Unit 21: The Art of Greece

Transcription

1 T h e A r t i o s H o m e C o m p a n i o n S e r i e s T e a c h e r O v e r v i e w The arts reflect the society that creates them. Nowhere is this truer than in the case of the ancient Greeks. Through their temples, sculpture, pottery and literature, the Greeks incorporated the concept of reaching for excellence and one s full potential. Reading and Assignments In this unit, students will: Complete six lessons in which they will learn about Greek literature, art, philosophy, religion, and myths, journaling and answering discussion questions as they read. Define vocabulary words. Explore the following website: Gods and goddesses of Ancient Greece uk/gods/explore/exp_set.ht ml Visit for additional resources. A recreation in modern materials of the lost colossal statue by Pheidias, Athena Parthenos is housed in a full-scale replica of the Parthenon in Nashville s Centennial Park. She is the largest indoor sculpture in the western world. Photograph by Dean Dixon, Sculpture by Alan LeQuire (1990), work of art is free according to the terms of the Free Art License. Leading Ideas In Acts 17, Paul gives a sermon that makes it evident that he understood Greek philosophy. However, he did not stay there in his conversation. He presented the gospel to them. This is a great demonstration of not being of the world but being sent into the world. Acts 17 (Read this chapter in ESV at: Page 314

2 Do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewal of your mind, that by testing you may discern what is the will of God, what is good and acceptable and perfect. Romans 12:2 Vocabulary Lesson 1: polytheistic Lesson 2: satyr pedagogue disreputable revel savory negotiable lyre dissent Lesson 3: nymph faun dryad errant frolic maim nimbus Lesson 4: none Lesson 5: none Lesson 6: none Key People, Places, and Events Zeus Homer The Iliad The Trojan War The Odyssey Odysseus Aphrodite Hera Athena Hermes Poseidon Hades Charon King Midas Silenus Bacchus Apollo Pan Echo Diana Hera Narcissus Aeschylus Homer The Iliad The Odyssey Sophocles Oedipus Rex Euripides Socrates Plato The Republic Aristotle Hippocrates Pythagoras Euclid Archimedes Page 315

3 L e s s o n O n e H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s Flawed Gods Cameos in raised relief of the Olympic gods. The seven gods depicted are the gods of the planets in correct order to their relationship to the seven days of the week. From left to right they are: Diana the moon for Monday, Mars for Tuesday, Mercury for Wednesday, Jupiter for Thursday, Venus for Friday, Saturn for Saturday, and Apollo for Sunday. Reading and Assignments Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: Gods, Goddesses, and Heroes. Narrate about today s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration. Define the vocabulary word in the context of the reading and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook. Read more about the different gods and goddesses of Ancient Greece. Then play the game on the website to see how much you remember. Gods and goddesses of Ancient Greece Be sure to visit for additional resources. Vocabulary polytheistic Key People, Places, and Events Zeus Homer The Iliad The Trojan War The Odyssey Odysseus Aphrodite Hera Athena Hermes Poseidon Hades Charon Page 316

4 Discussion Questions 1. Why do you think the Greeks created gods in the image of humans? 2. What were some of the human qualities that the Greek gods had? 3. Who was Pandora? What was her story? 4. Was Hercules a god or a hero? What was the difference? 5. Each god was a type of ruler of something specific. Tell what each god below was considered to be a god of. Zeus Aphrodite Hermes Hades Hera Athena Poseidon Adapted for Middle School from the book: Ancient Civilizations source: ushistory.org Gods, Goddesses, and Heroes The ancients Greeks were polytheistic that is, they worshiped many gods. Their major gods and goddesses lived at the top of Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece, and myths described their lives and actions. In myths, gods often actively intervened in the day-to-day lives of humans. Myths were used to help explain the unknown and sometimes teach a lesson. A family portrait of the 12 Olympians. But wait who s that crouching by Zeus? For example, Zeus, the king of the gods, carried his favorite weapon, the thunderbolt. When it rained and there was thunder and lightning, the ancient Greeks believed that Zeus was venting his anger. Many stories about how the Greek gods behaved and interacted with humans are found in the works of Homer. He created two epic poems: The Iliad, which related the events of the Trojan War, and The Odyssey, which detailed the travels of the hero Odysseus. These two poems were passed down orally over many generations. Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus son Achilleus and its devastation, which put pains thousandfold upon the Achaians, hurled in their multitudes to the house of Hades strong souls of heroes, but gave their bodies to be the delicate feasting of dogs, of all birds, and the will of Zeus was accomplished since that time when first there stood in division of conflict Atreus son the lord of men and brilliant. - Achilleus, by Homer, Iliad (1951 translation by Richard Lattimore) Page 317

