7 Dissent in the Middle Ages & Development of Christian Thought Today, we are going to see if we can finish off our exploration of the High Middle Ages. In doing so, we will be exploring three areas: 1. Dissent in the Middle Ages 2. Development of Christian Thought 3. Missionary Endeavours Dissent in the Middle Ages One Flock, One Shepherd? The zenith of papal power was reached under Pope Innocent III. Listen to how Innocent III describes his role: Just as God established two great luminaries in the heavens, the greater to preside over days, and the lesser to preside over nights, so did he establish two luminaries in the heavens of the universal church...the greater to preside over souls as over days, and the lesser to preside over bodies as over nights. These are pontifical authority and royal power. Fourth Lateran Council, 1215 In the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, Innocent III reinforced his power by: Doctrine of Transubstantiation was established officially Heretical groups were condemned Setting up the Inquisition - every bishop should inquire as to the presence of heresy in their midst and take steps to remove it. Decreed that no new monastic orders could be established Every cathedral should have a school Education should be open to the poor Ordered clergy to abstain from the theatre, games, hunting, etc. Confession must be done at least once a year No new relics without papal approval Jews and Muslims must wear clothing that set them apart from Christendom Priests could not charge for administering the sacraments And yet...there were fractures starting to appear. Dissent Heresy Heresy is a sin which merits not only excommunication but also death, for it is worse to corrupt the Faith, which is the life of the soul, than to issue counterfeit coins which minister to the
secular life. Since counterfeiters are justly killed by princes as enemies to the common good, so heretics deserve the same punishment. Thomas Aquinas Three Examples of dissent: The Waldensians The Cathars The Franciscans (though this was not branded heretical) The Waldensians Lay movement Embraced poverty Uneducated or semi-educated Travelled around preaching Led by Peter Waldo (1140-c.1205) wealthy merchant from the southern French city of Lyons Married and had two daughters Life is thrown into chaos when he has a distinct and powerful conversion experience Witnessed street theatre which spoke to him deeply Desires to return to apostolic simplicity in the 1170s Educated but couldn t read Latin - commissioned some translations Leaves his wife (but divided his assets with her), sends his daughters to nunneries and then threw his portion of his money out the window. Instead of becoming a monk, he gathers around him a group of followers who would be called the Poor Men of Lyons. The Poor Men of Lyon Begins to preach and it is his preaching that gets him into hot water with the Bishop of Lyons and the church hierarchy. Preaching by Waldo, as a non-cleric, non-monk, was very dangerous to the church Because he couldn t read Latin, he had no access to the papally sanctioned Latin Scriptures, Canon Law or even the Fathers of the church. Viewed as dangerous because they couldn t navigate the complexities of theology and therefore were seen to be vulnerable to heretical ideas. Church felt that they couldn t control the Waldensians and were concerned that they were using the Bible s teaching to turn people away from the established Church hierarchy (shocking!) Archbishop told Waldo that he would have to stop preaching Waldo appeals directly to the Pope. Goes to the Third Lateran Council in Rome (1179), showed the Pope his translations of the Scripture and sought permission to preach from the Pope. Given an exam on doctrine and failed refused permission to preach. Archbishop of Lyons agrees and absolutely refuses him permission to preach
Waldo doesn t listen, but preaches, along with his followers In 1184 the Church defines them as heretics and excommunicated the Poor Men of Lyon Two charges: Unauthorized preaching Rejection of the clergy as intermediaries between God and His people When you reject the role of the clergy, you are challenging the whole sacramental role of the priesthood, the feast days, prayer forms, and even the authority of the Pope Waldensians are precursors to the Reformation, and many of the churches are brought into the Reformation in the 16th-Century. Having said that, there are still Waldensian churches around today in northern Italy. The Cathars First appear in the late twelfth-century. This movement found its origins in the French city of Albi and so the movement is sometimes called the Albigensian movement. Influence was felt throughout Western Europe (except Britain). By 1228, they made up to one-third of the population in Florence. Who were the Cathars? They were a protest group to the wealth of the church. It was a movement that embraced simplicity