the emergence of writing. It is believed that man learnt writing only about 5000-8000 years ago. In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (NewStone Age) and the Chalcolithic Age. However, these periods were not uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. Paleolithic age in India is divided into 3 phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the climate. Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic are the 3 phases. Figure 1 Prehistoric India Sites Page 6 Period Characteristics Sites Lower Paleolithic (5,00,000 B.C to 50,000 B.C) Use of stone tools, large pebbles, hand axes, cleavers and choppers Soan valley (Punjab of Pakistan), Belan valley (U.P), Bhimbetka (M.P), Shiwalik hills of north india, Attirampakkam near Chennai, Kurnool (A.P)
Middle Paleolithic (50,000 B.C to 40,000 B.C) Upper Paleolithic (40,000 B.C to 10,000 B.C Mesolithic/ Microlithic (10,000 B.C to 7,000 B.C) Neolithic (7,000 B.C to 2,000 B.C) Chalcolithic/ Stone-Copper phase (3,000 B.C to 900 B.C) Copper Hoards phase Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) phase Tools made of flakes Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar, Rohiri hills of upper Sind Tools made of larger flakes, Parts of Belan and Ganga valley blades and scrapers; flint industries; modern man appearance Hunting, fishing, food gathering Bagor (Raj.), Adamgarh (M.P), and beginning of domestication Langhanj (Guj.), Sarai, Nahar Rai, of animals; Microliths i.e small stone tools made of flint; occasional burial of dead with microliths; use of bow and arrow Agriculture (Rice, wheat, barley, millet) began, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools and the manufacture of pottery; emergence of village; polished axesfor hunting and cutting trees; Large urns; clothes made of cotton and wool copper and bronze came to be used; smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts; People began to travel for a long distance toobtain metal ores; Black and red ware pottery; Fire worship widespread; domestication of cattle for food not for milk; Jhum cultivation; Terracotta figurines of women suggested worship of Mother Goddess Use of rings, celts, swords, harpoons; metal artifacts used not only for hunting but also for fighting and agriculture; Pottery with bright red slip and painted in black; junior contemporaries of Harappans Burzahom (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), Belan valley, Mehrgarh (Pak.), Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal (Kar.), Paiyampalli (TN) and Utnur (A.P) Cultures: Ahrar culture (oldest), Kayatha culture, Malwa culture, Rangpur culture, Jarwe culture (newest) Sites: Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon Ganga Yamuna doab Ganga Yamuna doab Table 2 Characteristics and Sites in Prehistoric India Page 7
Figure 2 Paleolithic Tools Some notable prehistoric findings Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens cave; 500 painted Rock Shelters (MH) Nevasa - Evidence of cotton Atranjikheda - Textile printing Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane Inamgaon - Statue of mother Goddess (MH) Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture, settled life, cultivation of cotton (Baluchistan) Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal (Raj) Chirand - Serpant cult (Bihar) Burzahom Pit dwelling; burial of dogs with masters (J&K) Page 8
3. THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than the chalcolithic cultures, but far more developed than these cultures. It is called Harappan civilization because it was discovered first in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the Punjab of Pakistan. Harappan culture covered parts of Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the fringes of Western U.P. It extended from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south, and from the Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west to Meerut in the north-east. Among the many other sites excavated, the most important are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat. Mohenjodara is the largest of all the Indus cities. There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they arenamed as pre-harappan, early- Harappan, mature-harappan andlate Harappan. In pre-harappan stage nomadic people began to live a settled life. In the early-harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. There was a gradual growth of town. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence forearly-harappan stage. In the mature-harappan stage, great cities emerged. The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning show this phase. In the late-harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started. The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution. Figure 3 Farthest sites of Harappan civilisation Page 9
Figure 4 Harappan Sites Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization There was a sophisticated concept of town planning in the Indus Valley Civilization. There were well planned grids with broad main roads and smaller lanes intersecting at right angles. There were large networks of hundreds of wells, which supplied water to the residents. A sophisticated drainage system was in existence and even the smallest houses were connected to it. Houses were made of bricks. The standardized dimensions of these bricks (ratio of length to width to thickness at 4:2:1), found in the many cities across this civilization, are remarkable. The houses had several storeys. Town Planning a) City Walls Each city in the Indus Valley was surrounded by massive walls and gateways. The walls were built to control trade and also to stop the city from being flooded. Each part of the city was made up of walled sections. Each section included different buildings such as: Public buildings, houses, markets, craft workshops etc. Page 10
b) Citadel and Lower cities There was an impressive fortified citadel which has public buildings. Below the citadel is the lower town consisting of houses of the commoners. The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics. Drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains was covered by stone slabs or bricks. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. c) Granaries In Mohenjadaro the largest building is a granary, which is 45.7 mts long and 15.23 mts wide. In Harappa as many as 6 granaries are found. They were well ventilated and it was possible to fill grain in from outside. The large size of the granary probably indicates a highly developed agricultural civilization. d) Great Bath The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the GreatBath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth. There is use of burnt bricks, mortar and gypsum in the Great bath. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It must have served as a ritual bathing site. Economic Life a) Agriculture and allied activities Figure 5 Citadel, Great Bath and Granary (from left to right) There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton. Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world. Well irrigation was well known. Fields were not ploughed but dug up with a light toothed instrument. Traces of dams have been found from Dholavira in Gujarat. Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Page 11
Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer. b) Artisans Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brickmakers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers. Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places. Pottery remains plain and in some places red and black painted pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety ofsemi-precious stones. Bronze was made by smiths by mixing tin with copper. Copper was obtained from Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan, Tin possibly from Afghanistan, Hazaribagh and Bastar. Spindle whorls were used for spinning. Weavers wove cloth of wool and cotton. Evidence shows that Harappans practiced boat-making. c) Foreign Trade Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between the Indus and Sumerian people. Sumerian texts reveal trade relations with Meluha which was the ancient name for Indus region. They also speak of intermediate stations called Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Many seals of Indus valley have been found in Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river and sea transport. Harappans knew the use of wheel but it was some kind of modern ekka not the spoked wheel. Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barley, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products. Main imports consisted of Jade from Central Asia, Turqoise from Persia, Lapis Lazuli, Tin, Gold and Silver from Afghanistan. d) Weights and Measures Polity They also used standard weights and measures for commercial as well as building purposes. They were the authors of linear system of measurement with a unit equal to one angula of the arthashastra which was used in India till recently. Numerous articles used for weights, weighing mostly 16 or its multiples. Interesting till recently multiples of 16 were used in India (16 annas made one rupee) There is no clear idea about the political organization. Some historians suggest there must be a centralized authority as a cultural homogeneity can be seen across the sites. There are no temples which suggest that priests may not be the dominant class. Given that Harappans were more concerned with commerce than conquest possibly the merchant class was the dominant one. It may be noted that Harappans lacked in weapons Religion The chief female diety was Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. The chief female diety was the Pasupati Mahadeva represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture having 3 faces and 2 horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and buffalo) and two deer appear at his feet. Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found. Page 12
People of Indus region also worshipped trees. Picture of deity is represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of the pipal. This tree continues to be worshipped to this day. Animals surrounding Pashupati Mahadeva, One horned Unicorn, humped bull were some of the animals which were worshipped. Amulets have been found in large numbers. Probably Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces and wore amulets for warding them off. Script Figure 6 Mother Goddess and Pashupati Mahadev There are nearly 4000 specimens of Harappan writing on stone seals and other objects. Harappans did not write long inscriptions and contained only few words. Altogether we have about 250 to 400 pictographs and in the form of a picture each letter stands for some sound, idea or object. Their script is pictographic and is believed to be of complete indigenous origin with no connection from outside. Thenumber of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants. The script was mostly written from right to left. To this day this script has not been deciphered. Pottery The pottery of Indus Valley civilization is an excellent example of ancient glazed pottery. Plain undecorated pottery is more common at Mohenjo-Daro than painted ware. But the well-known painted red and black wares were adorned with black colored designs on red background. The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock Figure 7 Harappan Pottery Page 13
Seals Seals more than 2000 in number, made of soapstone, terracotta and copper are found. Some seals have human or animal figures on them. Most of the seals have the figures of real animals while a few bear the figure of mythical animals. The seals are rectangular, circular or even cylindrical in shape. Pashupati seal, Unicorn seal and the Bull seal are some of the important seals. The seals show the culture and civilization of the Indus Valley people. In particular, they indicate: Dresses, ornaments, hair-styles of people Skill of artists and sculptors Trade contacts and commercial relations Religious beliefs Script Images Figure 8 Harappan Seals Images of both metal and stone are discovered. A woman dancer made of bronze is the best specimen. Except for a necklace she is naked. A steatite image of a bearded man at Mohenjadaro is prominent. He is believed to be a priest. An ornamented robe over the left shoulder under the right arm and the short locks at the back of the head are kept tidy by a woven fillet. Terracotta figurines Terracotta figurines were made of baked clay. Majority of them are hand modeled. Both male and female figures are found with later being more common. A range of animals, birds including monkey, dogs, sheep and cattle terracotta figurines are seen. Both humped and hump less bull images are also present. Figure 9Terracotta Figures Page 14
Burial Practices Complete burial and post-cremationburial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear evidence for the practice of Sati. Decline of the Harappa Culture There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for thedecline of the Harappan culture. Various theories have beenpostulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up ofrivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of theharappan cities. According to some scholars the final blow was delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this region. Observations about other sites: Dholavira : Historians found a tantalizing signboard with Indus script. 3 citadels with improved inner enclosure are present here. A megalith burial is seen here. Evidence of irrigation, dams and embankments present. Suktagendor, Lothal and Balakot : These were the important coastal and port cities. Surkotda : Historians were able to collect some bones of Horse but the identity is doubtful. In any case Harappan culture was not horse centered. It is the only site with stone wall as fortification. Kalibangan: A ploughed field and bones of camel are discovered here. The peculiar type of circular and rectangular graves is another feature of Kalibangan. In terms of town planning, Kalibangan was not as developed as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira because here we neither find use of baked bricks nor a drainage system. 6 patterns of pottery are found. Mixed cropping is practiced here. Lothal: this city was divided into 6 sections and each section had a wide platform of earthen bricks. Lothal s dock the world s earliest known, connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river. Entry to houses from the main street instead of lateral entry that was common in other sites. Evidence of double burials is found. Two terracotta models of Egyptian mummies found wrapped in muslin cloth. The game of chess seems to have been played at Lothal. Lothal and Rangpur: Rice Husk was found at each of these sites. Chanhudaro: It is the only Indus site with no citadel. Largest numbers of copper implements are found here. Banawali: Evidence of largest number of barley grains. Only site with radial streets. Daimbad: Largest number of bronze items found here. A bronze chariot, rhino, elephant and bull seen. Page 15
