1 Reasons for Settlement of the West The American West consistently inspired feelings of awe in Americans since the Louisiana Purchase in 180 A desire for expansion under-girded much of America s history, and the West provided the best opportunity for that expansion during the second half of the nineteenth century. Emigration to the largely unsettled area increased in the years during and following the American Civil War. Destruction of the South s plantation system and landscape as a result of the war, overcrowding in northern cities, gold and silver rushes in the Mountain West, and inexpensive or free land in the Great Plains all inspired Americans to move into the untamed West. As Americans moved West, they encountered opportunities for a different life but faced some of the same problems that existed in the North and South. The impact of industrialization, mechanization, and racial and ethnic tensions shaped the development of the American West between the years of 1860 and 1900. What were the reasons for the settlement of the West? Industry in the West and the Impact of Industrialization Three major industries shaped the development of the West during the later nineteenth century. Mining in the Mountain West, cattle ranching in Texas and the Southwest, and farming on the Great Plains all emerged as viable economic options for western emigrants. However, advancements in technology and industry shifted each of these occupations from an individual opportunity for advancement to a large-scale business. The change from individual miners to lode or quartz mining drove small prospectors out of business. Only large companies could afford the machinery involved to extract gold, silver, and copper from deep mines. Instead of individual prospectors, most miners became employees of major mining companies between 1858 and 188 Cattle ranching also changed with the introduction of industry to the West. On May 19, 1869, the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads joined at Promontory Point, Utah, to join railroads in the East to railroads in the West. The Trans-Continental railroad allowed for easier transport of goods from the coasts and prompted the laying of new tracks across the nation. This event marked the change of many issues, but inevitably ended the traditional cattle drives led by cowboys. Instead of hiring cowboys to drive cattle from ranches in Texas to slaughterhouses in Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri, and Chicago, Illinois, cattle ranchers shipped their stock on trains such as the Kansas Pacific (which ended in Abilene, Kansas) and the Missouri Pacific (which ended in Sedalia, Missouri). The Kansas, Missouri, and Texas Pacific railroads formed the MKT railroad that today has been converted to bike and walking trails along the Missouri River.
2 One of the most important impacts of the railroad industry on the West includes the treatment of and perception regarding Chinese immigrants. By 1865 (the year the Civil War ended), Chinese workers formed 90% of the work force on the Central Pacific Railroad, one of the two railroads that linked to form the trans-continental railroad. After the railroad was completed in 1869, practically the entire Chinese work force in the West lost their jobs. By necessity, Chinese immigrants clustered to Chinatowns (ethnic neighborhoods where they could speak their own language and maintain old world customs while creating a supportive economic and social environment). One of the largest Chinatowns on the West coast emerged in San Francisco. Economic opportunities were few for the Chinese, so many started laundries and restaurants or engaged in domestic labor. By 1880, approximately 200,000 Chinese lived in the United States, mostly on the West coast. Many whites resented the immigrants because of their foreign behavior, non-christian religion, and competition for jobs. In 1882, the United States government passed the Chinese Exclusionary Act, which ended Chinese immigration by making it illegal and disallowing the Chinese who already lived in America from becoming naturalized citizens. This act was renewed again in 1892 and became permanent in 190 Chinese Exclusion did not end until 1943 during World War II when the government needed China s help to fight the Japanese. Beginning with the Homestead Act in 1862, farming became the third major option for employment in the developing West. Farming was mainly concentrated in the Great Plains states located between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. The Homestead Act granted homesteaders 160 acres of free land if they agreed to live on the land for five years and improve it (This