Reading Theory *S E M A N T I C S. Fig. 1: Levels of Information Employed in Reading

Reading Theory *S E M A N T I C S Top Knowledge of the World understanding of how entities fit routines, schemata Pragmatics and Discourse recognizing and following info.; relationship with writer. Syntax recognize word combinations into meaningful Morphology identify parts of speech, case, number, tense, Phonology recognize letter(combinations) as representing into world, organization of expressions person, etc. sounds to form words Bottom * Integrated and all levels is the meaning of individual words and the overall state of affairs represented by their combination. Fig. 1: Levels of Information Employed in Reading

Perceiving Caesar and Vergil in Three Dimensions. Helping Students Follow Narrative and Interaction Using Particles and Word Order Patrick McFadden St. Mary s Episcopal School, Memphis

Language Seems Flat (Mynors 1969)

Flat... And Unappealing (Du Pontet 1968)

Flat (on)liners www.perseus.tufts.edu

Less Flat (on)liner www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper

A Sort of Dimension http://vergil.classics.upenn.edu

Help! The x-axis Goes to!

A New Way of Thinking Function vs. Form (Dik 1997) Functional Grammar: a theory of linguistics which views language as an instrument of social interaction... used with the intention of establishing communicative relationships, not as an object with a structure of formal rules independent from meaning and use.

A Functional Perspective on Communication (Dik, 8)

Functional Discourse Grammar (Hengeveld 2011) (Hengeveld 2011, 4)

Pragmatics Pragmatics is that level of language which deals with a constituents informational status in an ongoing verbal interaction.

Pragmatic Functions Topic: That entity about which a predication (sentence, clause, etc.) is providing information the most. What is this about? Focus: The constituent conveying the most salient piece of information about the Topic in a particular communicative context.

Topic Pragmatic Functions Focus apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit et ditissimus Orgetorix. (Caes.Gal.1.2.1) Among the Helvetians, by far the most noble and wealthiest was Orgetorix. hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. (Caes. Gal.1.1.2) These all differ among themselves in language, institutions and laws. The Galli are divided from the Aquitani by the Garumna River, and from the Belgae by the Matrona and Sequana Rivers.

Tendencies for Identifying Topics and Foci Topic 1. refers to something known from earlier in discourse. 2. has leftward position in clause (whether subject or not). 3. uses whole noun-phrase instead of pronoun for a Given (i.e., already mentioned) Discourse Topic. 4. uses is, ea, id as subject. 5. is unexpressed as subject when same Topic is sustained over successive clauses. Focus 1. has rightward position in clause. 2. marked by Focus particles, e.g., ne... quidem, iam, etiam, quippe, tantum. 3. marked by Focus constructions, e.g., non modo... sed etiam, non... sed. 4. has parallel/contrastive structure. 5. is a modifier separated from noun and put in first position of the sentence.

Worksheet #1: See some contour on the x-axis Task 1. Highlight all nouns and pronouns that refer to something that has already been mentioned. The first two sentences have been done for you. Caes. Gal. 1.1.1-7 1. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. [2] Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. [3] Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, [4] proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt. [5] Eorum una, pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano, continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum, attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum, vergit ad septentriones. [6] Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur, pertinent ad inferiorem partem fluminis Rheni, spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem. [7] Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones.

Worksheet #1: See some contour on the x-axis Task 2. Copy and paste in your texts from above, then: 1. Put in a return at the beginning of each new main or dep. clause. middle. 2. Justify text centered on page. 3. Use Draw or Insert Shape to put a line straight down the 4. What is the distribution of highlighted vs. non-highlighted text? Caes. Gal. 1.1 (A separate page has been provided for each passage.) Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. [2] Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit

The x-axis isn t so bad. What about the y-axis?

Adding a vertical dimension with Topic Shifts In English Topic shifts marked by Noun Phrase (NP) subjects vs. pronoun subjects. The teacher entered the room. She called the roll and began the days lesson. She kept moving through the material until the door opened. The principal then entered and said there was some good news.

Adding a vertical dimension with Topic Shifts In Latin a sustained Topic is indicated by gapping, i.e., an unexpressed subject.

Worksheet #2: Using Gapping to track Thematic Discontinuity Task 1: Examine the following passages and perform the following tasks: 1. Put every explicit nominative subject in BOLD. 2. Highlight every verb that has a gapped (ø) subject. 3. Insert a return whenever a new main clause begins with an expressed subject. Caes. Gal. 1.1.1-7 1. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur. [2] Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se differunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit. [3] Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effeminandos animos pertinent important, [4] proximique sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum gerunt.

