3 Schools of Thought (per Smith, p. 129) Government Coercion -- The Reformation was imposed upon a largely loyal, Catholic England. The English Reformation A Closer Look Gradual Break -- The English Reformation was the culminating event in a rift that had been developing with Rome for many years. Apathy -- Suggests that, in general, the English people didn t particularly care what was going on in religion. (Points to lack of willing martyrs.) My Take: The first ignores the uniqueness of the English Church. The second tends to read Protestantism backward into the medieval period, not recognizing the diversity of Catholicism, or the changes that were occurring in the Continental Church. The third is ridiculous -- ignorant of primary sources and Church History. The Role of the Church: The Church was the center of all religion and social life. It was the hub of the culture. There was a Church at the center of every village. There was a prominent chapel in most manor houses. (Each had its own priest, if the noble could afford it) Monasteries were special places of spiritual activity as well as the centers of learning in the countryside. Church rituals, times for prayer, and sacred days and seasons focused and regulated all of life. Christianity, and its rules, were taken very seriously by all classes (whether Christianity was understood or not) Those who pray (Ecclesiastics): MONKS ARE NOT THE SAME AS PRIESTS. Monks and clergy were the educated elite (though as we move from early to high middle ages the nobility were more associated with education as well.) Male monastics could be drawn into courtly service for a noble. Church orders were open to nobility and peasantry alike, but usually the positions and offices were striated along class lines. Often a fast career track for younger brothers and sisters in noble families. Did offer the only real possibility of social advancement for the peasant classes as well, much more so in England than elsewhere. Not only monasteries and parishes, but also universities were institutions of the Church.
The Presence of the Church in Society: It is a real distortion to see the priest as a foreign ambassador of Rome -- usually they served the very people from which they themselves came. Monks, also, remained full members of English society, with close ties to family and village. On the one hand, the Church can be said to form a separate sub-culture which transcended geographical and political boundaries: A ubiquitous and unifying presence throughout Europe. On the other hand, the Church, wherever it was found took on the local character and culture, so that (for example) there was something decidedly English about the Mass in England, and about the flavor of English monasteries. Monasteries in the Fifteenth Century: 825 monasteries with around 13,000 male and female monks. Monasticism was a separate way of life, a separate society, a separate culture, based on the ideals of the love of learning and the desire for God. By this time there were many different types of monasteries in England, each with its own cultural distinctiveness and special religious focus: Benedictines, Carthusians, Cistercians, Augustinians, etc. In addition to the cloistered monks there were the mendicant orders which lived much more in society, and were dedicated to service. The Greyfriars -- Franciscans, and the Blackfriars -- Dominicans. England also had a home-grown monastic trend, the enclosed hermit, or Anchorite. Monasteries were primarily rural, but with exceptions, especially among the houses of the mendicants. The Uniqueness of the English Church: The English Church was marked by: Geographical Isolation Different waves of conversion The synthesis of Christianity with many different cultures! A remarkable diversity of liturgical and theological tradition, a lower concern with the affairs of Rome than in the south, and a heritage of going its own way. The first wave of conversion came through the Gallican tradition, which was more Greek and less Latin in perspective. This blended with Latin Christianity when the Saxons converted, but older traditions remained, such as married priests. 1066 Marked a crackdown on the wayward English, and many priests fled East. It was only partially successful. Throughout the Norman Era England continued to develop separate liturgical traditions, and scholars such as Ockham, Roger Bacon, and John Wycliffe are merely the most visible manifestations of an English willingness to critique the directions of the Continental Church. Lollardy in perspective: With the corruption of the Roman hierarchy evident as a result of the Great Schism an Oxford clergyman, John Wycliffe, began to raise serious questions publicly about what he regarded as recent digressions from the true Catholic Faith. (c. 1378) He was concerned that the Church had lost touch with the Scriptures. He was concerned that the laity did not understand the faith well enough to recognize the corruption in the Church. Therefore he translated the Bible into English. (This was not so radical for a Franciscan, or a Dominican.) He sent out preachers to help spread the true message of Christianity, meaning a renewed focus on the life and merits of Jesus Christ. He questioned the Scholastic understanding of Transubstantiation in the Mass, but on logical grounds: he advocated a return to an older concept in which the bread and wine were recognized along with the Body and Blood of Christ (which was truly, though spiritually, present). He advocated, along with many reform movements, a return to the ideal of St. Augustine s theology. He became dangerous by advocating his doctrine of dominion -- the concept that clergy and rulers were given their authority from God only so long as they remained faithful to God and pure in motive otherwise they should be reomoved. (Who gets to be the judge?)