5 anywhere with great speed. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, was the most beautiful being in the universe. Her brother, Ares, the god of war, was sinister, mean, and disliked. Poseidon, ruled the sea from his underwater place and Apollo rode his chariot across the sky, bringing the sun with him. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Zeus was the ruler of the gods, the lord of the skies, and the father of countless deities and demigods of the Greek pantheon. Feidias' statue in gold and ivory was in Olympia's main temple. The statue was 12 meter high and decorated with paintings and precious stones. Woodcut, 1880 The Greeks created gods in the image of humans; that is, their gods had many human qualities even though they were gods. The gods constantly fought among themselves, behaved irrationally and unfairly, and were often jealous of each other. Zeus, the king of the gods, was rarely faithful to his wife Hera. Hera plotted against Zeus and punished his mistresses. The Greek gods were highly emotional and behaved inconsistently and sometimes immorally. Greek religion did not have a standard set of morals, there were no Judaic Ten Commandments. The gods, heroes, and humans of Greek mythology were flawed. In addition to Zeus and Hera, there were many other major and minor gods in the Greek religion. At her birth, Athena, the goddess of wisdom, sprang directly from the head of Zeus. Hermes, who had winged feet, was the messenger of the gods and could fly Many Greek myths explained the mysteries of nature. The myth of Apollo, for example, describes how the sun moves across the sky to rise and set each day. Courtesy NASA and Cislunar Aerospace, Inc. Hades was in charge of the dead in the underworld. Almost all people went to Hades after they died, whether they were good or bad. To get there, the dead had to cross the river Styx. Charon was the name of the boatman who ferried the souls of the dead across the river Styx to Hades. Typically, the gods punished those who were bad. For example, Tantalus who killed his own son and served him to the gods for dinner was sent to Hades and made forever thirsty and hungry. Although there was a pool of clear, fresh drinking water at his feet, whenever Tantalus bent down to drink, the pool would dry up and disappear. Likewise, over his head hung the most delicious fruit. However, whenever Tantalus reached for them, a wind would Page 318

6 blow them just out of his reach. The English word tantalize derives from the name Tantalus. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, sits with the war god, Ares in this painting by the Renaissance artist Botticelli. Aphrodite is one of several Greek goddesses, and is often referred to by her Roman name, Venus. Pandora s Box and Hercules Labors Myths helped explain how the world came to be the way it was. In one myth, Zeus created an incredibly beautiful and nearly perfect woman named Pandora. Her one flaw was that she was very curious and suspicious. Hermes, Zeus s messenger, gave Pandora a golden box. He warned her never to open it because terrible things would occur if she did. But Pandora could not contain her curiosity and eventually broke down and opened the special box. Out from the box flew all the evils that plague humanity: famine, greed, pain, sorrow, etc. Only one thing remained in the box: hope which humans managed to hold onto. This myth explains the origins of human misfortune. At the same time, it teaches a moral lesson by warning of the dangers of curiosity. In addition to myths about gods, the ancient Greeks also told stories about heroes. One of the most famous Greek heroes was Hercules, the world s strongest man. Hercules was the illegitimate son of a mortal woman and Zeus, who tricked the woman by disguising himself as the woman s husband. Hera, Zeus s wife, was angry about Zeus affair and sought to punish Hercules. Hera tricked Hercules into believing that his entire family were dangerous beasts, which Hercules then proceeded to kill. When Hercules realized that he had killed his entire family, he agreed to perform 12 tasks to atone for his terrible actions. For one of the tasks, Hercules had to slay the nine-headed monster called the Hydra. For another task, he had to clean the filth from Augean stable, which had not been attended to in 30 years. To do this, Hercules diverted the course of a river that washed away the mess. In the end, he completed the so-called 12 Labors of Hercules and made up for the murder of his family. Page 319

7 God/Goddess Important Attributes Zeus Hera Poseidon Hades Hestia Chronos Demeter Apollo Artemis Aphrodite Ares Athena Haephestos Hermes Persephone Dionysus Eros King of the gods, Zeus killed his father Chronos. He is also the god of thunder. The wife of Zeus, Hera is the goddess of fertility. The god of the sea. The god of the underworld. A little-known goddess, she is a sister of Zeus and goddess of the hearth. The leader of the Titans and father of the Olympians, Chronos ate all his children except for Zeus, who killed him. Goddess of the harvest and mother of Persephone. God of the sun, music, and art, one of the most versatile gods. Goddess of the hunt, Moon, and childbirth. The sister of Apollo, she is also a very versatile Olympian. The goddess of love and the mother of Eros, known to the Romans as Cupid. The god of War. Sprang full-grown from Zeus s head. She is the Goddess of wisdom. The city of Athens is named for her. The god of the forge. Thrown from the top of Mount Olympus by Zeus, Haephestos is also crippled. The husband of Aphrodite. The messenger god wears a winged helmet and winged sandals. The daughter of Demeter, Persephone was kidnapped by Hades to be his bride. Because she ate three pomegranate seeds, she is forced to spend three months of the year in Hades. This period of time is known as winter. The god of wine and revelry. Dionysus had an enormous following throughout the Greek world. The god of love. Often depicted as a young child, Eros used magical arrows could to cause people to fall in love. Page 320

8 L e s s o n T w o H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s Tragic Comedy Reading and Assignments Read the article: King Midas of the Golden Touch. Narrate or illustrate the story of King Midas of the Golden Touch. Be sure to put this in your notebook. Define the vocabulary words in the context of the reading and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook. Be sure to visit for additional resources. Page 321