One-Dimensional Focus: Word-for-Word Translation His autem omnibus druidibus praeest unus, qui summam inter eos habet auctoritatem. Hoc mortuo aut si qui ex reliquis excellit dignitate succedit, aut, si sunt plures pares, suffragio druidum, nonnumquam etiam armis de principatu contendunt. (Gal. 6.13.8-9)

Problems with Word-For-Word http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper Lewis and Short Full entry sometimes gives no translation! OLD Lots of categories, but lots more translations: moreover, furthermore, etc.

Problems with Word-For-Word Quibus ita est interdictum, hi numero impiorum ac sceleratorum habentur, his omnes decedunt... neque his petentibus ius redditur neque honos ullus communicatur. His autem omnibus druidibus praeest unus, qui summam inter eos habet auctoritatem (Gal. 6.13.7-8) Contrast? With what?

Language as Logic How have we framed our questions? How have we organized our grammar? Aristotle s Organon: Subject: ὑποκείμενον Predicate: κατάφασις (affirmation) or ἀπόφασις (denial)

Clauses Relate Logically, No? Cause: Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt... (Gal. 1.1.3) since, because, for

Clauses Relate Logically, No? Addition: : Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate provinciae longissime absunt,.. proximique sunt Germanis... quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. (Gal. 1.1.3) and, moreover, furthermore

Clauses Relate Logically, No? Contrast: tanta tempestas subito coorta est ut nulla earum cursum tenere posset, sed aliae eodem unde erant profectae referrentur, aliae ad inferiorem partem insulae... deicerentur.(gal. 4.28.2) but, however, nevertheless

Language is Illogical! The team is going to meet today to discuss plans for the future. Now yesterday they met to review the efficiency of our current procedures.

Really Illogical If you are thirsty, then there s lemonade in the refrigerator. p q?

Three Dimensions of Discourse (Kroon 1995) Representational: Shows logical relationships in the real world between clauses. Since I picked four of the five numbers in the lottery, I won $1,000. Interactional: Regulates the on-going relationship between the writer and reader (or speaker and addressee). Since you asked, I won $1,000 in the lottery. Presentational: Organizes information for ease in processing. Shows which info is more/less important and where Topics shift. I always play my family s birthdays in the lottery. Four numbers have now come up, and I won $1,000. Now my friend lets the computer pick, and she has won six times

Pragmatic Markers (Kroon 2011) A pragmatic marker is a word [or phenomenon] which do not contribute to the propositional content do help organize the discourse do integrate their host segment of text into the communicative context (Kroon 2011, 176-79)

2-Dimensions with Presentational Markers autem a presentational pragmatic marker that marks a point of (permanent or temporary) thematic discontinuity: transition to a new Topic, beginning of new episode, a brief aside, etc. Trim away translations with Occam s Razor. Contrast = side effect Break text up in 2-D with paragraph return or parentheses.

Autem = Discontinuity Laocoon, ductus Neptuno sorte sacerdos, sollemnis taurum ingentem mactabat ad aras. Ecce autem gemini a Tenedo tranquilla per alta--- horresco referens---immensis orbibus angues incumbunt pelago, pariterque ad litora tendunt; (Verg. A. 2.201-05)

Autem = Discontinuity interim eam partem nudari necesse erat et ab latere aperto tela recipi. rursus cum in eum locum unde erant egressi reverti coeperant, et ab eis qui cesserant et ab eis qui proximi steterant circumveniebantur. sin autem locum tenere vellent, nec virtuti locus relinquebatur, neque ab tanta multitudine coniecta tela conferti vitare poterant. (Gal. 5.35.2-4)

Autem = Discontinuity (Temporary) hac oratione accensis militum animis, relicto ad praesidium... M. Silano cum tribus milibus peditum et trecentis equitibus, ceteras omnes copias (erant autem viginti quinque milia peditum, duo milia quingenti equites) Hiberum traiecit [sc. P. Scipio]. (Livy 26.42.1)

Other Pragmatic Markers of Discontinuity Verb-Subject Order (Bolkestein 1996) Across languages: of the world. Once upon a time there was... Then in came the queen...