Lollardy, Effects of Wycliffe s teaching: Wycliffe initially drew a large and respectable following, including such notables as John of Gaunt. Wycliffe s followers became known as the Lollards or mumblers, for their objections to the current status of the Church. In 1381, Lollardy became implicated in the Peasants Revolt. Whether this was valid or not, the doctrine of dominion did teach that such acts of rebellion as the Peasant Revolt were justified -- a corrupt government is not from God. In 1382 Lollardy was denounced as heresy. After this point a wealth of information came out about its radical doctrines -- that Lollards despised the Sacrament, wanted to do away with clergy, etc. Far too many scholars look to this later smear campaign rather than to the writings of Wycliffe to underrstand Lollardy. While reformist, there was little in Wycliffe s views which could not be found throughout the critiques of others (who were not condemned) at this time. (Keep the doctrine of dominion in mind as an undercurrent of English thought. Note the similar rationale behind the deposition of Richard II, the Yorkist claim to the throne, and any number of themes in the Reformation.) Turmoil on the Continent Babylonian Captivity -- Papacy moved from Rome to Avignon, under the influence of French King. (1309-1377) Popes live in luxury, embroiled in secular politics, governing system of the church came to be widely recognized as horribly corrupt. Great Schism (1378-1415) -- Two Popes. Council of Pisa (1409) tries to solve the issue, creates three popes. Council of Constans ends the problem, but does not effectively address issues of corruption in the Church. (Burns Hus instead.) Indulgences sold to build St. Peter s Cathedral. Could even buy forgiveness for sins not yet committed. Reform: Martin Luther: German Priest/Monk/University professor 1517 posts 95 theses calling for discussion on church corruption, esp. indulgences. Begins rethinking other aspects of Christianity in his day and concludes: Salvation is produced by God s grace, not the church s decree. Faith (not rejecting Grace) is the means by which the individual is saved. Hearing the Word is necessary for faith. The pope is part of the problem not the solution. 1530 -- Augsburg Confession. An attempt was made by the Emperor, Charles V to heal the division between Rome and the now excommunicated Luther and his followers. The meeting was held at Augsburg in 1530. The document the Lutherans presented for agreement is now known as the Augsburg Confession. It clarified and solidified the Lutheran doctrine. Among other things, the Augsburg Confession claimed: The Scriptures are the final authority in all matters of faith. Salvation comes by God s gracious gift of faith. Clergy are important for salvation, but not necessary, and the present church hierarchy was ungodly. Regardless of what sacrament has come to mean in later history, only two of the Roman seven matter for getting the individual to heaven. (Baptism/ Eucharist.)
Permanent Division: After Luther s death in 1546, Wars raged across central Europe as princes and nobility faithful to Rome attempted to retake territories which had become Lutheran. War between Catholics and Lutherans ended with the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. The treaty signed there declared that the religion of any territory should be determined by the ruler of that territory, whether Lutheran or Catholic. (Cuius regio eius religio.) Other forms of Protestantism were not included in this treaty. Reform: the Reformed : There were a number of reform movements rejected by the Lutherans as having gone too far, and thrown out much that was important and good in the Church These fit into two categories: The Anabaptists and the Reformed. The Anabaptists were the most radical in their reformation ideas, rejecting all sacraments except as mere symbols as well as all established forms of church hierarchy. We re concerned with the Reformed who were more moderate than the Anabaptists, and came to constitute the most popular and widespread form of Protestantism. While Lutherans did not accept anything which they found contrary to the Christian Scriptures, the Reformed tended to reject anything which was not explicitly stated in the Scriptures. Calvinism: John Calvin, French born, trained in Law but obsessed with theology, came to epitomize Reformed doctrine. Trained as a humanist. Calvin moved to Geneva, Switzerland and established it as a theocracy. Church doctrine governed all aspects of life. Wrote the Geneva Catechism and (over nearly twenty years) the Institutes of the Christian Religion. The latter is a four volume summary of Protestant doctrine as understood by Calvin. Features of Calvinism: Presbyterian form of Church government. Rejection of art in churches and an intense focus on preaching in services. Doctrine of Predestination : Only those predestined by God from eternity to be saved would be saved. They are the Elect. While only God knows the identity of the elect, one s election will manifest itself in a Christian Life. This meant avoidance of sin, and living by a strict moral code: mandatory church attendance, no dancing, card-playing, (excessive) drinking, fancy clothes, etc. Geneva was to be an exclusive community of the elect. Those not conforming were cast-out. Christians should have nothing to hide. Large windows allowed Geneva residents to check-up on one another.
More features of Calvinism: Sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion were both effective (as per Luther) and symbolic. Tended to divide sharply between Creator and Creation. An intense focus on the sovereignty of God. Geneva was the ideal, but Calvinism modified its political forms to adapt to other countries. England, for example came to be essentially Calvinist in doctrine, but retained Bishops (Episcopal government) and many elements of Catholic worship.