9 Vocabulary satyr pedagogue disreputable revel savory negotiable lyre dissent Key People, Places, and Events King Midas Silenus Bacchus Apollo Pan Adapted for Middle School from the book: A Book of Myths by Jean Lang King Midas of the Golden Touch In the plays of Shakespeare we have three distinct divisions three separate volumes. One deals with Tragedy, another with Comedy, a third with History; and a mistake often made by the young is that they do the same thing and keep tragedy and comedy severely apart, relegating them to separate volumes that, so they think, have nothing to do with each other. But those who have passed many milestones on the road of life know that History is the only right label for the Book of Life s many parts, and that the actors in the great play are in truth tragic comedians. This is the story of Midas, one of the chief tragic comedians of mythology. Once upon a time the kingdom of Phrygia lacked a king, and in much perplexity, the people sought help from an oracle. The answer was very definite: The first man who enters your city riding in a wagon shall be your king. That day there came slowly jogging into the city in their heavy, wooden-wheeled wain the peasant Gordias and his wife and son, whose destination was the marketplace, and whose business was to sell the produce of their little farm and vineyard fowls, a goat or two, and a couple of skins full of strong, purple-red wine. An eager crowd awaited their entry, and a loud shout of welcome greeted them. And their eyes grew round and their mouths fell open in amazement when they were hailed as king and queen and prince of Phrygia. The gods had indeed bestowed upon Gordias, the low-born peasant, a surprising gift, but he showed his gratitude by dedicating his wagon to the deity of the oracle and tying it up in its place with the wiliest knot that his simple wisdom knew, pulled as tight as his brawny arms and strong rough hands could pull. Nor could anyone untie the famous Gordian knot, and therefore become, as the oracle had further promised, lord of all Asia, until centuries had passed and Alexander the Great came to Phrygia and sliced through the knot with his all-conquering sword. In time Midas, the son of Gordias, came Page 322

10 to inherit the throne and crown of Phrygia. Like many another not born and bred to the purple, his honors sat heavily upon him. From the day that his father s wain had entered the city amid the acclamations of the people, he had learned the value of power, and therefore, from his boyhood onward, power, always more power, was what he coveted. Also his peasant father had taught him that gold could buy power, and so Midas ever longed for more gold, that could buy him a place in the world that no descendant of a long race of kings should be able to contest. And from Olympus the gods looked down and smiled, and vowed that Midas should have the chance of realizing his heart s desire. Therefore one day when he and his court were sitting in the solemn state that Midas required, there rode into their midst, tipsily swaying on the back of a gentle full-fed old grey donkey, ivy-crowned, jovial and foolish, the satyr Silenus, guardian of the young god Bacchus. With all the deference due to the friend of a god Midas treated this disreputable old pedagogue, and for ten days and nights on end he feasted him royally. On the eleventh day Bacchus came in search of his preceptor, and in deep gratitude bade Midas demand of him what he would, because he had done Silenus honor when to dishonor him lay in his power. Not even for a moment did Midas ponder. I would have gold, he said hastily. Much gold. I would have that touch by which all common and valueless things become golden treasures. And Bacchus, knowing that here spoke the son of peasants who many times had gone empty to bed after a day of toilful striving on the rocky uplands of Phrygia, looked a little sadly in the eager face of Midas and answered: Be it as thou wilt. Thine shall be the golden touch. Then Bacchus and Silenus went away, a rout of singing revelers at their heels, and Midas quickly put to proof the words of Bacchus. An olive tree grew near where he stood, and from it he picked a little twig decked with leaves of softest grey, and lo, it grew heavy as he held it, and glittered like a piece of his crown. He stooped to touch the green turf on which some fragrant violets grew, and turf grew into cloth of gold, and violets lost their fragrance and became hard, solid, golden things. He touched an apple whose cheek grew rosy in the sun, and at once it became like the golden fruit in the Garden of the Hesperides. The stone pillars of his palace as he brushed past them on entering, blazed like a sunset sky. The gods had not deceived him. Midas had the Golden Touch. Joyously he strode into the palace and commanded a feast to be prepared a feast worthy of an occasion so magnificent. But when Midas, with the healthy appetite of the peasant-born, would have eaten hungrily of the savory food that his cooks prepared, he found that his teeth only touched roast kid to turn it into a slab of gold, that garlic lost its flavor and became gritty as he chewed, that rice turned into golden grains, and curdled milk became a dower fit for a princess, entirely unnegotiable for the digestion of man. Baffled and miserable, Midas seized his cup of wine, but the red wine had become one with the golden vessel that held it; nor could he quench his thirst, for even the limpid water from the fountain was melted gold when it touched his dry lips. Only for a very Page 323