VS Order = Discontinuity Aquitania a Garumna flumine ad Pyrenaeos montes et eam partem Oceani quae est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat inter occasum solis et septentriones. Apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit et ditissimus Orgetorix. Is M. Messala, et M. Pisone consulibus regni cupiditate inductus coniurationem nobilitatis fecit et civitati persuasit ut de finibus suis cum omnibus copiis exirent: (Gal. 1.1.7-2.1)

VS Order = Discontinuity 44. Erant in ea legione fortissimi viri, centuriones, qui primis ordinibus appropinquarent, Titus Pullo et Lucius Vorenus.... [5] Ne Vorenus quidem tum sese vallo continet, sed omnium veritus existimationem subsequitur. [6] Mediocri spatio relicto Pullo pilum in hostes immittit atque unum ex multitudine procurrentem traicit; quo percusso et exanimato hunc scutis protegunt, in hostem tela universi coniciunt neque dant regrediendi facultatem. [7] Transfigitur scutum Pulloni et verutum in balteo defigitur. [8] Avertit hic casus vaginam et gladium educere conanti dextram moratur manum, impeditumque hostes circumsistunt. [9] Succurrit inimicus illi Vorenus et laboranti subvenit. [10] Ad hunc se confestim a Pullone omnis multitudo convertit: [11] illum veruto arbitrantur occisum. Gladio comminus rem gerit Vorenus atque uno interfecto reliquos paulum propellit; [12] dum cupidius instat, in locum deiectus inferiorem concidit. Huic rursus circumvento fert subsidium Pullo, [13] atque ambo incolumes compluribus interfectis summa cum laude sese intra munitiones recipiunt. (Caes. Gal. 5.44)

VS Order = Discontinuity (Think Hard Camera Cut) 44. Erant in ea legione fortissimi viri, centuriones, qui primis ordinibus appropinquarent, Titus Pullo et Lucius Vorenus..... [5] Ne Vorenus quidem tum sese vallo continet, sed omnium veritus existimationem subsequitur. [6] Mediocri spatio relicto Pullo pilum in hostes immittit atque unum ex multitudine procurrentem traicit; quo percusso et exanimato hunc scutis protegunt, in hostem tela universi coniciunt neque dant regrediendi facultatem. [7] Transfigitur scutum Pulloni et verutum in balteo defigitur. [8] Avertit hic casus vaginam et gladium educere conanti dextram moratur manum, impeditumque hostes circumsistunt. [9] Succurrit inimicus illi Vorenus et laboranti subvenit. [10] Ad hunc se confestim a Pullone omnis multitudo convertit: [11] illum veruto arbitrantur occisum. Gladio comminus rem gerit Vorenus atque uno interfecto reliquos paulum propellit; [12] dum cupidius instat, in locum deiectus inferiorem concidit. Huic rursus circumvento fert subsidium Pullo, [13] atque ambo incolumes compluribus interfectis summa cum laude sese intra munitiones recipiunt. (Caes. Gal. 5.44)

VS Order = Temporary Discontinuity Provinciae toti quam maximum potest militum numerum imperat (erat omnino in Gallia ulteriore legio una), pontem, qui erat ad Genavam, iubet rescindi.... (Gal. 1.7.2-3)

Other Word-Order Cues to Discontinuity? Discontinuous Noun Phrase Hyperbaton with Verb Marks same discontinuity as autem and VS order (McFadden 1999) Violation of constituent integrity acts as a signal Example: vulgatior fama est ludibrio fratris Remum novos transiluisse muros. Inde ab irato Romulo... interfectum. (Livy 1.7.1-2)

Discontinuous NP=Discontinuity? Genus hoc est ex essedis pugnae. Primo per omnes partes perequitant et tela coiciunt atque ipso terrore equorum et strepitu rotarum ordines plerumque perturbant, et cum se inter equitum turmas insinuaverunt, ex essedis desiliunt et pedibus proeliantur. (Gal. 4.33.1)

Discontinuous NP=Discontinuity? Ex quibus deduxi in colonias aut remisi in municipia sua stipendis emeritis millia aliquanto plura quam trecenta, et iis omnibus agros adsignavi aut pecuniam pro praemiis militiae dedi. Naves cepi sescentas praeter eas, si quae minores quam triremes fuerunt. (Aug. R.G. 3)