4. THE VEDIC AGE The Vedic Civilization was the culture and traditions of the society prevalent during the Vedic age (1500-600 BCE). The Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia. Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. Their society was mainly male dominated. They spoke the Indo-European languages which are current in changed forms all over Europe, Iran and the greater part of the Indian subcontinent. Horse played the most significant role in their life. We know about the Aryans in India from the Rig Veda (Veda means to know). The term Arya appears 36 times in this text and generally indicated a cultural community. The word Arya means noble in Sanskrit. The holy book of Iran Zend Avesta indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran. The fact that some ofthe Vedic gods namely Indra, Varuna, Mitra and the two Nasatyas are mentioned in Boghaz-Koi (Asia Minor) inscription of 1400 B.C. prove that Rig Veda must have come into existence much before that date. A section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC and first settled in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rig Veda were composed.this period between 1500 B.C and 600B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C - 1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C). The Aryans came in several waves. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the dasas, dasyus etc. Dasas seem to have been a branch of the early Aryans. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by a chief called Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represents the original inhabitants in the country and an Aryan chief overpowered them by the name Trasadasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The dasyus possibly worshipped the phallus and did not keep cattle for dairy products. Vedic Literature The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise of various gods. Rig Veda is divided into 10 books or mandalas. Mandala III contains Gayatri Mantra, addressed to the solar deity Savitri. Tenth Mandala talks about Purushasukta hymn which is the largest hymn which talks about creation and the chaturvarna scheme of society. The first and the tenth mandals are considered as the latest additions. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. Two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajpeya are mentioned in it. Unlike Rig and Sama Vedas which are in verse Yajur Veda contains both verse and prose. The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The Atharva Veda contains details of charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. It also mentions beliefs and practices of non-aryan people. It mentions about Indian medicine, agriculture, cattle rearing, industry etc. Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayerand sacrificial ceremony. They also contain meaning of Vedic hymns, their application, stories of their origin etc. Page 16
The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The Brahmanas, the Aranyaka sand the Upanishads are attached to one or the other of the four Vedas. Early Vedic Area of Settlement Figure 10 Vedic Literature The geographical area covered by the early Aryans is indicated from certain allusions in the Rigveda, which seems to have been limited to an area extending from Afghanistan to the Gangetic valley. The former region was occupied by the Aryans is from the mention of rivers like the Kubha (Kabul), the Suvastu, situated north of Kabul. The Nadisukta hymn ofthe RigVeda mentions 21 rivers. The Sindhu, identical with the Indus, is the river par excellence of the Rigvedic Aryans and is repeatedly mentioned, so also are its five tributaries the Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipasa (Beas) and the Sutudri (Sutlej). Another river, the Saraswati, is called naditarna or the best of the rivers in the Rig Veda. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in Indian subcontinent is called the Land of the Seven Rivers. All rivers like the Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutlej, Ravi, Jhelum and Indus located between the Ganga and Kabul rivers are mentioned not arbitrarily but serially beginning from the east (Ganga) to the west (Kubha). Rig Veda mentions the Himalayas and Mujavant mountains. It also mentions ocean (samudra) in connection with rivers Sindhu and Saraswati falling into ocean. Page 17
Figure 11 Early Vedic Area of Settlement Tribal Conflicts Aryans were divided into five tribes called Panchajana but there might have been other tribes also. Bharatas and the Tristu were the ruling Aryan clans. The country Bharatavarsha was eventually named after the tribe Bharata. The Bharata clan led by Sudas was opposed by a host of ten chiefs and the battle between them came to be known as the Battle of Ten Kings. The ten kings were of the states of Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and Druhyus along with five others viz Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibis and Vishanins. This battle was fought on the river Parushni. Bharata clan won the battle and later they joined hands with Purus and formed a new ruling tribe called Kurus. Rig Veda givesthe location of Bharata clan as between Saraswati and Yamuna; the Purus in the region of Kurukshetra ;the Tritsus east of Ravi; the Alinas, the Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis west of Indus upto Kabul river andso on. Early Vedic Polity The basic unit of political organization was kula or family and Kulapa was the head of the family. Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama. Villages were headed by Gramini who used to represent village in Sabha and Samiti.A group of villages constituted a larger unit called Visu. It was headed by Vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe. There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was called as Rajan or king. He was the leader in battle and protector of tribe. Page 18
The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. However, the Rajan was a kind of chief, and he did not exercise unlimited power, for he had to reckon administration with the tribal councils like Sabha, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata. There were two popular bodies (tribal organizations) called the Sabha and Samiti. The former was a council of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people. Even women attended Sabha and Vidhata. There were rules which governed the debate in sabha and Vajsaneyi Samhita mentions that erring members were rebuked. Sabha also seems to have functioned as a court of justice. Itis said that, "one who attends the sabha sits as a law court to dispense dharma (Justice)". The king was assisted by a number of officers of which Purohita was the most important. The Rig Veda did not mention any officer for administering justice. Spies were employed to keep an eye on unsocial activities such as theft and burglary. The titles of the officials do not indicate their administration of territory. However, some officers seem to have been attached to territories. They enjoyed authority in the pasture grounds and settled villages. The officer of pasture ground was called vrajapati, who led the heads of the families called kulapas or the heads of the fighting horses called gramanis to battle. In the beginning, the gramani was just the head of a small tribal fighting unit. But when the unit settled, the gramani became the head of the village and in course of time he became identical with Vrajapati. The king did not maintain any regular army but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vratas, grama, gaha, sradha, etc. By and large, the military system was strong. The military technique of the early Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses. There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute (Bali) of his subjects and the booty won in battle. Early Vedic Social Life Page 19 Figure 12 Early Vedic Polity The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal and tribal. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies. Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Child marriage and the practice of sati were absent. There are a few references to the freedom of choice in marriage. A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband. The father's property was inherited by son. The daughter could inherit it only if she was the only child of her parents. Right to property was known in moveable things like cattle, horse, gold and ornament and so also in immoveable property like land andhouse. Tribes were called as Janas. The term Janapada or territory is not used even once in the Rig Veda
The Jana was divided into group of people called Vis. The Vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. Tribal society was broadly divided into three groups Brahmana (priests), i (warriors) and Vaisya (the merchants). The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period. The non-aryans consisted of dasas, dasyus and panis. The dasas gradually transformed into Sudra. There was freedom and mobility for the adoption of a profession and the idea of hereditary trades and occupations was not envisaged in the society. Slavery was prevalent, but slaves were not used for production activities or agriculture. Untouchability was unknown in the Rig Vedic period. Slaves were given as gift to priests. The concept of Gotra did not arise in the Rig Vedic period. So people married irrespective of the concept of gotra Rig Vedic Gods The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedicgods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder). In the traditional classification of gods, there has been a three-fold division. Terrestrial gods in which Prithvi, Brihasapati, Agni and rivers are important. Intermediate or Antarikshatana gods in which Indra, Prajanya and Rudra are prominent. Celestial or Dyusthana gods, among which Varuna, Usha, Surya, Savitri and Vishnu are important. Figure 13 Rig Vedic Gods Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people. Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. Page 20
The Gods are described as born, yet they are immortal. In appearance they are humans, though sometimes they are conceived as animals, e.g. Dyaus as bull and Sun as a swift horse. The food of men such as milk, grain, flesh, etc becomes the food of Gods when offered in the sacrifice. There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during the worship. Rig Vedic Economy Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral. They domesticated Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even human beings), as opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle were synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle were so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the king. The Rig Veda attached great importance to agriculture. The plough was drawn by the oxen at times in teams of six, eight or even twelve. The manure was also used. From various references in the Rig Veda it appears that irrigation was also practiced. The grains are collectively called Yavaand dhanya. With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation. The metal work was known as follows: Copper was known as Ayas, Gold was known as Hiranya, Iron was also known as was known as Shyama or Krishna Ayas. Trade was another important economic activity and rivers served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions. Later Vedic Age Area of Settlement During the period represented by the later Samhitas and Brahmana sthe settlements covered virtually the whole of northern India. The centre of civilization now shifted from Saraswati to Ganga another remarkable development and that is gradual expansion and consolidation of vis. The earlier known jana like Bharatas, Purus, Tritsus, and Turvas as of the Rig Vedic period slowly were merging with other janas and disappearing from the scene. In a way gradual consolidation and expansion of some of the states started taking place. However, the areas of south India are not clearly mentioned. The expansion of people towards the east is indicated in a legend of SatapathaBrahmana - how Videgh Madhav migrated from Saraswati region, the land of Vedic Culture, crossed Sadanira (modern Gandak river), the eastern boundary of Kosala and came to the land of Videha. Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portions of the Ganga Yamuna doab, the area called Kurukshetra. Gradually they coalesced with a people called the Panchalas, who occupied middle portion of the doab. They set their capital at Hastinapur. The history of the kuru tribe is important for the battle of Bharata, which is the main theme of Mahabharata. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the eastern most tribal kingdoms. Page 21