11 few days was Midas able to bear the affliction of his wealth. There was nothing now for him to live for. He could buy the whole earth if he pleased, but even children shrank in terror from his touch, and hungry and thirsty and sick at heart he wearily dragged along his weighty robes of gold. Gold was power, he knew well, yet of what worth was gold while he starved? Gold could not buy him life and health and happiness. In despair, at length he cried to the god who had given him the gift that he hated. Save me, O Bacchus! he said. A witless one am I, and the folly of my desire has been my undoing. Take away from me the accursed Golden Touch, and faithfully and well shall I serve thee forever. Then Bacchus, very pitiful for him, told Midas to go to Sardis, the chief city of his worshipers, and to trace to its source the river upon which it was built. And in that pool, when he found it, he was to plunge his head, and so he would forevermore be freed from the Golden Touch. It was a long journey that Midas then took, and a weary and a starving man was he when at length he reached the spring where the river Pactolus had its source. He crawled forward and timidly plunged in his head and shoulders. Almost he expected to feel the harsh grit of golden water, but instead there was the joy he had known as a peasant boy when he washed his face and drank at a cool spring when his day s toil was ended. And when he raised his face from the pool, he knew that his hateful power had passed from him, but under the water he saw grains of gold glittering in the sand, and from that time forth the river Pactolus was noted for its gold. One lesson the peasant king had learnt by paying in suffering for a mistake, but there was yet more suffering in store for the tragic comedian. He had now no wish for golden riches, nor even for power. He wished to lead the simple life and to listen to the pipings of Pan along with the goatherds on the mountains or the wild creatures in the woods. Thus it befell that he was present one day at a contest between Pan and Apollo himself. It was a day of merry-making for nymphs and fauns and dryads, and all those who lived in the lonely solitudes of Phrygia came to listen to the music of the god who ruled them. For as Pan sat in the shade of a forest one night and piped on his reeds until the very shadows danced, and the water of the stream by which he sat leapt high over the mossy stones it passed and laughed aloud in its glee, the god had so gloried in his own power that he cried, Who speaks of Apollo and his lyre? Some of the gods may be well pleased with his music, and mayhap a bloodless man or two. But my music strikes to the heart of the earth itself. It stirs with rapture the very sap of the trees, and awakes to life and joy the innermost soul of all things mortal. Apollo heard his boast, and heard it angrily. Oh, thou whose soul is the soul of the untilled ground! he said, wouldst thou place thy music, that is like the wind in the reeds, beside my music, which is as the music of the spheres? And Pan, splashing with his goat s feet amongst the water lilies of the stream on the bank of which he sat, laughed loudly and cried, Yea, would I, Apollo! Willingly would I play thee a match thou on thy golden lyre I on my reeds from the river. Thus did it come to pass that Apollo and Pan matched against each other their music, Page 324

12 and King Midas was chosen to be one of the judges. First of all Pan took his fragile reeds, and as he played, the leaves on the trees shivered, the sleeping lilies raised their heads, and the birds ceased their song to listen and then flew straight to their mates. And all the beauty of the world grew more beautiful, and all its terror grew yet more grim, and still Pan piped on and laughed to see the nymphs and the fauns first dance in joyousness and then tremble in fear, and the buds to blossom, and the stags to bellow in their lordship of the hills. When he ceased, it was as though a tensely-drawn string had broken, and all the earth lay breathless and mute. And Pan turned proudly to the golden-haired god who had listened as he had spoken through the hearts of reeds to the hearts of men. Canst, then, make music like unto my music, Apollo? he said. Then Apollo, his purple robes barely hiding the perfection of his limbs, a wreath of laurel crowning his yellow curls, looked down at Pan from his godlike height and smiled in silence. For a moment his hand silently played over the golden strings of his lyre, and then his fingertips gently touched them. And every creature there who had a soul felt that that soul had wings, and the wings sped them straight to Olympus. Far away from all earth-bound creatures they flew, and dwelt in magnificent serenity amongst the Immortals. No longer was there strife, or any dispeace. No more was there fierce warring between the actual and the unknown. The green fields and thick woods had faded into nothingness, and their creatures, and the fair nymphs and dryads, and the wild fauns and centaurs longed and fought no more, and man had ceased to desire the impossible. Throbbing nature and passionately desiring life faded into dust before the melody that Apollo called forth, and when his strings had ceased to quiver and only the faintly remembered echo of his music remained, it was as though the earth had passed away and all things had become new. For the space of many seconds all was silence. Then, in low voice, Apollo asked, Ye who listen who is the victor? And earth and sea and sky, and all the creatures of earth and sky, and of the deep, replied as one, The victory is thine, Divine Apollo. Yet was there one dissentient voice. Midas, sorely puzzled, utterly ununderstanding, was relieved when the music of Apollo ceased. If only Pan would play again, he murmured to himself. I wish to live, and Pan s music gives me life. I love the woolly vine-buds and the fragrant pine-leaves, and the scent of the violets in the spring. The smell of the fresh-ploughed earth is dear to me, the breath of the kine that have grazed in the meadows of wild parsley and of asphodel. I want to drink red wine and to eat and love and fight and work and be joyous and sad, fierce and strong, and very weary, and to sleep the dead sleep of men who live only as weak mortals do. Therefore he raised his voice and called very loud: Pan s music is sweeter and truer and greater than the music of Apollo. Pan is the victor, and I, King Midas, give him the victor s crown! With scorn ineffable the sun-god turned upon Midas, his peasant s face transfigured by his proud decision. For a little the god Page 325