Discontinuous Noun Phrase= Discontinuity 44. Erant in ea legione fortissimi viri, centuriones, qui primis ordinibus appropinquarent, Titus Pullo et Lucius Vorenus... [3] Ex his Pullo, cum acerrime ad munitiones pugnaretur, "Quid dubitas," inquit, "... [4] Hic dies de nostris controversiis iudicabit." Haec cum dixisset, procedit extra munitiones quaque pars hostium confertissma est visa irrumpit. [5] Ne Vorenus quidem tum sese vallo continet, sed omnium veritus existimationem subsequitur. [6] Mediocri spatio relicto Pullo pilum in hostes immittit atque unum ex multitudine procurrentem traicit; quo percusso et exanimato hunc scutis protegunt, in hostem tela universi coniciunt neque dant regrediendi facultatem. [7] Transfigitur scutum Pulloni et verutum in balteo defigitur. [8] Avertit hic casus vaginam et gladium educere conanti dextram moratur manum, impeditumque hostes circumsistunt. [9] Succurrit inimicus illi Vorenus et laboranti subvenit. [10] Ad hunc se confestim a Pullone omnis multitudo convertit: [11] illum veruto arbitrantur occisum. Gladio comminus rem gerit Vorenus atque uno interfecto reliquos paulum propellit; [12] dum cupidius instat, in locum deiectus inferiorem concidit. (Caes. Gal. 5.44)

Discontinuous NP= Discontinuity 44. Erant in ea legione fortissimi viri, centuriones, qui primis ordinibus appropinquarent, Titus Pullo et Lucius Vorenus... [3] Ex his Pullo, cum acerrime ad munitiones pugnaretur, "Quid dubitas," inquit, "... [4] Hic dies de nostris controversiis iudicabit." Haec cum dixisset, procedit extra munitiones quaque pars hostium confertissma est visa irrumpit. [5] Ne Vorenus quidem tum sese vallo continet, sed omnium veritus existimationem subsequitur. [6] Mediocri spatio relicto Pullo pilum in hostes immittit atque unum ex multitudine procurrentem traicit; quo percusso et exanimato hunc scutis protegunt, in hostem tela universi coniciunt neque dant regrediendi facultatem. [7] Transfigitur scutum Pulloni et verutum in balteo defigitur. [8] Avertit hic casus vaginam et gladium educere conanti dextram moratur manum, impeditumque hostes circumsistunt. [9] Succurrit inimicus illi Vorenus et laboranti subvenit. [10] Ad hunc se confestim a Pullone omnis multitudo convertit: [11] illum veruto arbitrantur occisum. Gladio comminus rem gerit Vorenus atque uno interfecto reliquos paulum propellit; [12] dum cupidius instat, in locum deiectus inferiorem concidit. (Caes. Gal. 5.44)

Discontinuous NP=Discontinuity? Quibus ita est interdictum, hi numero impiorum ac sceleratorum habentur, his omnes decedunt, aditum sermonemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi accipiant, neque his petentibus ius redditur neque honos ullus communicatur. His autem omnibus druidibus praeest unus, qui summam inter eos habet auctoritatem. Hoc mortuo aut si qui ex reliquis excellit dignitate succedit, aut, si sunt plures pares, suffragio druidum, nonnumquam etiam armis de principatu contendunt. hi certo anni tempore in finibus Carnutum, quae regio totius Galliae media habetur, considunt in loco consecrato (Gal. 6.13.7-10)

Other Presentational Markers Nam - presentational; shows subordinate thought Show subordination as footnote 1 or lower-point type.

Presentational Nam sed nulla ferramentorum copia quae esset ad hunc usum idonea, gladiis caespites circumcidere, manibus sagulisque terram exhaurire nitebantur. Qua quidem ex re hominum multitudo cognosci potuit: nam minus horis tribus milium pedum XV in circuitu munitionem perfecerunt reliquisque diebus turres ad altitudinem valli, falces testudinesque, quas idem captivi docuerant, parare ac facere coeperunt. (Gal. 5.42.3-5)

Presentational Nam sed nulla ferramentorum copia quae esset ad hunc usum idonea, gladiis caespites circumcidere, manibus sagulisque terram exhaurire nitebantur. Qua quidem ex re hominum multitudo cognosci potuit 1... reliquisque diebus turres ad altitudinem valli, falces testudinesque, quas idem captivi docuerant, parare ac facere coeperunt. (Gal. 5.42.3-5) 1 nam minus horis tribus milium pedum XV in circuitu munitionem perfecerunt