usually included building a house and farming the land.). On the Great Plains, a small farm of 160 acres often failed to provided even a subsistence level of income, so the government established the Timber Culture Act in 1873, which provided an additional 160 acres of land if the owner planted 40 acres of trees, and the Desert Land Act in 1877, which allowed homesteaders to buy 640 acres of land at $25 per acre (an inexpensive price) if they irrigated the land within three years of purchase. These two acts increased the average size of the western farms and provided for some environmental protection of the Great Plains. Severe drought in the Great Plains during the 1860s caused many Americans to label the West as the Great American Desert. During the 1870s, the Plains experienced greater than average rainfall, which made many people believe the land was profitable for farming. This period of abundant rainfall ended in the late 1880s and lasted through the 1890s and brought with it other extremes in weather conditions including hailstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. In addition, pests such as grasshoppers, locusts, and rattlesnakes infested new farms. Debt, however, was the biggest problem for new farmers because they had to borrow money to set up their farms and buy equipment. Unfortunately for many of them, these purchases usually coincided with the beginning of the drought. Industrialization also impacted farm life on the Plains because of the introduction of new products and consolidation of smaller farms into larger ones. Barbed wire was introduced in the 1870s and led to a decline in cattle ranching because cattle were fenced in. Threshing and baling machines decreased the amount of manual labor for farmers and increased the amount of crops that could be produced. Production time dramatically decreased; for example, in 1840, wheat
3 demanded 35 worker hours per acre in 1840, but by 1900, only 15 worker hours per acre were needed to produce the same amount of grain. Corn dropped from 69 workers hours per acre to 38 over the same time period and cotton decreased from 135 to 11 The ability to produce more in less time led to the development of bonanza farms. These large farms in west were as much as four times the size of farms in other areas of the nation. By 1900, a number of small farmers had been pushed off their land because they could not compete with the large farms. Bonanza farms and machinery also led to the specialization of crops cotton in the South, corn in the Midwest, wheat on the Plains, vegetables in Northeast, and dairy in North Central states. Producing only one crop allowed for shorter production times but made farmers more susceptible to market fluctuations and caused many farms to go out of business. Machines and declining production time eventually led to overproduction which resulted in falling prices for farm products. In 1867, corn sold for 78 cents per bushel; by 1873, the price had plummeted to 31 cents per bushel and to 23 cents per bushel by 1889. Wheat prices fell too, from two dollars per bushel in 1867 to 70 cents per bushel in 1889. In 1866, cotton sold for $43 per bale; by 1890, the price was $30 per bale. Increases in shipping costs and favoritism towards large farmers in the railroad industry in conjunction with falling farm prices drove many farmers out of business by 1900. In 1860, farmers composed 60% of the American labor force; by 1900, farmers were less than 37% of the labor force. Between 1888 and 1892, Kansas population declined by half, and by 1900, two-thirds of all homesteaders had failed. For those who believed the American West provided a chance for a better life, their dreams had largely failed by the turn of the twentieth century. Crop Price in 1866/67 Price in 1873 Price in 1889/90 Corn 78 cents/bushel 31 cents/bushel 23 cents/bushel Wheat $2/bushel 70 cents/bushel Cotton $43/bale $30/bale What were some of the problems facing farmers on the Great Plains? 6. 7. 8. Environmental Impact and Native Americans American expansion into the West changed forever the western environment and the Native American way of life. Sod busting and soil exhaustion led to huge dust storms and soil depletion. Increases in irrigation in some areas used up the western water supply, while lack of irrigation in other areas caused severe drought. Forests in the Great Lakes region were used to build railroad ties and fences and disappeared during the settlement of the West. Grasslands and meadows were destroyed, which (along with hunting) led to the near extinction of the buffalo. In 1865 over 15 million buffalo roamed the plains; by 1875, there were fewer than 1000.