Figure 14 Geographical Setting of Later Vedic period Polity Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period. The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). Traces of the election of the king appear in later vedic texts. In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita, senani and gramani. We hear of new officials suchas suta (charioteer), sangrahitri (treasurer), bhagadugha (collector of taxes), sthapati (chief judge), takshan (carpenter), kshatri (chamberlain) and several others whose exact function cannot be ascertained. At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period. They came to be dominated by chiefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer permitted to sit on the Sabha. Legal institutions were also coming into sharper focus killing of cow, slaying of brahmana, drinking intoxicating liquor, treachery, etc. were punishable by death. Petty offences were left to "village judges". For evidence, the eye-witness was more important than informer. Society In later Vedic period, varnas came to be birth-based rather than profession-based. The proliference of professions gave rise to jatis. The most glaring evil of the jati system, namely, the concept of untouchability had not yet reared its ugly head. There are instances of individuals such as Kavasha, Vatsa and Satyakama Jabala who were born in non-brahman jatis but came to be known as great brahmans. On the whole, jati had not yet become a rigid system, and none of the three factors which characterised it later viz. prohibition of inter-dining, intermarriage and determination of varna by descent, were yet established on a rigid basis. Page 22
In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period. According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges. Religion Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation. Economic Life Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat were grown.the Satapatha Brahmana enumerates various operations of agriculture suchas ploughing, sowing, reaping and threshing. The Atharvaveda mentions that drought and excess rains threatened agriculture. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress. Guilds of craftsmen also came into existence. The word sreshthi, head of guild, finds mention in several texts. A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange. Sea-borne trade was well known and Aitareya Brahmana speaks of the"inexhaustible sea" and "the sea as encircling the earth". In addition to internal trade, foreign trade became extensive. Page 23
5. MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDAS From the sixth century B.C onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar created conditions for the formation of larger territorial states (Mahajanapadas). Because of iron weapons warrior class became powerful. The new agricultural tools and implements enable more production. The surplus was either collected as taxes or found its way to towns. These material advantages enabled the people to stick to their land. People owed strong allegiance to their Janapada or the territory than Jana or the tribe. According to Anguttara Nikaya there were following Mahajanapadas: 1. Anga (including the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar) with its capital of Champa, 2. Magadha (covering the districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad) with its earlier capital at Rajgriha or Girivraj 3. Vajji (a confederacy of eight republican clans, situated to the north of the river Ganga in Bihar) with its capital, Vaisali, 4. Malla (also a republican confederacy covering the modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur and Siddharthnagar in eastern Uttar Pradesh) with two capitals at Kusinara and Pawa 5. Kasi with its capital at Varanasi 6. Kosala (covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich etc.), with its capital at Sravasti 7. Vatsa (covering the modern districts Allahabad, Mirzapur etc.), with its capital at Kausambi 8. Chedi (covering the modern Bundelkhand area with its capital at Shuktimati) 9. Kuru (covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west of river Yamuna) with its capital at Indraprastha (modern Delhi) 10. Panchala (covering the area of western Uttar Pradesh up to the east of river Yamuna up to the Kosala Janapada) with its capital at Ahichhatra 11. Surasena (covering Brij Mandal with its capital at Mathura) 12. Matsya (covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan) 13. Avanti (modern Malawa) with its capital at Ujjayini and Mahishmati 14. Ashmaka (between the rivers Narmada'and Godavari) with its capital at Potana 15. Gandhara (area covering the western part of Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan) with its capitals at Taxila and Pushkalavati, and 16. Kamboja (identified with modern district of Hazara disricts of Pakistan) There were also non-monarchical states which can be called republics or ganasanghas. Buddhist texts reveal that during the time of the Buddha there were many such republican states. Some of the important ones were: 1. Mallas of Kusinara 2. Mallas of Pava 3. Sakyas of Kapilavastu 4. Koliyas of Ramagrama 5. Moriyas of Pipphalivana 6. Bulis of Alakappa 7. Kalamas of Kesaputta 8. Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri 9. Lichchhavis ofvaisali The political history of India from the sixth century B.C onwards is the history of struggles between the states for supremacy. Ultimately the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the most powerful and succeeded in founding an empire. Page 24
Figure 15 Mahajanapadas Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. It became the nerve centre of political activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages. Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith. Bimbisara (546 494 B.C.) Haryanka is the name of anew dynasty founded in Magadha by Bimbisara after overthrowing the Brihadrathas.He consolidated his position by matrimonial alliances. His first matrimonial alliance was with the ruling family of Kosala. He married Kosaladevi, sisterof Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as dowry which yielded large revenue. Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Licchavi family of Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance secured for him the safety of the northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of Magadha northwards to the borders of Nepal. He also married Khema of the royal house of Madra in central Punjab. Bimbisara also undertook many expeditions and added more territories to his empire. He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and annexed that kingdom. He maintained friendly relations with Avanti. He had also efficiently reorganized the administration of his kingdom. Page 25
Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. However, both religions claim him as their supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous gifts to the Buddhist Sangha. Ajatasatru (494-462 B.C.) The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests. He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. His war was a great success against a formidable confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali. IT took him full 16 years to destroy Vaishali. Eventually he succeeded in doing so because of a war engine which was used to throw stones like catapults. He also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached and it facilitated mass killings. To overcome the territorial ambitions of Avanti he began fortification of Rajgir whose walls can be still seen. However, the invasion did not material in his lifetime It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali. Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion. But it is generally believed that in the beginning he was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism. He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut. He was also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of the Buddha. The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin. He laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Later it became famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas. Udayin s successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Sisunaga. The last ruler of Haryak Dynasty was Nagdashak. Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Sisunaga dynasty came to power. Sisunga dynasty Sisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of the Magadhan Empire. After Sisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaisali. Nandas Kalasoka, the son and the successor of Sisunaga, was succeeded by a barber (according to some accounts) named Mahapadma Nanda, who founded a new dynasty known as the Nandas. He defeated and destroyed the farfamed kshatriya families (Puranas describe him as the destroyer of all kshatriyas ), such as the Pauravas, the Ikshvakus, and the Pradyotas, who were ruling in Kausambi, Kosala and Avanti, and established an empire which included the greater part of northern India. He assumed the title of ekarat. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas. It is said that they maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 3000 to 6000 war elephants. Such a huge army could be maintained only through an effective taxation system. It was because of these considerations that Alexander did not advance against Nandas. But, the later Nandas turned out to be weak and unpopular. Their unpopularity, possibly due to their "financial extortion", facilitated a revolution, leading to their overthrow by Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya. Causes of Magadha s Success Page 26 The formation of the largest state in India during this period was the work of several enterprising and ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda.
Magadha lay at the centre of middle Gangetic plain. It was very fertile helping in agricultural production. Magadha enjoyed geographical advantage because of its iron deposits near Rajgir which made it easier for them to equip with weapons better than others. Rajgir was also known as Girivraja since it was surrounded by a group of five hills acting as natural fort Forests around Rajgir produced elephants and also sufficient timber. Nandas streamlined administration with vast bureaucracy which dug canals for irrigation, promoted trade and commerce and collected taxes Finally the unorthodox character of the Magadha society who was held in low esteem by the orthodox Brahmans also helped. Since it was recently vedicised it showed more enthusiasm for expansion. Foreign Invasions Persian Conquest The western borderland of India comprising the Punjab, Sindh and Afghanistan did not have any strong political power during this period. Of the sixteen Mahajanapadas mentioned in the literature, only two, Kamboja and Gandhara, may be placed in this outlying region. Several principalities fought amongst each other and thus an easy prey to foreign invaders. This area was also wealthy and could be easily accessed through the passes in Hindukush. The powerful Achaemenian kings of Persia naturally cast their eyes towards this region, and perhaps Cyrus (558-530 B.C.) subjugated a number of principalities living to the south of the Hindukush mountains. It was in the reign of Darius (522-486 I3.C.) that we have positive evidence of the extension of Achaemenian rule in the northwestern part of India. Herodotus, the Greek historian tells about the Darius occupation of territory to the east of the Sindhu. Darius sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of the Sindhu river. Indian soldiers formed part of the Achaemenian army that conquered Greece in the time of Xerxes (486-465B.C.) and fought against Alexander at Gaugamela in 330 B.C. Impact of the Iranian Invasion Indo-Iranian contact has given impetus for Indo-Iranian trade and commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for Alexander s invasion. Iranian coins were found in the north western frontier. The Iranians brought Kharoshti script which was like Arabic written from right to left. It is believed that rock inscriptions that Ashoka so effectively used were inspired from the Iranian practice. Even in sculpture Iranian influence is observed. The Capitals i.e bull capital, lion capital, elephant capital etc put across the nation in Ashoka period were also inspired from Iranians. Alexander s Campaign After the conquest of the Persian Empire Alexander marched to India through the Khyber pass in 326 B.C. Surprisingly, no Indian source mentions anything about Alexander or his campaign. His conquest is reconstructed on the basis of accounts available in Greek and Roman sources. It is also surprising that while Greek sources give a very detailed account ofalexander's campaign to India, but they are completely silent about Kautilya. On the eve of his invasion, there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading king swere Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled the region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. There were many republican states like Nysa. In short, the northwestern India remained the most disunited part of India and the rulers were fighting with one another. Yet, it was not easy for Alexander to overcome so many sources of opposition. Alexander himself undertook the task of conquering thenorth -western part of India. The Greeks had to face a strong resistance from Hasti, a tribal chief whose capital was Pushkalavati. He stood the Greek siege for full 30 days Page 27