13 gazed at the mortal king in silence, and his look might have turned a sunbeam to an icicle. Then he spoke: The ears of a donkey have heard my music, he said. Henceforth shall Midas have donkey s ears. And when Midas, in terror, clapped his hands to his crisp black hair, he found growing far beyond it the long, pointed ears of a donkey. Perhaps what hurt him most, as he fled away, was the shout of merriment that came from Pan. And fauns and nymphs and satyrs echoed that shout most joyously. Willingly would he have hidden in the woods, but there he found no hiding place. The trees and shrubs and flowering things seemed to shake in cruel mockery. Back to his court he went and sent for the court hairdresser, that he might bribe him to devise a covering for these long, peaked, hairy symbols of his folly. Gladly the hairdresser produced for him helmets and scarves, accepting many and many coin oboli, many and many golden gifts in return, while all Phrygia wondered at the strange headdresses of the king. But although much gold had bought his silence, the court barber was unquiet of heart. All day and all through the night he was tormented by his weighty secret. And then, at length, silence was to him a torture too great to be borne. So he sought a lonely place, there dug a deep hole, and, kneeling by it, softly whispered to the damp earth: King Midas has donkey s ears. Greatly relieved, he hastened home and was well content until, on the spot where his secret lay buried, rushes grew up. And when the winds blew through them, the rushes whispered for all those who passed by to hear, King Midas has donkey s ears! King Midas has donkey s ears! Those who listen very carefully to what the green rushes in marshy places whisper as the wind passes through them, may hear the same thing to this day. And those who hear the whisper of the rushes may, perhaps, give a pitying thought to Midas the tragic comedian of mythology. Page 326

14 L e s s o n T h r e e H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s Is There an Echo in the Room? Narcissus and Echo, Placido Costanzi ( ), 18 th century Reading and Assignments Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: Echo and Narcissus. Narrate or illustrate the story of Echo and Narcissus. Be sure to put this in your notebook. Define the vocabulary words in the context of the reading and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook. Be sure to visit for additional resources. Page 327

15 Vocabulary nymph faun dryad errant frolic maim nimbus Key People, Places, and Events Echo Diana Hera Narcissus Adapted for Middle School from the book: A Book of Myths by Jean Lang Echo and Narcissus In the solitudes of the hills we find her, and yet we may come on her unawares in the din of a noisy city. She will answer us where the waves are lashing themselves against the rugged cliffs of the British coast, or we may find her where the great yellow pillars of fallen temples lie hot in the sun close to the vivid blue water of the African sea. At nightfall, on the lonely northern moors, she mimics the cry of a wailing bird that calls for its mate, but it is she who prolongs the roll of the great organ in a vast cathedral, she who repeats the rattle and crack and boom of the guns, no matter in what land the war may be raging. In the desolate Australian bush she makes the crash of the falling limb of a dead gum tree go on and on, and tortures the human being who is lost, hopelessly lost and facing a cruel death, by repeating his despairing calls for help. Through the night, in old country houses, she sports at will and gives new life to sad old tales of the restless dead who restlessly walk. But she echoes the children s voices as they play by the seashore or pick primroses in the woods in spring, and when they greet her with laughter, she laughs in merry response. They may fear her when the sun has gone down, and when they are left all alone they begin to dread her mockery. Yet the nymph who sought for love and failed to gain what she sought must surely find some comfort on those bright days of summer and of spring when she gives the little children happiness and they give her their love. When all the world was young, and nymphs and fauns and dryads dwelt in the forests, there was no nymph more lovely and more merry than she whose name was Echo. Diana would smile on her for her fleetness of foot when she followed her in the chase, and those whom she met in the leafy pathways of the dim, green woods, would pass on smiling at the remembrance of her merry chatter and her tricksy humor. It was an evil day for Echo when she crossed the path of Hera, queen of the gods. The jealous goddess sought her errant husband, who was amusing himself with some nymphs, and Echo, full of mischievous glee, kept her distracted with talk until the nymphs had fled to safety. Hera was furious indeed when she found Page 328

16 out that a frolicsome nymph had dared to play on her such a trick, and ruthlessly she spoke fair Echo s doom. Henceforth, she said, the tongue with which thou hast cheated me shall be in bonds. No longer wilt thou have the power to speak in greeting. To the tongues of others shall thy tongue be slave, and from this day until time shall cease thou shalt speak only to repeat the last words that have fallen on thine ears. A maimed nymph indeed was Echo then, yet whole in all that matters most, in that her merry heart was still her own. But only for a little while did this endure. Narcissus, the handsome son of a nymph and a river god, was hunting in a lonely forest one day when Echo saw him pass. To her he seemed more fair than god or man, and once she had seen him she knew that she must gain his love or die. From that day on, she haunted him like his shadow, gliding from tree to tree, nestling down amongst thick fern and undergrowth, motionless as one who stalks a wild thing, watching him afar off while he rested, gladdening her eyes with his beauty. So did she feed her hungering heart, and sought to find contentment by looking on his face each day. To her at length came a perfect moment when Narcissus was separated from his companions in the chase and, stopping suddenly where the evening sun checkered the pathway of the forest with black and gold, heard the nymph s soft footfall on the rustling leaves. Who s here? he called. Here! answered Echo. Narcissus, peering amongst the trees long shadows and seeing no one, called Come! And Come! replied the glad voice of Echo, while the nymph, with fast-beating heart, felt that her day of happiness had come indeed. Why do you shun me? then called Narcissus. Why do you shun me? Echo repeated. Let us join one another, said the lad, and the simple words seemed turned into song when Echo said them over. Let us join one another! she said, and not Eos herself, as with rosy fingers she turns aside the dark clouds of night, could be fairer than was the nymph as she pushed aside the leaves of the trackless wood, and ran forward with white arms outstretched to him who was lord of her life. Echo hunted Narcissus like his shadow. With cold eyes and colder heart the one she loved beheld her. Away! he cried, shrinking back as if Page 329