4 What were the environmental impacts of settling the West? The presence of Native Americans in the West presented a challenge to emigrants and the federal government in settling the area. Most Native Americans desired to maintain tribal sovereignty and traditional cultures. In 1867, Congress created the Indian Peace Commission with the goal of creating a permanent Indian policy that would concentrate all Native Americans onto two reservation systems, one in the Dakotas and one in present-day Oklahoma. Conflicts like the Washita River Massacre in 1868, the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876, and the Battle at White Bird Canyon in 1877 convinced the federal government that a new Indian policy needed to be created. Thus, in 1887, the Dawes Act was passed and called for the destruction of the tribal structure, the abolition of communal property, and the granting of private property to those Native Americans that would assimilate into American society. In this case, assimilation meant becoming more life white Protestant Americans, so Indians were forced to give up traditional dress, attend approved schools, and practice Christianity. Many Native Americans resented American attempts to assimilate the tribes. In 1890, Wovoka, a Paiute prophet, received a vision and encouraged Indians to partake in a religious ceremony that would result in the disappearance of the white man and the replenishment of the buffalo when the world ended. Although this Ghost Dance ceremony was not a direct threat to white settlers, many became nervous as they witnessed the movement and asked for federal protection. In December 1890, at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, 200 Native Americans died as a group of US soldiers armed with newly invented machine guns and cannons slaughtered the Indians. Forty soldiers died as well. This massacre effectively ended the Indian wars and Native American resistance in the United States. An increase in white settlers, machinery, industrialization, and railroads altered forever the American West. The destruction of the buffalo, Indian wars, and governmental policy towards Native American tribes and Chinese immigrants exposed racial and ethnic tensions in the West that also existed in the North and South. As the nineteenth century drew to a close, problems in the West mirrored troubles that needed to be addressed in the East. Expanding the U.S. As southerners attempted to impress upon future generations the significance of the Confederacy and immigration and industrialization shaped society in the North, continued expansion into the West and increased conflicts between settlers and Native Americans resulted in continued frustrations for those in the West. Between 1864 (the year before the Civil War ended) and 1890, nine territories joined the nation as states. Nevada became a state in 1864, Nebraska in 1867, and Colorado in 1876; North and South Dakota became states in 1889 as did Montana and Washington. Wyoming and Idaho attained statehood a year later in 1890. By 1900, only Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma were still territories.
5 The entrance of Utah into statehood in 1896 demonstrates the diversity of people living in the West. The area now known as the state of Utah was first settled in the late 1840s by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, led by the prophet Brigham Young. This religious group, had undergone intense persecution in New York, Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois between 1825 and 1846, so the community decided to migrate west in the hopes of creating a theocratic government that would allow for them to flourish in other words, a government based on religious principles and led by church leaders. In 1847, Mormon settlers gathered in present-day Utah in a place they named Deseret. In 1850 as part of the Compromise of 1850, the national government established the Utah Territory and Brigham Young was appointed governor by the President. During the presidential election of 1856, James Buchanan (the Democratic presidential nominee) was accused of being soft on slavery and polygamy. Polygamy, a system that the Mormon Church practiced following a revelation in the early 1840s, refers to a system in which Mormon men may take more than one wife. Sometimes called plural marriage or plural families, this system provided for Mormon women when there was a lack of enough suitable men to take care of unmarried women and guaranteed the protection of the entire Mormon community. After Buchanan was elected president, he declared that Mormons were in a constant state of Rebellion against the United States because of their existence as a separate state within a U.S. territory. In 1858, Young was deposed (removed) as governor, but the Mormon Church continued to practice their faith and grow in membership. Polygamy continued as well which prompted the occupation of federal troops until the onset of the American Civil War in 186 By 1870, approximately 87,000 Mormons lived in the Utah Territory. Many of them lived communally by sharing food and other property, refused to sell property to non-mormons, created dams and irrigation, and farmed the land all of which helped them remain as independent as possible from the national government. In response, the federal government attempted to assimilate the religious group or force them to obey federal policy if they failed to assimilate. In 1879, the Supreme Court reached a decision in United States v. Reynolds that granted Mormons freedom of belief (in polygamy) but not freedom of practice (in other words, polygamy remained illegal to practice even if Mormons were allowed to believe in it). The Edmunds Act of 1882 disenfranchised (not allowed to vote) those who believed in or practiced polygamy, and in 1887 the Edmunds-Tucker Act destroyed temporal (worldly) power of the church by confiscating assets over $50,000 of the Mormon Church and imposing federal oversight of all elections. This effectively ended the theocratic nature of Mormonism. By the early 1890s, the Church had discontinued the official practice of polygamy, and Utah became a state in 1896. What were the steps of the federal government toward stopping polygamy in Utah? Farm Protests As territories in the West became states and more and more people migrated to the Great Plains and Mountain West, western farmers faced more and more hardships. As banks foreclosed on farms and many farmers struggled to have any money on which to live, a number of people