till he fell fighting. These local people fought the invader to the last man. When the king of Assakenoi fell fighting his army was led by the queen. They "resolved to defend their country to the last extremity". A bridge was constructed on the Indus River at Ohindabout 24 km. above Attock. After crossing the Indus Alexander proceeded towards Taxila. When he was about7 km from Taxila, Ambhi came forward to great Alexander and recognised him as his sovereign. From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander. Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the other side of the river he saw the vast army of Porus. As there were heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it. After a few days, he crossed the river and the famous battle of Hydaspeswas fought on the plains of Karri. It was a well-contested battle. Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage and heroism of this Indian prince,treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne. Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local tribes. He wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley. But he could not do so because his soldiers refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired and they wanted to return home. He divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into threeprovinces and put them under his governors. His retreat began in October 326 B.C. and the return journey was not free from ordeals.many republican tribes attacked his army. Anyhow he managed to reach beyond the Indus. On his way he reached Babylon where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C. Impact of Alexander s Invasion Alexander s conquest destroyed the petty states in the north-west and created a political vacuum which was filled by the expansion of the Mauryan Empire in that area by Chandragupta Maurya. Alexander s campaign opened up four distinct routes by land and sea paving the way for Greek merchants and improved trade and commerce. Also some Greek settlements came up in the north-west as Alexandria in Kabul region, Boukephala in Jhelum plains. Alexander also dispatched his fleet to explore mysterious coast he saw at the mouth of Indus and search for harbors from there to the Euphrates. His historians have provided a basis to build Indian chronology for subsequent events. They also provided information on the social and economic conditions of India. They tell about Sati system, sale of girls in market places and fine breed of oxen in north-west India. Page 28
6. THE EVOLUTION OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM Numerous religious sects arose in the middle Gangetic plains in the second half of the sixth century B.C. We hear of as many as 62 religious sects, many based on regional customs and rituals. Of these sects Jainism and Buddhism were the most important. Jainism and Buddhism take their stand on certain aspects of the pre existingsystem. Both are organised as ascetic orders and brotherhoods. Nirgranthas discuss as many as sixty-two systems of doctrines before Buddhism arose. Some Jain works like Sutra-Kritanga gives their number as363. Some of these were Ajivikas, Nirgranthas, Jatilakas etc. Some of the prominent teachers of these sects were Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosal, Ajitkeshakambalin, Nigantha Natputta and Sanjaya Belatthaputta. Causes of Origin The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were too expensive and not acceptable to the common people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and not understood by all. The real reason was the rise of a new agricultural economy in noth-eastern India which required the use of bullocks. But the Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices led to decimation of cattle wealth. The principle of Ahimsa propagated by new religions attracted people. The Varna system and the hierarchical stratification of the society generated tensions. The Kshatriyas reacted against the ritualistic domination of the brahmanas and seem to have led a kind of protest movement against the importance attached to birth in the Varna system. The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As aresult, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this. Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and Jainism. A strong reaction against various forms of private property is also observed. The new forms of property created social Inequalities, and caused misery and suffering to the masses of the people. So the common people yearned to return to primitive life. Both Jainism and Buddhism preferred simple, puritan acetic living. JAINISM Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539-467 B.C.) The Jain tradition traces Jainism to a remote antiquity represented by a succession of twenty-four Tirthankaras. The firsttirthankara was Rishabhnath. Parsva, who was the son of Ikshvaku king Asvasena of Kasi and was born to the daughter of Naravanman, king of Kausasthala was the 23 rd Tirthankara. Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya Gnana i.e. the supreme knowledge and final deliverance from the bonds of pleasure and pain. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jainas and his religion Jainism. Originally they were designated as Nirgranthas, i.e. free from fetters. Mahavira spent the remaining thirty years of his life in preaching. He passed away at Pawapuri, in 468 B.C. at the age of seventy two. Page 29
Teachings of Mahavira Page 30 Vardhaman Mahavira accepted four doctrines of Parsva namely non-injury to living beings (ahimsa) speaking the truth (satya) non possession of property (aparigraha) not stealing (asteya) celibacy (brahmacharya) Last one was added by Mahavira. The above five principle when observed by the monks strictly are known as mahavratas, but when lay members practice them they are called anuvratas The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are: right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory tha there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows mentioned above. Though the Jains did not deny the existence of God, they simply ignored him. The world for Jains is not created, maintained or destroyed by a God but functions through a universal oreternal law. The universe is eternal. Its existence is divided into cycles ofprogress (utsarpini) and declines (avasarpim). The universe functions through the interaction of living souls (Jiva) and everything in the universe has a soul (both living and non living). The purification of the soul is the purpose of living, for it is only the pure soul after being released from the body that resides in bliss. Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals. He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life.even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the earth, worms and animals. Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture. Spread of Jainism Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. Chandragupta Maurya is said to have patronised Jainism. According to the Jaina tradition, Chandragupta not only accepted Jaina religion, but had actually abdicated the throne and died as a Jaina Bhikshu in southern India. By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked). The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3 rd century B.C. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5 th century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council. Jain Literature Jain scriptures are called Agamas. They are believed to have been verbally transmitted from one generation to next, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts, by the oral tradition. The mythology states that the Tirthankara taught in a divine preaching hall called samavasarana, which were heard by the gods, the ascetics and
the laypersons. The discourse delivered is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven angas and fourteen purvas. The discourse is remembered and transmitted by the Ganadharas (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve angas (departments). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the Kalpa Sūtras are particularly popular among Svetambaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu. Other important Jain texts include Samayasara, Ratnakarandaśrāvakācāra, and Niyamasara. Tamil Jain texts such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār are credited to Digambara Jain authors. The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual, in that they were written under the patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. These Jain texts describe warrior violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic". Jain manuscript libraries, called bhandaras inside Jain temples, are the oldest surviving in India. Contribution of Jainism Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the varna order and the ritualistic Vedic region. The early Jainas discarded Sanskrit and adopted Prakrit for preaching. Their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi and the final texts were compiled in 6 th century A.D. in Gujarat at Vallabhi. Many languages grew out of Prakrit, Marathi being one such. Jainas composed the earliest works in Apabhramsa and prepared its first grammar. They contributed to the growth of kannada too with their works in that language. Jainas started worshipping statues of Mahavira developed from various schools of art BUDDHISM Life of Gautama Buddha (567-487 B.C.) Gautama or Siddhartha, the founderof Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi. As his mother died at childbirth, he was brought up by his aunt PrajapatiGautami. At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The sight of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life. He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of Truth. This event is called as Mahabhinishkramana. He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana i.e eternal state of peace and bliss, freedom from cycles of birth and death) at the age of thirty five. Since then he became known as the Buddha or the Enlightened One. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares. This event is known as dharma-chakra-pravartana (turning of the wheel of law). He died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara. Five Great Events of Buddha s Life and their symbols Birth Lotus & Bull Great Renunciation- Horse Nirvana Bodhi Tree First Sermon Dharma Chakra Death Stupa Teaching of Buddha The fundamental principle of Buddha's teachings are represented by the Four Noble Truths (Arya-Satyas) viz : Page 31
that the world is full of sorrow(dukkha) that there are causes ofsorrow (Dukkha Samuddaya) thatthis sorrow can be stopped (dukkha nirodha) and path leading tocessation of sorrow (Dukkha nirodhagamini- pratipada). According to Buddha, root of all human misery was 'desire' and its annihilation was the surest way of ending unhappiness. He held that death was no escape from it, as it led to rebirth and further suffering. One could get out of this chain of suffering and achieve the final salvation (Nirvana) by following the eight fold path. These eight fold paths are:(i) right speech, (ii) right action, (iii) right means of livelihood, (iv) right exertion, v) right mindfulness, (vi) right meditation, (vii) right resolution, and(viii) right view. Buddha is said to have summarised the whole process in three words viz. Sila (Right conduct), Samadhi (Right concentration) and Prajna (Right knowledge). The first two lead to the last one which is the direct cause of nirvana or liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Buddha advocated "The Middle Path" in which extremes are avoided. Spread of Buddhism Buddhism denied the efficacy of Vedic rituals and practices for the purpose of salvation. The followers of the Buddha fell into two categories: the Upasakas or the lay followers, who lived with family; and the Bhikshus (monks) who renounced the world and led the life ofan ascetic. They lived as a commune called Sangha founded by Buddha himself. The women were also admitted in Sangha and were known as Bhikshunis. All the members in Buddhism enjoyed equal rights irrespective of their varna and jati. Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks. The Sangha was governed on democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states of North India embraced this religion. About two hundred years after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism. Through his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Councils of Buddhism The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some five hundred years after the death of the Buddha. They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma Pitakas. They are written in the Pali language. Page 32 Figure 16 Tripitika and its books
Council Year Place Presided by Patronised by Occasion Action/ Effect First Second Third Fourth 487 B.C. 387 B.C. 250 B.C. 72 A.D. Rajgir Vaishali Pataliputra Kundalvana, Kashmir Mahakassapa Moggaliputtu Tissa Vasumitra and Asvaghosha was deputy King Ajatashatru Kalashoka Ashoka Kanishka Death of Buddha A dispute on Vinaya Pitaka, the code of discipline To settle all the disputes of Vinaya Pitaka To systemize the Abhidhamma texts Upali recited the Vinayapitaka rules and regulations of the Sangha; Ananda recited the Suttapitaka Buddhas teachings Sangha got divided into Theravadin and Mahasanghika; Sthaviravada followed the teachings of the elders and Mahasanghika became extinct later Abhidhamma Pitaka was established in this council; Send emissionaries to spread Buddhism Buddhism divided into 2 sects Mahayan & Hinayan Table 3 Buddhist Council Page 33
Hinayana and Mahayana Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism are two sects of Buddhism that have differences between them in their religious concepts. Only Mahayana Buddhism exists in the world now. Hinayana Mahayana 1 Hinayana Buddhism believes that Lord Buddha was an ordinary human being Mahayana believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol worship of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature 2 Hinayana literally means lesser wheel Mahayana means greater wheel 3 Individual salvation through self discipline and meditation. Ultimate aim of Hinayana is thus nirvana Mahayana believed in universal liberation from suffering for all beings. Believes in salvation by faith. Ultimate aim of Mahayana is spiritual upliftment 4 Hinayana literature is mainly in Pali Mahayana literature is mainly in Sanskrit 5 Sangha is at the centre Individual is at the centre 6 It stressed law of Karma It held law of Karuna over law of Karma 7 Stharvivada or Thervada is a Hinayana sect. Zen, Pure Land, Tiantai, Nichiren, Shingon and Tibetan Buddhism are traditions of Mahayana. Causes for the Decline of Buddhism Table 4 Difference between Hinaya and Mahayana Buddhism The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of Buddhism. The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1 st century A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making offerings led to the deterioration of moral standards. Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5 th and 6 th centuriesand the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries. Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture Buddhism has made a remarkable contribution to the development of Indian culture. Buddhism left deep impact on the society. It gave serious impetus to democratic spirit and social equality. It opened its doors to women and shudras The Buddhist viharas were used for education purposes. Nalanda, Vikramshila, Taxila, Udyantpuri, Vallabhi and others cities developed as high Buddhist learning centres The literature written both in Pali and Sanskrit were enriched by scholars of Hinyana and Mahayana sects. The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas (temple or prayer hall) and viharas (monastery or residence of monks) in different parts of India It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