17 from something that he despised. Away! I would rather die than that you should have me! With cold eyes and colder heart the one she loved beheld her. Away! he cried, shrinking back as if from something that he despised. Away! I would rather die than that you should have me! Have me! cried Echo pitifully, but she pled in vain. Narcissus had no love to give her, and his scorn filled her with shame. Thenceforth in the forest revels she nevermore was seen, and the nymphs danced gaily as ever, with never a care for her who had faded and gone away as completely as though she were a blossom in the passing of spring. In the solitude of mountain cliffs and caves and rocky places, and in the loneliest depths of the forest, Echo hid her grief, and when the winds blew through the dark branches of the trees at night, moaning and sighing, they could hear far below them the voice of Echo repeating their lamentations. For her, long nights followed hopeless days, and nights and days only told her that her love was all in vain. Then came a night when the winds no longer saw the figure of the nymph, white and frail as a broken flower, crouching close to the rocks they passed over. Grief had slain the body of Echo. Only her voice was left to repeat their mocking laughter, their wistful sighs only her voice that lives on still though all the old gods are gone, and but few there are who know her story. Heartwhole and happy, Narcissus, slayer of happiness who gave his love to none, went on his way, and other nymphs besides fair Echo suffered from loving him in vain. One nymph, less gentle than Echo, poured the tale of her scorned love into the sympathetic ears of the goddess of Love, and implored her to punish Narcissus. Hot and tired from the chase, Narcissus sought one day a lonely pool in the woods, there to rest and to quench his thirst. In some delicious ramble, he had found A little space, with boughs all woven round; And in the midst of all, a clearer pool Than e er reflected in its pleasant cool The blue sky here, and there, serenely peeping Through tendril wreaths fantastically creeping. 1 As he stooped down to drink, a face looked at his through the crystal clear water, and a pair of beautiful eyes met his own. His surprise and joy at the sight of what he felt sure must be the most beautiful creature on earth, was evidently shared by the nymph of the pool, who gazed fearlessly up at him. Round her head she had a nimbus of curls than which that of Adonis nay, of the sun-god himself, was not more perfect, while her eyes were like the brown pools of water in a rippling mountain stream, flecked with sunshine, yet with depths untold. When Narcissus smiled at her in rapture, her red lips also parted in a smile. He stretched out his arms towards her, and her arms were stretched to him. Almost trembling in his delight, he slowly stooped to kiss her. Nearer she drew to him, nearer still, but when his mouth would have given itself to that other mouth that was formed like the bow of Eros a thing to slay hearts only the chilly water of the pool touched his Page 330

18 lips, and the thing of his delight vanished away. In passionate disappointment Narcissus waited for her to return, and as soon as the water of the pool grew still, once more he saw her exquisite face gazing wistfully up into his. Passionately he pled with the beautiful creature spoke of his love besought her to have pity on him, but although the face in the pool reflected his every look of adoration and of longing, time and again he vainly tried to clasp in his arms what was but the watery, mirrored likeness of himself. In full measure had the avenging goddess meted out to Narcissus the restless longing of unsatisfied love. By day and by night he haunted the forest pool, and ere long the face that looked back at his was pale as a lily in the dawn. When the moonbeams came straying down through the branches and all the night was still, they found him kneeling by the pool, and the white face that the water mirrored had the eyes of one of the things of the woods to which a huntsman has given a mortal wound. Mortally wounded he truly was, slain, like many another since his day, by a hopeless love for what was in truth but an image, and that an image of his own creation. Even when his shade passed across the dark Stygian river of death, it stooped over the side of the boat that it might try to catch a glimpse of the beloved one in the inky waters. Echo and the other nymphs were avenged, yet when they looked on the beautiful dead Narcissus, they were filled with sorrow, and when they filled the air with their lamentations, most piteously did the voice of Echo repeat each mournful cry. Even the gods were pitiful, and when the nymphs would have burned the body on a funeral pyre which their own fair hands had built for him, they sought it in vain. For the Olympians had turned Narcissus into a white flower, the flower that still bears his name and keeps his memory sweet. A lonely flower he spied, A meek and forlorn flower, with naught of pride, Drooping its beauty o er the watery clearness, To woo its own sad image into nearness; Deaf to light Zephyrus it would not move, But still would seem to droop, to pine, to love. 2 1, 2 from Keats, John, I Stood Tip-toe Upon a Little Hill. Page 331

19 L e s s o n F o u r H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s Writing Formed With Letters Idealized portrayal of Homer dating to the Hellenistic period. British Museum. Reading and Assignments Review the discussion questions then read the article: Greek Literature. Narrate about today s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration. Be sure to visit for additional resources. Key People, Places, and Events Aeschylus Homer The Iliad The Odyssey Sophocles Oedipus Rex Page 332 Euripides