6 began to form organizations that fought for political and economic rights for small farmers in the West and South especially. These groups ranged from The Grange to the Populist Party and attempted to unite white farmers in the South and West and African American sharecroppers in the South with industrial workers in the North. Although each group relied on its own unique strategy for combating the problems farmers faced, three common issues emerged for each group: 1) overproduction and low prices, 2) cycle of debt created by cost of buying property and machines, and 3) the cost of production and shipping. The first official organization that fought for farmers rights following the Civil War was founded in 1867 by Oliver Kelley in Washington, D.C. Its official name was the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, commonly called the Grange. By 1875, this organization included over 800,000 members in the National Grange. The group aired its grievances in the Farmer s Declaration of Independence, which was read on July 4, 1873, at a national meeting. Desires of farmers voiced in the declaration included the aspiration to be free from the tyranny of monopoly, demands for better rates from gain elevators and railroad companies, and attempts to bypass middlemen by setting up buying and selling cooperatives. By acting collectively, farmers gained more bargaining power against big business. For example, railroad rates in rural areas were higher than in urban areas, and farmers who shipped small amounts of grains were penalized. The Grange enjoyed some success in these areas by 187 Laws were set up to impose maximum rates for railroads and grain elevators and to standardize rates regardless of the size of shipment. The Grange also focused on changing social issues, such as limiting the salaries of public officials, providing books for public education, establishing teacher certification programs, and widening admissions policies for new state colleges. By 1880, the Grange had declined from 800,000 to 100,000 because of improvement in the economy. In addition, the Supreme Court overturned several cases that benefited farmers in favor of big business. What reforms did the Grange fight for? 6. 7. As the Grange s influence began to decline, another group emerged to take its place. The Farmer s Alliance started as early as 1875 as independent Farmer s Alliances in the South. By 1880, the Southern Farmer s Alliance had 4 million members and Northern Farmer s Alliances were beginning too. By 1890, the Kansas Alliance itself had 130,000. One of the groups greatest accomplishments was the passing of the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. This act set up the Interstate Commerce Commission that was supposed to set up reasonable and just rates, make sure rate schedules were public, and end practices that would give rebates and breaks to larger shippers. The ICC had no real power and most court cases were decided on behalf of the railroads, but this commission represented the first real time that the federal government attempted to work on behalf of the farmers. By 1890, the Farmer s Alliance had grown powerful
7 enough that they gained control of the Nebraska legislature and were powerful in Minnesota and South Dakota. The Alliance was more focused on political and economic issues than social ones, although they did support improvement in the status of women and agricultural colleges. There was also a Colored Farmer s Alliance in the South that worked in conjunction with the other Alliances. Unfortunately, fifteen members of the Colored Farmer s Alliance were lynched outside of Memphis because of their activism. Eventually, these Alliances joined nationally to form a third political party that challenged the Democrats and Republicans. What reforms did the Farmer s Alliance fight for? In 1890, the Southern and Northern Farmer s Alliances joined to form the National Farmer s Alliance. The two Alliances met in Ocala, Florida, to create a national platform that would speak for the farmers and workers that were involved in what became known as the Populist or People s Party. The platform included working for the direct election of senators, lowering the national tariff (tax on manufactured goods), the creation of sub-treasuries to store grain until prices went up, a graduated income tax, the federal regulation of transportation and communication networks (that led to the creation of standard time zones), and the coinage of silver by the federal government. What were the desired reforms in the Ocala Platform? 6. The Populist Party enjoyed some success within the first few months of its inception. In 1890, Sherman Silver Purchase Act was passed, which ordered the U.S. treasury to coin silver and also to print paper money supported by silver. At about the same time, the Tariff Act was passed that effectively raised the tariff resulting in lower inflation. By 1892, this platform officially became known as the platform for the Populists. The Populists sought to create a national third party by appealing to labor interests in the cities and allying them with the farmers of the South and West. In the 1892 presidential election, the Populists nominated James B. Weaver for the nation s highest office. He received 1 million votes for president, a substantial amount for a third party candidate, although he lost by millions of votes. The party did enjoy success in electing five senators, three governors, and ten representatives in the same year. Labor Protests By 1892, the Populist Party focused on joining industrial workers interests with the farmers of the South and Great Plains. A number of labor strikes and political protests in the decade leading up to the 1896 presidential election demonstrated the need for a unified industrial and agricultural work force.