Worksheet #3: Presentational Markers Task 1: Highlight/put in BOLD the following on your text: a.) presentational particles autem, nam, b.) Sentences with Verb-Subject order. c.) Sentences ending in a discontinuous noun phrase, c. ) Main clauses w/ expressed subjects after repeated gapping Task 2: When you are done, format appropriately: a.) Put nam into footnote or reduce point size b.) Insert return or parentheses for all others. Caes. Gal. 1.6.1-3 6. Erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus domo exire possent: unum per Sequanos, angustum et difficile, inter montem Iuram et flumen Rhodanum, vix qua singuli carri ducerentur, mons autem altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent; [2] alterum per provinciam nostram, multo facilius atque expeditius, propterea quod inter fines Helvetiorum et Allobrogum, qui nuper pacati erant, Rhodanus fluit isque non nullis locis vado transitur. [3]

With Presentational Markers Language is Redundant Quibus ita est interdictum, hi numero impiorum ac sceleratorum habentur, his omnes decedunt, aditum sermonemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi accipiant, neque his petentibus ius redditur neque honos ullus communicatur. His autem omnibus druidibus praeest unus, qui summam inter eos habet auctoritatem. Hoc mortuo aut si qui ex reliquis excellit dignitate succedit, aut, si sunt plures pares, suffragio druidum, nonnumquam etiam armis de principatu contendunt. hi certo anni tempore in finibus Carnutum, quae regio totius Galliae media habetur, considunt in loco consecrato (Gal. 6.13.7-10)

Very Redundundant Quibus ita est interdictum, hi numero impiorum ac sceleratorum habentur, his omnes decedunt, aditum sermonemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi accipiant, neque his petentibus ius redditur neque honos ullus communicatur. His autem omnibus druidibus praeest unus, qui summam inter eos habet auctoritatem. Hoc mortuo aut si qui ex reliquis excellit dignitate succedit, aut, si sunt plures pares, suffragio druidum, nonnumquam etiam armis de principatu contendunt. hi certo anni tempore in finibus Carnutum, quae regio totius Galliae media habetur, considunt in loco consecrato (Gal. 6.13.7-10)

The 3 rd Dimension: Interactional Discourse Markers vero an interactional particle; marks a clause whose truth value the speaker (writer) is subjectively attesting to and personally guaranteeing. Vero vere Contrast is again a side effect. Bring interactional particles out from the text into 3D with color, etc., and use appropriate, interactional translation like, believe me, trust me, really!

Interactional vero A Personal Guarantee Ille [sc. Ambiorix]appellatus respondit: si velit secum colloqui, licere; sperare a multitudine impetrari posse, quod ad militum salutem pertineat; ipsi nihil nocitum iri, inque eam rem se suam fidem interponere. (Gal. 5.36.2) Ambiorix responded... that, take his word for it, there would be no harm at all to him...

Interactional vero Trust a Hero At gemini lapsu delubra ad summa dracones effugiunt saevaeque petunt Tritonidis arcem, sub pedibusque deae clipeique sub orbe teguntur. tum vero tremefacta novus per pectora cunctis insinuat pavor, et scelus expendisse merentem Laocoonta ferunt, sacrum qui cuspide robur laeserit, et tergo sceleratam intorserit hastam. (A. 2.225-31) Then, believe me, a new fear crept through the terrified hearts for us all, and....

Interactional vero Trust a Narrator Tali Cyllenius ore locutus mortalis visus medio sermone reliquit, et procul in tenuem ex oculis evanuit auram. At vero Aeneas aspectu obmutuit amens, arrectaeque horrore comae, et vox faucibus haesit Ardet abire fuga dulcisque relinquere terras, attonitus tanto monitu imperioque deorum. (A. 4.276-82) To this, you can believe, Aeneas stood mute, stunned at the sight, and his hair stood up with horror....

Interactional vero Trust a Ferryman umbrarum hic locus est, somni noctisque soporae; corpora viva nefas Stygia vectare carina. nec vero Alciden me sum laetatus euntem accepisse lacu, nec Thesea Pirithoumque, dis quamquam geniti atque invicti viribus essent. (A. 6.390-94) Nor, trust me, did I rejoice to have taken on Hercules going....

In 3D for for Nam - presentational; shows subordinate thought Show subordination as footnote 1 or lower-point type. Enim interactional; shows statement for which speaker/writer assumes and asserts consensus. Highlight and translate with appropriate expression: of course, wouldn t you agree, doncha think

Interactional enim O socii---neque enim ignari sumus ante malorum--- O passi graviora, dabit deus his quoque finem. (A. 1.198-99) O Comrades, wouldn t you agree, we are are we not unknowing of troubles before, O you having endured...