20 Discussion Questions 1. Who was the most famous Athenian playwright? 2. Who was Homer? 3. How was Homer s poetry passed down to future generations? 4. What did the poet Hesiod write? What did that work contain? 5. What flourished during the age of Pericles? 6. Describe the Greek theaters? 7. How could a Greek actor play several roles in the same play? 8. What type of theater did the three most famous Greek playwrights write? 9. Describe the characteristics of a Greek tragedy? 10. What did Greek plays often poke fun at? Adapted for Middle School from the book: Ancient Civilizations source: ushistory.org Greek Literature Attendance at dramas was considered such a valuable experience that sometimes the government would pay for the tickets. Greek theaters were built into the sides of hills. This not only provided excellent seating arrangements, but remarkable acoustics as well. Thousands would come from far and wide to see the opening of the latest drama by Aeschylus, the most famous of Athenian playwrights. The citizens of Athens felt it was a part of their civic duty to attend as many dramas as possible. The dramas typically dealt with important issues of the day, posed tough questions, and educated theatergoers. Iliad, Theogony, and Poetry Among the earliest Greek literature were Homer s epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad is a detailed telling of the Trojan War while the Odyssey recounts Odysseus 20-year journey home following the Trojan War. Created as early as 900 B.C., Homer s poems were not written down since Greek civilization lacked a written language at that time. Instead, these massive poems were passed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. An Excerpt from the Iliad: The passage which follows is from Book XXII of the Iliad. It describes a scene from the Trojan War that occurs just before Page 333

21 Achilles, the Greek warrior, slays the Trojan hero, Hector: Old King Priam was the first to see Achilles rushing towards the Trojans over the fields. As Achilles ran, the bronze on his breast flashed out like the star that comes to us in autumn, outshining all its fellows in the evening sky they call it Orion s Dog, and though it is the brightest of all the stars it bodes no good, bringing much fever, as it does, to us poor wretches. The old man gave a groan. He lifted up his hands and beat his head with them. In a voice full of terror he shouted entreaties to his beloved son, who had taken his stand in front of the gates in the fixed resolve to fight it out with Achilles. Hector! the old man called, stretching out his arms to him in piteous appeal. I beg you, my dear son, not to stand up to that man alone and unsupported. You are courting defeat and death at his hands. He is far stronger than you, and he is savage. The dogs and vultures would soon be feeding on his corpse (and what a load would be lifted from my heart!) if the gods loved him as little as I do the man who has robbed me of so many splendid sons, killed them or sold them off as slaves to the distant isles. So come inside the walls, my child, to be the savior of Troy and the Trojans; and do not throw away your dear life to give a triumph to the son of Peleus. Have pity too on me, your poor father, who is still able to feel. As he came to an end, Priam plucked at his gray locks and tore the hair from his head; but he failed to shake Hector s resolution. And now his mother in her turn began to wail and weep. Hector, my child, she cried, deal with your enemy from within the walls and do not go out to meet that man in single combat. He is a savage; and you need not think that, if he kills you, I shall lay you on a bier and weep for you, my own, my darling boy; nor will your richly dowered wife; but far away from both of us, beside the Argive ships, you will be eaten by the nimble dogs. Translated by Reverend William T. McNiff, The Pageant of Literature: Greek and Roman Writers. Originally used in religious rituals, Greek masks became an essential part of every Greek performance. This is a replica of an Ancient Greek theatrical mask of Zeus, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution license by Carole Raddato Another poet, Hesiod, wrote the Theogony around 700 B.C. The Theogony is a genealogy of the gods. Some scholars credit Hesiod with being one of the first to actually write down his work. Around the same time of Hesiod, there was another growing group of writers known as the Lyric poets. One of the most famous of the Lyric poets was Sappho. Sappho wrote about the world. Page 334

22 festival celebrated the renewal of the grape vines. On stage, actors could play several roles by wearing different masks. A chorus of several people in the background chanted from time to time, serving as a kind of narrator and helping move the plot along. Immortalized on the walls of the Roman city, Pompeii, the Greek poet Sappho has been highly regarded for centuries. Some people consider Sappho to be the first modern poet. Rather than writing epic poetry of heroic deeds, she wrote short, very personal pieces about love and loss. The Age of Pericles The years between 461 and 429 B.C. marked The Age of Pericles. Named after an Athenian leader, arts and literature flourished in this era. Outdoor theaters were built in Athens and other city-states for performances of the latest dramas. Made of stone, the theaters were positioned so that scenes of natural beauty served as backdrops for the stage. For example, the Greek theater at Taormina in Sicily is built high upon a rocky hill. Behind the audience s back lay the blue waters of the Mediterranean Sea. Perfectly centered behind the stage and facing the audience, sits the active, smoldering volcano, Mount Etna. The Greeks held drama festivals in which plays competed against one another for the audience s favor. During these festivals, the Greeks performed the plays as a tribute to the gods. The first major drama festival of the spring in Athens honored Dionysus, the god of grapes and wine. This Tragic Literature All three of the most famous ancient Greek writers specialized in tragedies. Tragedy is a form of drama in which a strong central character or hero ultimately fails and is punished by the gods. Usually, the hero has a fatal flaw that causes his undoing. In Sophocles great play Oedipus Rex, Oedipus must solve the Sphinx s riddle in order to save the city of Thebes. For many years, Aeschylus ( B.C.) was the most successful dramatist in Athens winning several competitions. One of his rivals, the Athenian writer Sophocles ( B.C.), wrote the famous play Oedipus Rex, (Oedipus the King). In this play, the main character, Oedipus is fated by the gods to kill his father and marry his own mother. Despite Oedipus s efforts to avoid this outcome, it happens just as the gods Page 335