7. THE AGE OF MAURYAS THE MAURYAN Empire was the first and one of the greatest empires that were established on Indian soil. Chandragupta Mauryawas the first ruler who unified entire India under one political unit. Moreover, the history writing has also become clear from this period due to accuracy in chronology and sources. Sources of Mauryan History The Arthashastra gives us detailed information about the administrative system of the Mauryan Empire. The work was written by Kautilya who is also known as Chanakya. The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas. Megasthenese, the Greek ambassador from the court of Seleucus to that of Chandragupta Maurya, wrote accounts of India and Indian people in his book Indica. Apart from these three important works, the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide information on the Mauryas. The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Asoka s Inscriptions, Rocks & Pillar Edicts of Maurya s, Hathigumpha Inscription gives account of Decline of Maurya s, Girnar s Inscription of Rudradaman gives account of Chandragupta and Asoka etc are some of the archeological sources. Chandragupta Maurya (322 298 B.C.) Extent of Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. Not much is known about the early life and ancestry of Chandragupta. Chandragupta's early life and education at Taxila is indirectly proved by the fact that the Greek sources tell us that he had seen Alexander in course of the latter's campaign of Punjab.From the Greek and Jain sources it seems that Chandragupta took advantage of the disturbances caused by the invasion of Alexander and his sudden death in 323 B.C. in Babylon. The Jain text,parisistha Parvam, describes that with the help of Chanakya, Page 35
Chandragupta defeated the Nanda king and captured him. After defeating Nanda,Chandragupta became the ruler of Magadha Empire. In this task he was assisted by Kautilya, who was also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta. After firmly establishing his power in the Gangeticvalley, he marched to the northwest and subdued the territories upto the Indus. Then he moved to central India and occupied the region north of Narmada river. Chandragupta defeated the invading army of the Greek Kshatrapa Seleucus who had succeeded Alexander in the eastern part of his empire. Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and a treaty was signed. By this treaty, Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-indus territories namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia to the Mauryan Empire. He also gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador. Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son Bindusara.Then he went to Sravana Belgola, near Mysore along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabhagu and starved himself to death. Bindusara (298 273 B.C.) He was known to the Greeks as Amitagrata and is said to have carried his arms to the Deccan as far as Mysore. The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south. The Jain scholar Hemachandra and Tibetan historian Taranath say that Chanakya outlived Chandragupta and continued as a minister of Bindusara. FromDivyavadana we came to know that Bindusara appointed his eldest sonsumana (also named Susima) as his viceroy at Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt sent Dionysiusas his ambassador to his court. Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Asoka the Great (273 232 B.C.) According to the Buddhist sources Ashoka s mother was Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi. According to the Buddhist tradition, Ashoka was very cruel in his early life and captured the throne after killing his 99 brothers. But this does not appear to be correct. Ashoka is the first king in the Indian history that has left his records engraved on stones. The inscriptions on rocks are called Rock Edicts, and those on pillars, Pillar Edicts. The inscriptions of Ashoka were written in four different scripts. In Afghanistan area they were written in Greek and Aramaic languages and scripts, and in Pakistan area, in Prakrit language and Kharosthi script. Inscriptions from all other areas are in Prakrit language, written in Brahmi script. These Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka s Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials. The XIII Rock Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga. The Pillar Edict VII gives a summary of his efforts to promote the Dhamma within his kingdom. Ashoka and Buddhism The most important event of Asoka s reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C. Although there is no detail about the cause and course of the war, the effects of the war were described by Asoka himself in the Rock edict XIII. Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. About 261 B.C. Asoka became a Sakya Upasaka (lay dsicple) and two and a half years later, a Bikshu(monk). Then he gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, and organized missions. He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma. The Dhamma, as explained in Ashoka's edicts is not a religion or a religious system but a 'Moral Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct' or an 'Ethical Order'. In Pillar Edict II Ashoka puts Page 36
the question: "What is Dhamma?" Then he enumerates the two basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma : less evil and many good deeds. Ashoka, in Rock Edict XII and many other edicts prescribes the following codes to be followed: Obedience to mother, father,elders, teachers and other respectable persons Respect towards teachers Proper treatment towards ascetics, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable, friends, acquaintances and companions Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives and the aged Abstention from killing of living beings. Non-injury to all living creatures Spending little and accumulating little wealth Mildness in case of all living creatures Truthfulness Attachment to morality Purity of heart Tolerance among all the religious sects Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war Later Mauryas Mauryas maintained a huge army, a vast bureaucracy and ruled over a large part of the Indian subcontinent. But soon after the death of Ashoka the empire got divided into two parts. While king Dasaratha controlled the eastern part of the empire, the western part was under Samprati. Some historians believe that Ashoka under the influence of Buddhism became a pacifist and weakened his army. It is also said that the religious policy of Ashoka antagonized the brahmanas as he banned the animal sacrifice, which affected the economic and religious activities of the brahmanas. Therefore, Pusyamitra, the brahmana chief of the army, killed the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha. But this does not seem to be correct as the study of Ashokan inscriptions reveals that Ashoka paid full respect to brahmanas. Moreover it is true that Ashoka followed a policy of peace and harmony, but he did not disband his army and was always prepared to face any eventuality. The reason of decline was inherent in the structure of the vast centralized empire itself. The successors ofashoka could not maintain the balance between the centre and the various provincial governors of the empire, and at the first possible opportunity, they made an effort to separate themselves from the centre. It is also possible that Mauryan rule may have suffered some kind of economic crisis. It is reflected in the debasement of some coins of that period. This crisi smight have developed either due to massive donations and charity or overspending on the imperial administrative system. Mauryan Administration Central Government It ushered in a centralised formof government.the king was head of the state. He had judicial, legislative and executive powers. The king issued what were known as sasana or ordinances. The edicts of Ashoka are examples of those sasanas. The king was assisted in administration by a Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad). Besides, there were some officers known as Adhyakshas (superintendents). Kautilya refers to a large number of superintendents Page 37
like those of gold, store houses, commerce, agriculture, ships, cows, horses, elephants, chariots, infantry, passports, the city etc. In the Mauryan administration there were officer called asyukta (subordinate/officer incharge of the revenues of the king), rajjukas (officers responsiblefor land measurement and fixing their boundaries), Pradeshikas (the provincial governer). The village was the smallest unit of administration. The head of the village was called gramika. Thevillages enjoyed considerable autonomy. Most of the disputes of the village were settled by gramika with the help of village assembly. Economy The Mauryan state founded new agricultural settlements to bring virgin land under cultivation. People from overpopulated areas and prisoners of war were brought to these new settlements to work on the fields. These villages belonged to king and were looked after by government official called sitadhyaksha or superintendent of agriculture. Besides state farms there were individual land holders who paid a variety of taxes to the state. The importance of irrigation was fully realised and peasants had to pay more tax on irrigated land. The bali or land tax was the main item of revenue, levied at the rate of one sixth of the produce. Peasants had to pay many other taxes like pindakara, hiranya, bhaga, bhoga. Traders and artisans were organised in associations called srenis or guilds. Mauryans maintained a monopoly over production of iron, which was in great demand by the army, industry and agriculture. It was done through the official called loha-adyaksha. Revenue Department Samharta, the chiefof the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all revenues of the empire. The land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce. Department of Commerce and Industry This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officers called Adyakshas. It also controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade. Judicial and Police Departments Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts. The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was called Dharmathikarin. There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas. Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were given to the offenders. Torture was employed to extract truth. Policestations were found in all principal centres. The DhammaMahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust imprisonment. Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka sinscriptions. Census The village officials were to number the people along with other details like their caste and occupation. They were also to count the animals in each house. The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to track the movement of population both foreign and indigenous. Municipal Administration Page 38
Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to maintain law and order. Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members each to look after the administration of Pataliputra. Society Megasthenese could not properly comprehend the Indian society and failed to distinguish between jati, varna and the occupation. The chaturvarna system continued to govern the society. But the craftsmen, irrespective of jati enjoyed a high place in the society. The material growth mellowed the jati restrictions and gave people prosperity and respectibility. Nowshudras could be involved in the agricultural and artisanal activities. This period also saw increase in the number of untouchables. Mauryan art The Mauryan period provides the earliest examples of ancient Indian art and architecture. Megasthenes has described the grandeur of the Mauryan palace at Pataliputra. Some remains of this palace have been found at Kumrhar near Patna. Ashokan pillars at Rampurva, Lauriya Nandangarh and Sarnath present excellent examples of stone sculptures which developed in this period. Our national emblem comes from the Asokan pillar at Sarnath near Benaras. All these pillars are circular and monolithic, and are made of sand stone found at Chunar near Mirzapur in U.P. We also find some rock cut architecture like Lomas Rishicave in the Barabara hills near Gaya belonging to the Mauryan period.the caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son Dasaratha remain important heritage ofthe Mauryas. Their interior walls are polished like mirror. These were meant to be residences of monks. Among several stone and terracotta sculptures of this period, polished stone sculpture of a chauri-bearing female known as Didarganj Yakshini is most famous. Figure 17 Sarnath Pillar, Lomas Rishi Caves, Didarganj Yakshini (from left to right) Page 39