Interactional enim neque enim specie famave movetur, 170 nec iam furtivum Dido meditatur amorem: coniugium vocat; hoc praetexit nomine culpam. (A. 4.170-72)... Neither, wouldn t you say,, is Dido moved by appearance or reputation....

Flat Text? 'ad urbem unam oppugnandam si quis vos adductos credit, is magis operis vestri quam emolumenti rationem exactam, milites, habet; oppugnabitis enim vere moenia unius urbis, sed in una urbe universam ceperitis Hispaniam. hic sunt obsides omnium nobilium regum populorumque, qui simul in potestate vestra erunt, extemplo omnia quae nunc sub Carthaginiensibus sunt in dicionem tradent; hic pecunia omnis hostium, sine qua neque illi gerere bellum possunt, quippe qui mercennarios exercitus alant, et quae nobis maximo usui ad conciliandos animos barbarorum erit; hic tormenta arma omnis apparatus belli est, qui simul et vos instruet et hostes nudabit. potiemur praeterea cum pulcherrima opulentissimaque urbe tum opportunissima portu egregio unde terra marique quae belli usus poscunt suppeditentur; quae cum magna ipsi habebimus tum dempserimus hostibus multo maiora. haec illis arx, hoc horreum aerarium armamentarium, hoc omnium rerum receptaculum est; huc rectus ex Africa cursus est; haec una inter Pyrenaeum et Gades statio; hinc omni Hispaniae imminet Africa. (Liv. 26.43)

Or 3-D 'ad urbem unam oppugnandam si quis vos adductos credit, is magis operis vestri quam emolumenti rationem exactam, milites, habet; oppugnabitis enim vere moenia unius urbis, sed in una urbe universam ceperitis Hispaniam. hic sunt obsides omnium nobilium regum populorumque, qui simul in potestate vestra erunt, extemplo omnia quae nunc sub Carthaginiensibus sunt in dicionem tradent; hic pecunia omnis hostium, sine qua neque illi gerere bellum possunt, quippe qui mercennarios exercitus alant, et quae nobis maximo usui ad conciliandos animos barbarorum erit; hic tormenta arma omnis apparatus belli est, qui simul et vos instruet et hostes nudabit. potiemur praeterea cum pulcherrima opulentissimaque urbe tum opportunissima portu egregio unde terra marique quae belli usus poscunt suppeditentur; quae cum magna ipsi habebimus tum dempserimus hostibus multo maiora. haec illis arx, hoc horreum aerarium armamentarium, hoc omnium rerum receptaculum est; huc rectus ex Africa cursus est; haec una inter Pyrenaeum et Gades statio; hinc omni Hispaniae imminet Africa.

Selected Bibliography Bolkestein, A.M. Free but not arbitrary: emotive word order in Latin. in On Latin: Linguistic and Literary Studies in Honour of Harm Pinkster, edd. Risselada, et al., 7-23. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1996. Dik, S. The Theory of Functional Grammar.2 ed. Hengeveld. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1997. Functional Discourse Grammar. Univesity of Amsterdam. n.d. Web. 16 Jun. 2014 < http://home.hum.uva.nl/fdg/home_index.asp>

Selected Bibliography Kroon, C. Latin Particles and the grammar of discourse. in A Companion to the Latin Language. ed. Clackson, 176-95. Blackwell, 2011. Latin Linguistics between Grammar and Discourse. Units of Analysis, Levels of Analysis. in Pragmatische Kategorien. Form, Funktion und Diachronie. edd. Rieken and Widmer, 143-58 Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2009.Discourse Particles in Latin: A study of nam, enim, autem, vero, and at. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1995.

Selected Bibliography Kroon, C. and Hannay, M. Acts and the relationship between discourse and grammar. Functions of Language 12.1 (2005) 87-124. Kroon, C. and Risselada, R. "The discourse functions of iam." in Estudios de Linguistica Latina: Actas del IX Coloquio Internacional de Linguistica Latina. ed. Garcia-hernandez, 429-46. Madrid: Ediciones Classicas, 1998. McFadden, P. The Discourse Function of Discontinuous Noun Phrases in Latin: A Discourse-Pragmatic Approach to a Word Order Pattern. Dissertation: University of Michigan, 1999.

Selected Bibliography Risselada, R. "And now for something completely different? Temporal discourse markers: Latin nunc and English now." in On Latin: Linguistic and Literary Studies in Honour of Harm Pinkster. edd. Risselada, et al. 105-25. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1996.. Tandem and postremo: two of a kind? in Latin in Use. ed. Risselada, 85-116. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1998.