and poverty. Originated in the Balkans and moved Westward. They operated as a counter-church to the Roman church. They had their own diocese, their own clergy, their own monastic leaders, theology and own rituals. They even have their own castles! Highly organized and had considerable wealth. Cathar dualism - two powers in the universe, a good one and an evil one (associated with the material world, the body and sex). Strict ascetics. Attempt to escape from the material world. Whoever could do this, would be reincarnated as a lower creature as a process to escape matter (combination of eastern and Western ideas). Austere Dominicans were sent to preach to the Cathars and bring them back in line. Innocent III, pope 1198 to 1216 launches the Albegensian Crusade - an Inquisition to deal with internal threats to the church. The Albegensian Crusade 1209-1229, Simon de Montfort (French Crusading figure) was asked to bring a crusade into southern France. Knights from northern France defeated many of the knights from southern France who also happened to be Cathar. End of the struggle was met with an important synod, namely, the Synod of Toulouse 1229,
Prohibition on lay use of the Bible and creation of the Inquisition Vernacular translations of the Bible were burned and lay people couldn t have them Eventually stretched to not only France, but also to Spain Mark the Bible as a dangerous book Inquisition Special court set up to judge both the intention of individuals AND the actions of individuals. Used wide and vague accusations and then became more specific Look at two things - those people who held ideas in addition to what was orthodox AND those who held positions which were unorthodox. People would hand in reports of anyone whom they suspected of heresy. No jury. Prosecutor had all the power. If there are two witnesses, then you could be found guilty. Could torture women and children Witch trials grow in numbers Confess, branding and sentence of death Secular authorities conducted the execution, not the church It images the dual power structure of throne and altar working together. The Franciscans The life of Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) Characteristics: Christ-centredness - radical imitation of Christ "Why are you so happy?" they asked him. "Because I have married." "Whom have you married?" "Lady Poverty" Mendicant - mobile monks (friars). They would move around and respond to the needs of a population that was on the move. Poverty - most feared element of existence in the Middle Ages. Humility - men who followed Francis called themselves the Order of Lesser Brothers or Friars Minor. This emphasis on humility is exalted in their communities. Anti-intellectualism - scholastic fusion was rejected by the Franciscans. Knowledge must always be subservient to service. Knowledge must always strengthen the church. The story is also told of a friar who returned joyful, because someone had given him a gold coin. Francis ordered him to take the coin between his teeth, and bury it in a dung heap, pointing out that such was the best place for gold. Prayer and devotion Francis gains the approval of Innocent III in 1209 - why Francis and not Waldo?
Movement grows very fast. A spiritual sister of Francis, named Clare founded an order for women - The Poor Clares or the Clarisses - Clare was an heiress to Assisi. Cloistered, not itinerant. 1253 - Rule was approved. Splits within the Franciscans Spirituals (or Rigourists) - stay poor! Conventuals (moderates) Discuss: Would you have been a Franciscan or a Waldensian? Why? Defining Scholasticism What comes to mind when I mention scholasticism? Development of Christian Thought For most people, scholasticism brings up feelings of boredom and thoughts of dry, dusty theology that is so abstract that it makes no sense to the practical concerns of life today. Actually, the chief objective of the scholastics right from the beginning (and throughout) was a devotional objective: to demonstrate how Faith and Reason can go together. Reason can be the servant of faith. Since God gave us minds, then surely He expects us to use our minds to understand our faith. Scholasticism becomes the dominant mode of thinking and holds sway from the second half of the 9th-century until the 14th-Century. Scholasticism becomes most firmly entrenched in the 12th-Century when this movement grew in tandem with the advent of universities. In fact, the universities were able to organize and sustain this mode of study. What were the questions Scholasticism sought to answer? Is what the Christian believes about revelation consistent with reason or are the two contradictory? Should either or faith or reason take priority over the other? Are the things Christians believe demonstrable through reason? What happens when reason seems to deny what the Christians accept? Do Christians discard faith? If not, why not? Pretty relevant questions, aren t they?