8. POST-MAURYAN INDIA The disintegration of the Mauryan Empire led to the rise of many regional kingdoms in different parts of the country. At the same time, we witness invasions by various groups of people based in Central Asia and western China. These were Indo-Greeks, the Scythians or the Shakas, the Parthians or the Pahlavas and the Kushanas. It was through such political processes that India came in closer contact with the central Asian politics and culture. Sungas The last Mauryan king was killed by his Commander-in-Chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, who then established his own dynasty in north India. Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist sources refer him as a persecutor of Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show that Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved. While the Shungas were ruling in north India, the Indo- Greeks also known as Yavanas emerged in Bactria (north Afghanistan) as an independent power and soon started extending their rule in the northwestern and northern parts of India. Indo-Greeks The rulers of Bactria came to be called the Bactrian-Greeks because of their Hellenistic (Greek) ancestry. The most celebrated Indo-Greek ruler was Menander. His empire appears to have included southern Afghanisthan and Gandhara, the region west of the Indus. He has been identified with king Milinda mentioned in the famous Buddhist text Milindapanho which contains philosophical questions that Milinda asked Nagasena (the Buddhist author of the text). The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which increased in number under Kushans. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins with images of kings and their names. This is not possible in the case of the early punch-marked coins which cannot be assigned to any dynasty with certainty. Sakas Saka is the Indian term used for the people called Scythians, who originally belonged to central Asia. The Indo-Greek rule in India was primarily destroyed by the Sakas. The founder of the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C. was Maues. They settled in India around Taxila. The most famous of all the Saka rulers was Rudradaman who ruled in the middle of second century AD. He undertook the repairs of the Sudarsan lake dam that had been built by the provincial governor Chandragupta Maurya, in Kathiawad when it was damaged by heavy rains as per Junagarh inscription. This inscription happens to be the first royal inscription of early India composed in chaste Sanskrit. All the earlier long inscriptions were composed in Prakrit. In about 57-58 B.C. we hear of king of Ujjain who effectively fought against the Sakas and succeeded over them. He called himself Vikramaditya and an era called the Vikrama Samvat is reckoned in 57 B.C. Parthians The Parthians also known as Pahlavas were Iranian people. Their history is obscure. Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian rulers. Takht-i-Bahi inscription dated around 45 A.D. recovered from Mardan near Peshawar refers to Gondophernes. Page 40
Kushanas The Kushanas originally belonged to western China. They are also called Yueh-chis. The Kushanas after defeating Shakas and Pahlavas created a big empire in Pakistan. The first prominent ruler of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises. He was succeeded by his son Wema Kadphises. Next ruler was Kanishka. He was the most famous of the Kushanas. He probably ascended the throne in AD 78, and started a new era, now known as the Shaka era. At its peak, Kanishka's empire extended from Khotan in the northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south. The capital of this vast empire of Kanishka was Purushapur i.e. modern Peshawar. Kanishka Figure 18 Extent of Kushan Empire and their Coins Kanishka is famous in history as a great patron of Buddhism. He convened the fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalavana (present day Harwan near Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir) in which a large number of Buddhist scholars took part. It was in this council that Buddhism got split into two schools Hinayana and Mahayana. The Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was given final shape. Kanishka also patronized the Gandhara and Mathura schools of sculptural art. He patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna. Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist. He was the author of Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi and Saundarananda. He was the first dramatist to use Sanskrit in plays. Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka. Charaka has been called the Court Physician of Kanishka, though it is very much disputed. A headless statue of Kanishka found at Mathura reflects the same. A prominent feature of Kushana polity was the title of devaputra, i.e., son of God, used by the Kushana kings. It indicates the claim to divinity by the Kushana kings. They issued largest number of copper coins. Page 41
Figure 19 Headless statue of Kanisha Impact of Central Asian contacts Sakas and Kushanas made common use of reins and saddles. Their passionate love for horsemanship is visible in the number of equestrian terracotta figures from Begram in Afghanistan. Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers and heavy long coat. Even now the Afghans and Punjabis wear turbans and long coats. Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors. Silk route was under the control of Kushans and the contact with central Asians helped in trade with Roman Empire. Earliest evidence of large scale irrigation works are carried by Kushans Satrap system of government started from central asian contacts. The empire is divided into a number of satrapies and each is placed under a satrap. Two kings ruling the same kingdom at one and the same time were introduced Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and Kushans all became Indianised in course of time. They were given the status of Kshatriyas by Manu Central Asian contacts also brought to India new methods of making coins. The crude punch-marked coins which were used earlier gradually gave way to refined Greek style coins containing legends and the bust of the ruler Indians also borrowed from central Asians, particularly the Greeks, knowledge of astronomy. The Greek term drachma became drama. Satavahanas While northern India was reeling under turmoil after the fall of Mauryas a very powerful kingdom was established by the Satavahanas, also known as Andhras, in Deccan covering parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In the Ashokan inscriptions, the Andhras are mentioned as border people. They followed Brahmanism but were liberal to Buddhists and Jains. The official language of Satavahanas was Prakrit. All inscriptions by them were composed in Prakrit and written in Brahmi script. Page 42
Figure 20 Extent of Satavahana Empire The founder of this dynasty is known as Simuka and he ruled from235 B.C. to 21.3 B.C. He was succeeded by his brother Krishna. The third king was Satakarni I who seems to have made extensive conquests and performed two Ashvamedhayajna. His achievements are described in detail in the Nanaghat inscription. His name also occurs on one of the gateways of Sanchi stupa. It is well known that substantial donations were made by the Satavahanas for the renovation and decoration of Sanchi stupas and monasteries. Gautamiputra Satakarni The next important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni.He is credited with the extension of Satavahana dominions by defeating Nahapana, the Shaka ruler of Western India. His kingdom is said to have extended from river Krishna in south to river Godavari in north.his achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik inscription of Queen-mother, Gautami Balasri.Gautamiputra Satakarni is the first king bearing matronym and this practice was followed by nearly all his successors. Hala The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakritlanguage. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi Page 43
Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed. They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas. The old stupa of Amaravati was repaired and encased in richly sculpted marble slabs. Yajnasri Satakarni He is the last great ruler of the Satavahanas. He issued coins bearing fish symbol, boat symbol and Chaitya symbol. He was contemporary of the Mahayana Buddhist monk Nagarjuna. The Satavahana Empire collapsed when Abhiras seized Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas appropriated the eastern provinces. Economy under Satavahanas The craft guilds organized by different craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into existence. Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade. The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity. Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan. The greatest port ofthe Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports. Polity under Satavahanas Satavahana kingdom was divided into subdivisions called aharas or rashtras, meaning districts. There were also officers called amatyas who were perhaps ministers or advisors of the king. Revenue was collected both in cash and kind. Satavahanas kings were the first in Indian history to make tax free land grants to Buddhists and Brahmanas to gain religious merit. This practice became more prominent in succeeding periods. The Satavahana kings claimed to be Brahmanas and considered it their primary duty to uphold varna system i.e. the four fold division of social structure. Page 44
9. EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA Megalithic Background Megaliths were tomb spots consisting of burials or graves covered with huge (mega) stones. They were, in most cases, located outside the settlement area. Prominent sites that have yielded Megalith graves include Brahmagiri, Maski, (Karnataka), Adichallanur (Tamilnadu) and Junapani near Nagpur (Maharastra). These burials are marked by an abundance of iron tools and a Black-and-Red pottery. The graves contained more number of iron tools for fighting and hunting indicating that megalithic people did not practice an advanced type of agriculture. It appears that there was an abrupt change from the Neolithic stage into the Iron Age, without any significant, intermediate Chalcolithic or Bronze Age. The following are the main Megalithic burial types: 1. Pit Circle graves: A stone circle is erected around the pit. 2. Cists: Cists are made out of granite slabs with one or more capstones, with or without port holes. They may contain single or multiple burials. A single or multiple stone circles surrounds the cists. 3. Laterite chambers: Instead of granite slabs, there are grave-chambers excavated into laterite. 4. Alignments: A largenumber of standing stones (menhirs) arranged in squares or diagonals have been found. 5. Sacrophagi: These legged urns of terracotta sometimes have animal heads and are not very common. 6. Urns: The practice of burying excarnated bones in urns. Early History Figure 21 Different Megalith Burials The megalithic period in south India was followed by the Sangam age. The earliest references that we find about the people and kingdoms of the southern India are preserved in three forms - Ashokan inscriptions, Sangam literature and Megasthenese's accounts. Ashokan inscription mentions Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras (or Cheras), Satyaputras and Tambapanni as southern kingdoms. In the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, he is credited for defeating a confederacy of Tamil states. Megasthenes says that Pandyas were celebrated for pearls. He also speaks of it ruled by a woman suggesting matriarchal influence. Page 45
Figure 22 Sangam age empires Sangam Literature The Sangam age refers to that period in the early history of south India when large numbers of poems in Tamil were composed by a number of authors. The term Sangam refers to an assembly or meeting together of Tamil poets. Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century B.C. to third century A.D. on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences. Traditionally, three Sangams or assemblies are believed to have been convened one after the other. All the three Sangams took place at different places under the patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai. The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available. The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature. The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam period. The Ettutogai or EightAnthologies consist of eight works and The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups Aham (love) and Puram (valour). Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkura authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by ElangoAdigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society. The Sangam literature can be roughly divided into two groups, narrative and didactic. The narrative texts are called Melkannakku or Eighteen Major works. Ettutogai and Pattupattu are part of it. The didactic works are called Kilkanakku or Eighteen minor works. Page 46
Cholas The Cholas occupied the delta of the Kaveri river and the adjoining region.the region of Kanchi was also part o ftheir kingdom. It was also called Cholamandalam in early medieval times.earlier its capital was Uraiyur in Tiruchirapalli but subsequently it was shifted to Puhar which came to be known as Kaveripattanam. The most distinguished of the early Chola kings was Karikala.It appears that Karikala defeated,in a great battle at Venni, near Tanjore, a confederacy of about a dozen rulers headed by Chera and Pandya kings and established his supremacy over the whole of Tamil land. Karikala maintained a powerful navy and conquered Sri Lanka. He is creditedto have built big irrigation channels by means of building a 160 km long embankment along the river Kaveri. He fortified the town, the famous sea part of Puhar, at the mouth of the Kaveri. Pandyas The Pandya kingdom occupied roughly the region of the modern districts oftirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai in Tamil Nadu. The capital of the kingdom was Madurai.Nedunjeliyan is mentioned as a great Pandya king. He was responsible for thee xecution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai. Korkai was an important Pandya port. It was famous for its pearls. The traders profited from trade with the Roman Empire. Pandya kings even sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus andtrojan. Cheras The area of the kingdom included then arrow strip of land between the sea and the mountains of Konkan range. Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. The Chera ruler Nedunjeral Adan conquered the Kadambas with their capital at Vanavasi (near Goa). He is said to have defeated the Yavanas also. The greatest kingof the Chera dynasty was Sengutturan.He is said to have subjugated the Chola and the Pandya kings. His younger brother was Elango Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram. Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was brought by him after his Himalayan expedition. Sangam Society Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship. 1. Kurinji chief deity was Murugan chief occupation, hunting and honey collection 2. Mullai chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products 3. Marudam chief deity Indira chief occupation, agriculture 4. Neydal chief deity Varunan chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing 5. Palai chief deity Korravai chief occupation robbery Though the concept of varna was known, social classes in the Sangam period were not marked by higher or lower rankings as in north India. For example, Brahmans were present in the society and they performed vedic ceremonies and sacrifices and also acted as advisers to the chief but they enjoyed no special privileges. People were known on the basis of their occupation they followed, such as artisans, salt merchants, textile merchants, etc. Page 47