8 In May 1886, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) led a general strike of industrial laborers in an attempt to demand better hours and working conditions for skilled laborers. The farm equipment company Harvester McCormick was already on strike in Chicago at the time, and the general strike supported the demands of those workers. As the workers continued to publicly protest poor working conditions, police fired on a crowd and killed four protesters. The next day, protestors threw a bomb at the police which exploded and injured several people. As a result, eight anarchists (those who believe in no government) were arrested. This event became known as the Haymarket Riot and spurred further labor protests by industrial workers and anger towards the strikers from the middle and upper classes. Probably the most well-known labor strike in the nineteenth century, the Homestead Strike represented the extremes to which both labor and management were willing to go to address their own interests. In 1892, the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers went on strike at Andrew Carnegie s Homestead Steel Plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania. Carnegie and his plant manager Henry Clay Frick decided to close the plant down and called in strikebreakers and Pinkerton Agents (a personal bodyguard agency) rather than giving into the demands of the strikers. What resulted was stand-off between the workers and the Pinkerton Agents in which a number of people were wounded and killed. In order to remove the striking workers from the plant, the Pinkerton Agents were sent in. As they crossed the river on which the Homestead Plant stood, strikers poured gasoline on the river and set it on fire. Altogether 13 people died, and eventually the fighting became so intense that the President called out the National Guard to end the violence and return the Homestead Plant back to working order. As a result, the Homestead Strike effectively broke the power of the largest and most powerful labor union at the time and consequently set the achievements of labor unions back several decades. The Pullman Strike of 1894 was much smaller in scope but demonstrates another attempt by labor to achieve better working conditions and higher pay. The Pullman Palace Car Company in Chicago was the center of a company town (a town organized around a business and the people who worked for it and lived there). When the Pullman Company cut wages by 25% without lowering the rent for housing in the company town, the American Railway Union went on strike. Led by Eugene V. Debs, a socialist (those who believe in government regulation of such industries as utilities, health care, and transportation), the Pullman Strike effectively shut down transportation to the west coast because the trains were unable to run. Again, federal intervention ended the strike when the President sent 2000 troops into Chicago to put down the strike. Government intervention proved to be another setback to labor and delayed improvements in working conditions again. The defeat of labor in these strikes and the continued plight of farmers throughout the nation inspired politically minded citizens to agitate for real political change. Jacob Coxey, a businessman from Ohio (who was also a Populist), wanted the federal government to enact a massive public works program in order to improve the nation, provide jobs for the unemployed, and pump money back into the economy after a severe economic downturn in 189 In order to make his ideas heard, he organized a march on Washington, D.C., of the unemployed and gathered on the lawn in front of the United States Capital Building. The Commonwealth of Christ, unofficially called Coxey s Army, attempted to remain in Washington, D.C., until
9 Congress met their needs. However, when Congress failed to respond to Coxey s plan, the group disbanded and the unemployed returned home disheartened. By 1896, both industrial laborers and farmers were suffering from poverty and struggling to survive. The Presidential election of that year proved to be a turning point for the somewhat powerful Populist Party that spoke for the struggling groups. In this election, the Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, who supported Populist ideas. One of the main Populist campaign issues focused on silver coinage as a way to increase the amount of money in circulation. Because Bryan adopted the silver issue in his campaign, the Populists needed to decide if they would support him or run their own candidate. Eventually, the Populists decided to support Bryan with the hope that he could win with the support of both the Democrats and the Populists. Bryan campaigned on the Cross of Gold speech in an attempt to tie religious rhetoric with economic problems. This speech compared the plight of the economically oppressed with the crucifixion of Jesus by saying, Having behind us the producing masses of this nation.and toilers everywhere, we will answer their demand for a gold standard by saying to them: you shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold. Despite the support of two parties, Bryan lost the election, and the Populist Party collapsed. Conclusion By the end of the nineteenth century, Americans in each major region were in desperate need of reform. Working conditions in factories were poor and dangerous, farmers struggled to keep their land, while racism and Jim Crow separated whites from blacks and other ethnicities. Economic problems and oversaturated markets convinced many Americans that the United States needed to expand into overseas markets and spread ideas about democracy and capitalism across the world. These beliefs eventually led the United States into a larger international context and changed the role of the nation in the world.