Realism and Nominalism Realism: can be traced back to Plato. Universal objects of knowledge exist outside the mind and independent of the thinker. Nominalism: only particular things are real. The universals are simply words fashioned by the intellect in order to understand an idea. Forerunners of Scholasticism Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) father of scholasticism Prior in Normandy right at the time when William the Conqueror is well, conquering Briton. Following his business of conquering, William needed some ecclesiastical experts to set up in Britain Made Anselm Archbishop of Canterbury in 1098 Anselm was a pastor and had a pastor s heart and so he goes reluctantly knowing that it was only a matter of time before the interests of the church would run up against the interests of the State. Ends up spending a lot of time in exile from Canterbury and during this exile, ends up thinking and writing a lot about theological matters Was a Realist and attacks Nominalism I do not seek, Lord, to reach your heights, for my intellect is as nothing compared to them. But I seek in some way to understand your truth, which my heart believes and loves. For I do not seek to understand in order to believe, but rather believe in order to understand. Anselm The Ontological Argument for the existence of God Anselm believed in the existence of God (of course) but sought to explore more deeply what this means. And so, he sets out to prove the existence of God Begins with the text - the fool says in his heart there is no God When one thinks of God, one is thinking of that than which no greater can be thought. And yet, is it possible to think of that than which no greater can be thought as not existing? If the concept of God has no reality, then thinking about God is a contradiction. Here is how the argument looks then God is "a being than which nothing greater (more perfect) can be conceived." Something which exists only in the mind is distinct from something which exists in the mind and in reality. Either God (the most perfect being) exists in mind and reality, or he exists only in the mind. But if God exists only in the mind and not in reality. Then, it is possible to conceive of a more perfect being than the most perfect being. However, this is logically impossible. Thus, God must exist both in the mind and in reality.
What is important in terms of the Story of Christianity is what Anselm is attempting, namely, applying reason to a truth that is known by faith as a way to apprehend that truth in a deeper way. natural theology Anselm on the Atonement Part 1 Man was created by God for eternal blessedness. This blessedness requires the perfect and voluntary submission of man's will to God. But the whole human race is guilty of disobedience Any deviation of Man's will must either be punished by deprivation of blessedness or rectified by an offering greater than the act of disobedience: there can be no free remission. No member of the human race can offer anything to God beyond his due obedience: there is no human capital with which to redeem the past, not to speak of the present and future. Therefore the whole human race must forfeit the blessedness for which it was created. Part 2 On this argument, God's purpose in the creation of man has been frustrated. But this is impossible. Therefore a means of redemption must exist. But the offering necessary for redemption ought to be made by Man. And since Man has nothing to offer, it cannot be made by Man. The offering required is greater than the whole existing Creation. Nothing is greater than the whole of Creation except God. Therefore only God can make this offering. Since only God can, and only Man ought to make this offering, it must be made by a God- Man. Therefore God-Man is necessary. Therefore the Incarnation is necessary. Peter Abelard (1079-1142) Key contemporary to Anselm. He is a shaper of the scholastic tradition. Very different from Anselm. Arrogant, dynamic, perceptive, and brilliant. Writes a book called Yes and No. In it, he puts forward 158 theological questions and demonstrated that various authorities (including the Bible and Church Fathers) did not always agree with each other in giving answers. Unsurprisingly, this book was opposed and Peter was accused of spouting heresy. Peter s point, however, was not to point out contradictions but rather to acknowledge them and engage with the ideas that were out there even if they were in opposition to each other.
Rejects Anselm s argument and puts forward what is known as the Moral Influence Theory. Rejects the idea that God needs satisfaction for the sins of man, because God had already forgiven sins before Christ came to earth. Forgiveness was an act of free grace without demand. What God does by dying on the Cross is to demonstrate His love for humanity with the hope that it would awaken humanity s love for God and the cultivation of lives of gratitude. In Jesus, people realize their sinfulness and in this realization they respond to God s love. This generates a desire in them for right conduct and that is conversion. Seen as the forefather of modern liberal theology. Atonement is being reinterpreted during this period. Peter of Lombard (1100-1160) Compiled what is called: Four Books of Sentences (1153) What were they? A Systematic Theology textbook! This became the standard theological textbook of the Middle Ages. It consisted of 4 sections and covered the Doctrine of God, the Trinity, predestination, creation, free will, salvation, and the sacraments and end times. This is where we find the first numbering of the sacraments into SEVEN. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) High point of scholasticism. Since Aquinas, any theological idea coming out of the Roman Catholic church had to be tested against his writings. That s how influential Aquinas is. As a young man, Aquinas was bulky and quiet. His classmates called him the dumb ox!!?? Slowly but surely, his superiors (Dominican) recognized the young student s brilliance. Ends up lecturing in Paris and in Spain. Refused ecclesiastical appointments because he knew that God called him to be a scholar and a writer. Two key works: Summa Contra Gentiles (a manual on theology for Christians reaching out to Muslims) Summa Theologica - theological summary Three factors shaping Aquinas thought:
Translation of the works of Aristotle into Latin and made available to Western readers. This was a direct result of the Crusades where contacts with Muslims reintroduced Aristotle to the West. The challenge of the Averroists (followers of Averro) - Muslim thinker living in Spain who challenged Christian doctrine. Averro used Aristotle to attack Christianity. And yet, Aquinas actually uses Aristotle to DEFEND Christianity and this makes a few of Aquinas contemporaries a bit suspicious of him. The challenge of Cathar dissent Two storeys - the differ in their searching after truth. Reason chases after explaining what our senses tell us. Revelation looks to God as the ultimate source of how we can know anything. Lower Storey: Here, Aquinas also affirmed the goodness of the world, of the body, of social and cultural life, and the use of reason to discover truths about this world in which we live. Upper Storey: They were subordinated to the upper storey of revelation - the soul, the church, faith, heaven, God s revealed truth and the Christian life, and at the highest point - THEOLOGY. Aquinas the dictator Thomas did not even live to see his fiftieth birthday, but he produced an enormous body of writing: more than 10,000,000 words in some 60 works. Thomas lacked the time to pen so many words, and if had had written them, no one would be able to read them (he had notoriously bad handwriting). Instead, he dictated to secretaries - sometimes several at once. A thirteenth-century source avers that Thomas used to dictate in his cell to three secretaries, and even occasionally to four, on different subjects at the same time. Christian History Journal - Thomas Aquinas, Issue#49 The world of the here and now, while important and discoverable, was nevertheless deeply flawed, broken, and ultimately inferior. Two Storeys of Thomas Aquinas 1 Spiritual realm Eternal Grace Supernatural Superior Soul Church Christian Life Faith Revelation Theology Material Realm Temporal Nature Natural Inferior Body Society Cultural Life Empirical reason Natural Law Science 1 Bartholomew & Goheen, Living at the Crossroads, 79.
Consequences The lower storey of the natural world got increasingly separated from the upper storey. Eventually, most of human life (our day-to-day kind of life) came to be perceived independently of the upper storey world of the spirit and theology. Nature was separated from the Word. God s world was divorced from God. As we became more independent-minded, it was increasingly put forward that the natural world no longer needed the spiritual world. Aquinas on the atonement Jesus Christ secures the satisfaction of payment between God and man, and all who turn to Jesus are justified BUT the Church is the one that imparts the gifts of grace. Christians are in need of a constant infusion of grace by which love is stirred up in the soul and the Christian life can be properly lived out. As Christians do good things, God is pleased and the Christian gains merit in God s sight. This is where the Sacraments come in. Grace comes in primarily through the Sacraments. Well, who controls the Sacraments? The priest. The bishop, and ultimately the Pope. Without the grace dispensed by the church, there really cannot be any salvation. For Aquinas, the Pope was so key that submission to him was necessary for salvation. The Eucharist was key - it was a real sacrifice (transubstantiation), and it predisposes God to be gracious towards those for whom it was offered. If it wasn t offered to you, then you miss out on God s grace and are in real trouble. Growth of indulgences. (more about this later) The church had access to a treasury of merit, a spiritual reservoir and Christians could draw on this reservoir especially if they did not have enough merit on their own (and who, but a saint, had adequate merit?) At death, the wicked go to hell. The righteous, though, go straight to heaven. Most of us did not have enough merit to get us into heaven. Therefore, we had to spend a long time of purification in purgatory. And yet the prayers of the saints AND the payment of indulgences could help fasttrack us (including our deceased loved ones) into heaven. Priestly power is at its height. It stretches into heaven and even into death itself. Aquinas undergirds the ecclesiastical authority. Fusion of scholasticism and ecclesiastical authority. Holds the hierarchy in place for the rest of the Middle Ages. Scholasticism and Canon Law This canon law also helps scholasticism keep the hierarchy in place. Universities become centres of scholasticism, Roman civil law and Church Law. Underpins the power of the Papacy, the priests and the people. These are the main courts in Europe at the time.
Becomes a foundation for Western legal system. Missionary Endeavours Franciscan missionaries, influenced by Francis life, ended up travelling far and wide to share the Gospel. In fact, you find Franciscan missionaries in Spain, North Africa, and as far away as Beijing! A Franciscan named John of Monte Corvino travelled to Persia, Ethiopia, and made it to India in 1294 and then ended up in Beijing. Along the way, apparently he led thousands to Christ - so impressive was this that the Pope made him Archbishop of Beijing. Even after the failure of the Crusades, it was the Franciscans who did missionary work in the Holy Land (dangerous work - cost them over 2000 martyrs).