Women s Position Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature. The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems. Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society. Social Evolution from Sangam texts Narrative texts mainly dealt with heroic poetry in which heroes are glorified for wars and cattle raids which show that early Tamil people are primarily pastoral. They also state that war booty was an important source of livelihood. These texts also give some idea on state formation in which army consisted of groups of warriors and the taxation system and judiciary appear to be rudimentary. They talk about the important cities, ports and various economic activities of prominence. Didatic texts prescribe a code of conduct not only for the king and his court but also for various social groups and occupations. The texts also refer to grant of villages. They deal with the descent of kings from solar and lunar dynasties. Silappadikaram is considered as the gem of early Tamil literature. It deals with love story in which a dignitary called Kovalan prefers a courtesan called Madhavi of Kaveripattanam to his noble wedded wife Kannagi. The other epic, Manimekalai deals with the adventures of the daughter born of the union of Kovalan and Madhavi. They throw light on the social and economic life of the Tamils up to about the sixth century. Religion In the field of religion, Sangam period witnessed a close and peaceful interaction between north Indian and south Indian traditions. The Brahmanas who performed religious ceremonies popularized the worship of Indra, Visnu, Siva etc., in south India. There are also references to the presence of Buddhists and Jainas in Tamil region. The local people, particularly those of the hills, worshipped a deity called Murugan, which in northern India come to be identified with Kartikeya, a war god. The Hero Stone worship was significantin the Sangam period. The Hero Stone or Virakal was erected in memory ofthe bravery shown by the warrior in battle. Economy The people were engaged in various economic activities such as agriculture, crafts and trade. Paddy was the most important crop. It formed the main part of peoples diet and also served as a medium of barter exchange for inland trade. External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms. After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance. The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam. The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamonand turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports. Page 48
10. THE GUPTA EMPIRE After the decline of the Kushanas, north India witnessed the rise of the Gupta dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty were able to establish a vast empire that included almost the entire north India. The Guptas had certain material advantages that helped them to carve an empire. They operated from eastern U.P. and Bihar which was very fertile. They could also exploit the iron ores of central India and Bihar to their advantage. They took advantage of their proximity of the areas of north India which carried on a prosperous silk trade with the Byzantine Empire. Their period was marked by great progress in art, architecture and literature. Sources Figure 23 Extent of Gupta Empire The Puranas throw light on the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings. Contemporary literary works like the Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadatta provide information regarding the rise of the Guptas. The Chinese traveler Fahien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, has left a valuable account of the social, economic and religious conditions of the Gupta Empire. The Allahabad pillar inscription gives a detailed account of the career and personality of Samudragupta. The inscription was composed by one of his officials, Harishena, and engraved on the Ashoka's pillar at Allahabad. The coins issued by Gupta kings contain legends and figures. These coins provide interesting details about the titles and sacrifices performed by the Gupta monarchs. Page 49
Figure 24 Gupta Lineage Srigupta The Gupta dynasty was established by Srigupta, who probably belonged to the vaishya caste. He hailed from either Magadha (Bihar) or Prayaga. He carried the title of maharaja. The Allahabadpillar inscription of Samudragupta mentions maharaja Srigupta and maharaja Ghatotkacha as his son. Chandragupta I In A.D. 320 Chandragupta I succeeded his father Ghatotkacha. It is said that he laid the foundation of the great Gupta Empire. Chandragupta I married a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. This marriage alliance of Chandragupta I was important for his political career as is proved by the coins of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi type.the Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests. Chandragupta I is considered to be the founder of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320. He was the first Gupta king to adopt thetitle maharajadhiraja and issued gold coins. Samudragupta Samudragupta succeeded his father about A.D. 340. He earned a reputationas one of the greatest kings and conquerors. Allahabad inscription enumerates the people and the regions conquered by Samudragupta. Samudragupta, son of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi, in the Allahabad inscription proudly called himself Lichchhavis-dauhitra'son of the daughter of Lichchhavis'. Conquest policies of Samudragupta He adopted adifferent policy for different area conquered by him. In the Ganga-Yamuna doab, he followed a policy of annexation.he then proceeded to conquer the forest kingdoms of central India, mentioned as atavirajyas. The rulersof these tribal areas were defeated and forced into servitude. He travelled south along the eastern coast conquering twelve kings on the way and reached as far as Kanchi near Chennai. Samudragupta, instead of annexing their kingdoms, liberated and reinstated these kings on their thrones, a policy of political conciliation as he knew it was difficult to keep them under control. Republican states of Punjab and western India agreed to pay tribute and taxes to Samudragupta and obey hisorders without any fight. Page 50
Estimate of Samudragupta He performed Ashvamedhayajna and on this occasion he issued gold coins depicting the sacrificial horse and bearing the legend conveying that he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice. Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He was not only proficient in war, but also in the sastras. He is called kaviraja i.e. 'king of poets'. TheAllahabad pillar inscription calls him a great musician. This is also confirmed by his lyricist type of coins which shows him playing veena. He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other creeds. He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu. Chandragupta II Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II (AD 375 414) also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, he not only extended his father s empire but also consolidated his position through matrimonial alliances. He married Kuvernaga, the Naga princess and had a daughter Prabhavati fromher. Prabhavati was given in marriage to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty rulingin Deccan. After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor son with the help of her father. The political importance ofthis marriage lies in the fact that the Vakatakas occupied a geographically strategic position in the Deccan. This alliance serveda useful purpose when Chandragupta-II undertook his campaign in western India against the Sakas. Ujjain, a great centre of trade, religion and culture, became the second capital of the Gupta Empire after the conquest. Perhaps it was after this victory over Sakas, that Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya. Chandragupta II issued dated silver coins to commemorate hisvictory over Saka kshatrapas. Chandragupta II is remembered for his patronage of art and literature. He is credited with maintaining nine luminaries (navaratna) in his court. The great Sanskrit poet and playwright Kalidasa was the most notable of them all. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Hien (AD 404 411) visited India during his reign.he has left an account of the life of people in India in the fifth century AD. Fahien s Visit Out of his nine years stay in India, he spent six years in the Gupta Empire. He came to India by the land route through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab. He visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara,Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh Gaya among other places. He returned by the sea route, visiting on the way Ceylon and Java. The mainpurpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts from India. Fa Hien studied Sanskrit for 3 years at Pataliputra and two years at the Port of Tamralipti without let or hindrance. Fahien s take on Society and Administration He mentions that towns of Magadha were largest in the area of Gangetic Plains and he calls it central India. He mentions that there were a lot of charitable institutions, rest houses, and there was an excellent Free Hospital in the Capital which was endowed by benevolent citizens. The poor and helpless patients suffering from all kinds of illnesses were taken care of and doctors attended them and they were given food and medicine as per their wants. Fa Hien further mentions that no one kills the living things, or drinks wine or eats Onion or garlic. They don t keep pigs and fowls, there is no dealing of cattle, and there are no butchers. Only Chandals did all these. Fa Hien mentions about the Chandala, who dwelt apart and they were required to keep a piece of wood as a warning of their approach so that other folk might not get polluted. Page 51
The Roads were clear and safe for the passengers. The accounts of Fa Hien give a clear indication that India was probably never governed better. About administration, Fa Hien mentions that the authorities interfered as little as possible with the subject. Kumaragupta Kumaragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta II. His reign was marked by general peace and prosperity. He issued a number of coins and his inscriptions are found all over the Gupta empire. He also performed an asvamedha sacrifice. Most importantly, he laid the foundation of the Nalanda University which emerged an institution of international reputation. Skandagupta He resisted the onslaught of Hunas. He also repaired the Junagarh lake in Gujarat. But successors of Skandagupta were weak and incompetent. Vishnugupta was the last Gupta emperor. Besides the Huna invasion there was also a gradual decline in economic prosperity. It is indicated by the gold coins of later Gupta rulers, which have less of gold content and more of alloy. We also notice a gradual disappearance of coins in the post Gupta period. It led the kings to make payments in form of land rather than cash. Under this practice, the recipient of land grant was given the right not only to collect the taxes but also to administer the donated land. This system of the land grants got further accelerated in Post-Gupta period and created ideal conditions for development of Indian feudalism. Gupta Administration At their imperial kingdom at Pataliputra, the King was advised by a Council of Ministers (Mantriparishada) led by a Pradhan Mantri. Pradhan Mantri headed the civil administration and there were a good number of other ministers and officials, who carried out the duties related to military and other matters. The king maintained a close contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as Uparikas. They were mostly chosen from among the princes. Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts. Vishyas were governed by Vishyapatis. They had their headquarters in towns where they had their own officers and were aided in their administrative work by a Board of Advisors consisting of four members representing the various important sections, namely, (i) the nagarsresthis (chief of the guild of traders and bankers) represented the guilds in particular and the urban population in general (ii) sarthavaha (the head of guild of traders) represented the various trading communities, (iii) the prathamakulika (the chief of artisan) representing various artisan classes, (iv) the prathamakayastha (the chief scribe),who might have represented the Kayastha or government official like the Chief Secretary of the present day. This body was known as Adhisthanadhikarana. Samanta system In Gupta period, a Samanta was a neighbouring subsidiary ruler who was a friendly tributary of the Gupta overlords. The decentralization was also effected via various land grants, carrying varied immunities and concessions, to persons and institutions. This is one reason that we don t find an over elaborate bureaucracy in Gupta period as was a case with Maurya period. Page 52
Other aspects of administration The Gupta period provided a landmark in the history of the administration of law and justice in early India. It produced a rich corpusof legal literature, which reflects a distinct advance in the legal system. For the first time law givers of the period drew a clear line between civil andcriminal law. The Brihaspatismriti enumerates eighteen titles of land and adds that fourteen of these have their origin in property (dhanamula) and four in injury (himsamula). On accountof the growth of private property in land, which could be sold for money, we find detailed laws about partition, sale, mortgage and lease of land in law-books and in inscriptions of the period. Economy Agriculture was the main occupation in Gupta Empire and there was no governmental interference. The land was fertile and means of irrigation were simple. The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account that Gupta people were helped to a great extent for the growth of Silk Industry. The Gold coins show the pomp, power and prosperity of the empire. Gupta had a still a flourishing Roman Trade but in the later part, trade was badly affected by Huna invasions. Silk, Leather goods, Fur, Iron Products, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were major export items. The Port of Tamralipti was a good source of Trade with East Asia. Most of the commodities were taxed One Fifth of the value as a toll in international Trade. Society During the Gupta period, the caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied the top ladder of the society. They were given enormous gifts by the rulers as well as other wealthy people. The practice of untouchability had slowly begun during this period. The position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period. They were prohibited from studying the religious texts like the Puranas. The subjection of women to men was thoroughly regularized. But it was insisted that they should be protected and generously treated by men. The practice of Swyamvara was given up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls. There is evidence of the presence of sati system. The first evidence of sati (immolation of widow) is found in an inscription (AD 510) at Eran in Madhya Pradesh. Art and Architecture The Gupta period is called the Golden age of ancient India. Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near Allahabad remain important specimen of the Gupta art. There was no influence of Gandhara style. But the beautiful statue of standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a little Greek style. The Buddha statue unearthed at Saranath was unique piece of Gupta art. The Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta is also remarkable. Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta period. The craftsmen were efficient in the art of casting metal statues and pillars. The gigantic copper statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj weighing nearly a ton is the foremost example. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is stil lfree from rust though completely exposed to sun and rain for somany centuries. The paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior. The mural paintings of Ajantha mostly illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories. Page 53
Literature In the field of kavya or poetical works, the name of Kalidas stands foremost in the history of Indian literature. He is credited with having written the best works in poetry, dramma as well as in prose. His kavyas such as Meghadutam, Raghuvamsamand Kumarasambhavam, and dramas such as Abhijnashakuntalam are considered to be among the best literary works in the world and have been translated into many languages. In the field of drama, Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidas and Bhavabhuti are the most noteworthy. Sudraka is the author of Mrichchakatika - 'Little clay cart'. His play deals with the love of a brahman with the beautiful daughter of a courtesan; it is considered one of the best plays of ancient India. Vishakhadatta wrote two plays: Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam, which are the two best known historical plays. Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam and Vikramorvasiyam the three famous plays written by Kalidas. Bhavabhuti's works are Uttararama-charita, Malati- Madhava etc. One of themost famous works is Panchatantra, written by Vishnu Sharma. In prose, earliest notable works are Dasakumaracharita by Dandin and Vasavadatta of Subandhu.Bharavi s Kritarjuniya is the story of the conflict between Arjuna and Siva.TheBuddhist author Amarasimha compiled a lexicon called Amarakosa. The Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. There are eighteen Puranas. The most important among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas. The Mahabharatha and the Ramayana were given final touches and written in the present form during this period. Science The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy, astrology and medicine. Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and astronomer. He wrote the book Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. It deals with mathematics and astronomy. Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. He was also a great authority on astrology. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit literature and is like an encyclopedia. His Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology. In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the last of the great medical trio of ancient India. The other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age. Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine). Page 54
11. POST GUPTA PERIOD The decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder and disunity in North India. It was only in the beginning of the seventh century A.D. that Harshvardhana succeeded in establishing a larger kingdom in north India.The Chalukyas and the Pallavas emerged as strong regional powers in Deccan and northern Tamil Nadu respectively. Harshavardhana Sources Figure 25 Post Gupta States Harshacharita, a biography of Harshavardhana written by Bana, his court poet. Travel accounts left by Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveller. He visited Harsha s court and converted him into Mahayana Buddhism. Other important sources are dramas written by Harsha himself: Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika. Madhuben plate inscription detail about the family of Harsha Sonpat inscription discloses the names of and reign of many kings of the dynasty Banskhera inscription has Harsha s signature and tells that Harsha was an efficient ruler and artsman. Page 55
Early Life The family of Harsha is linked to Pushyabhuti of Thenshwar. In the later part of the 6th century, the Raja of Thaneshwar, Prabhakarvardhana raised himself against the neighbors including the Hunas settled in the North Western Punjab. After his death, his elder son Rajyavardhan assumed the throne. He was treacherously murdered by Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal. Thereafter, Harshavardhan succeeded his brother. After ascending to the throne, Harsha first rescued his widowed sister,from the Vindhyan forest, where she was going to throw herself into the fire with all her attendants. Military Conquests In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. This made him the most powerful ruler of north India. He brought Punjab, Uttara Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa under his control. Harsha wanted to extend his power in the Deccan. The Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha met defeat at the hands of Pulakesin II, the Chalukyaking of Badami. Hiuen-Tsang also says that Harsha could not defeat the Chalukya king. Harsha established his control over Kashmir and its ruler sent tributes to him. He also maintained cordial relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. Harsha s last military campaign was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success. Estimate of Harsha The great emperor was not only a patron of learning, but was himself an accomplished author. He wrote three Sanskrit plays - Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. He gathered around him a circle of learned men, of whom Banabhatta, the author of Harshacharita and Kadambari is the most well known. Harsha was not only an efficient administrator but also a tolerant king. He was a Saivaby faith, but he showed equal respect to other religious sects as well. Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. Hiuen Tsang portrays him as a liberal Buddhist who also honoured gods ofothers sects. His charitable acts benefitted all the communities, sects and religions. Like Ashoka, he built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed numerous Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain establishments. Kanauj and Prayaga Assemblies Hiuen-Tsang mentions two most celebrated events of Harsha's reign the assemblies at Kanauj and at Prayaga. The Kanauj assembly was held in honour of Hiuen-Tsang for whom the king had great affection and regard. This assembly was attended by twenty kings, four thousand Buddhist monks, and about three thousand Jains and brahmans. After the ceremony at Kanuaj, Harsha, accompanied by Hiuen-Tsang, proceeded to Prayaga (Allahabad), where he used to celebrate religious festivals at the end of every five years, at the confluence of the Ganga, the Yamuna and the Saraswati. Here he performed the ceremony of dana, which lasted for about three months. During these three months most of the accumulation of five year's wealth was exhausted. He even gave his clothes and jewellery and once begged from his sister an ordinary garment to put on. Harsha attended six such assemblies at Prayaga in his life time and donated all he had. Harsha sent an embassy in A.D. 641 with Hiuen-Tsang to the Chinese emperor and received the Chinese embassy in return. Page 56
Administration The king was just in his administration and punctual in discharging his duties. He made frequent visits of inspection throughout his dominion. The day was too short for him. Taxation was also light and forced labour was also rare. One sixth of the produce was collected as land tax. Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period continued in the times of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials as barbarous and superstitious. The maintenance of public records was the salient feature ofharsha s administration. The archive of the Harsha period was known as nilopitu and it was under the control of special officers. Both good and bad events happened during his time had been recorded. Society This period witnessed the ascendancy of Varnashramadharma. Both Banabhatta and Hieun Tsang talk about existence of various sub-castes called Varnasamkaras. The rise of these castes was due to several causes like violation in the code of marriages and general ethics. Position of women suffered. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among higher varnas. The evil system of dowry and practice of Sati were quite common. Economy The trade and commerce had declined during Guptas and continued during Harsha s period. This is evident from the decline of trade centres, less number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds. The decline of trade in turn affected the handicrafts industry and agriculture. Since there was no large scale demand for goods, the farmers began to produce only in a limited way. This led to the rise of self-sufficient village economy and increasing feudal. The self sufficient village economy in which the needs of village were met from within was known as the Jajmani system. Nalanda Hiuen Tsang gives a very valuable account of the Nalanda University. The term Nalanda means giver of knowledge. It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period. It was patronised by his successors and later by Harsha. The professors of the University were called panditas. Some of its renowned professors were Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati and Silabadhra. Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he became the head of the Nalanda University. Page 57
Figure 26 Nalanda University Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and lodging. It was maintained with the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages endowed by different rulers. Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies were also taught. In addition to that, general subjects like logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the syllabus. It attracted students not only from different parts of India but from different countries of the east. Admission was made by means of an entrance examination. The entrance test was so difficult that not more than thirty percent of the candidates were successful. Discipline was very strict. More than lectures, discussion played an important part and the medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Pallavas The Pallavas established their authority over south Andhra Pradesh and north Tamil Nadu with capital at Kanchi. Kanchi under them became an important temple town and a center of trade and commerce. Political history Initial territories of Pallavas seem not to be very extensive and they look similar to Kalabhras. The first known king of this dynasty was Sivaskanda Varman who ruled in second century AD. He defeated the Tamil countries and kings of Ceylon and tried to extend his dominion. His some Simhavishnu was first Pallava Monarch to have a reign beyond Kanchipuram. Mahendravarman I (600 630 A.D.) Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career. He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa. He had also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam (the Delight of the Drunkards). His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in painting. He is also regarded as an expert in music. Page 58