23 predicted. In shame, Oedipus blinds himself and is then banished. A third major writer named Euripides ( B.C.) focused more on people than gods in his writing. Among Euripides most famous works are Electra and The Trojan Women. An Excerpt from Medea by Euripides: In this tragic story, Medea has been deserted by her husband Jason, who has left to marry the daughter of King Creon. In revenge, Medea ultimately kills the two children she and Jason share and then herself. The chorus enters. The following lines between the Nurse, Chorus, and Medea are sung: Chorus Nurse Medea (from within) I heard the voice, uplifted loud, of our poor Colchian lady, nor yet is she quiet; speak, aged dame, for as I stood by the house with double gates I heard a voice of weeping from within, and I do grieve, lady, for the sorrows of this house, for it hath won my love. Tis a house no more; all that is passed away long since; a royal bride keeps Jason at her side, while our mistress pines away in her bower, finding no comfort for her soul in aught her friends can say. Oh, oh! Would that Heaven s levin bolt would cleave this head in twain! What gain is life to me? Woe, woe is me! O, to die and win release, quitting this loathed existence! Page 336 Chorus Medea (from within) Nurse Chorus Didst hear, O Zeus, thou earth, and thou, O light, the piteous note of woe the hapless wife is uttering? How shall a yearning for that insatiate resting-place ever hasten for thee, poor reckless one, the end that death alone can bring? Never pray for that. And if thy lord prefers a fresh love, be not angered with him for that; Zeus will judge twixt thee and him herein. Then mourn not for thy husband s loss too much, nor waste thyself away. Great Themis, and husband of Themis, behold what I am suffering now, though I did bind that accursed one, my husband, by strong oaths to me! O, to see him and his bride someday brought to utter destruction, they and their house with them, for that they presume to wrong me thus unprovoked. O my father, my country, that I have left to my shame, after slaying my own brother. Do ye hear her words, how loudly she adjures Themis, oft invoked, and Zeus, whom men regard as keeper of their oaths? On no mere trifle surely will our mistress spend her rage. Would that she would come forth for us to see, and listen to the words of counsel we might give, if haply she might lay aside the fierce fury of her

24 Nurse wrath, and her temper stern. Never be my zeal at any rate denied my friends! But go thou and bring her hither outside the house, and tell her this our friendly thought; haste thee ere she do some mischief to those inside the house, for this sorrow of hers is mounting high. This will I do; but I doubt whether I shall persuade my mistress; still willingly will I undertake this trouble for you; albeit, she glares upon her servants with the look of a lioness with cubs, whenso anyone draws nigh to speak to her. Wert thou to call the men of old time rude uncultured boors thou wouldst not err, seeing that they devised their hymns for festive occasions, for banquets, and to grace the board, a pleasure to catch the ear, shed o er our life, but no man hath found a way to allay hated grief by music and the minstrel s varied strain, whence arise slaughters and fell strokes of fate to o erthrow the homes of men. And yet this were surely a gain, to heal men s wounds by music s spell, but why tune they their idle song where rich banquets are spread? For of itself doth the rich banquet, set before them, afford to men delight. Chorus I heard a bitter cry of lamentation! loudly, bitterly she calls on the traitor of her marriage bed, her perfidious spouse; by grievous wrongs oppressed she invokes Themis, bride of Zeus, witness of oaths, who brought her unto Hellas, the land that fronts the strand of Asia, o er the sea by night through ocean s boundless gate. Translated by Reverend William T. McNiff, The Pageant of Literature: Greek and Roman Writers Another type of play was the comedy. The most significant writer of comedies in ancient Greece was Aristophanes, whose works included The Frogs and The Clouds. An Excerpt from The Frogs : Enter Dionysus on foot dressed in the skin of the Nemean Lion, and the club of Heracles in his hand, and Xanthias heavily laden on a donkey. Xanthias Master, should I tell one of those usual jokes which always make the audience laugh? Dionysus By Zeus, say what you want except I m hard pressed. Forget that one, it s really quite annoying. Xanthias Nothing else witty either? Dionysus Anything but What a strain! Xanthias What then? Can I say the really funny one? Page 337

25 Dionysus Of course, go right ahead but don t let me catch you saying this. Xanthias What s that? Dionysus That you must shift your pack to ease yourself. Xanthias Well, can t I say I ve got such a load on me, unless someone takes it off, I ll bust a gut? Dionysus Please don t, unless you wish to make me sick. Xanthias So why should I have to carry all this stuff, without doing any of the jokes that Phrynichus and Lycis and Ameipsias always make the baggagecarriers say in all their comedies? Dionysus Just don t. Since when I m in the theater and hear any of these stupid jokes, I go away just older by a year. Xanthias Alas, poor wretched me! My neck is really strained, but can t crack the joke. Dionysus Now is this not outrage and utter insolence, That I myself, Dionysus, son of Winejug, must walk, and let this fellow ride, so he might feel no pain and bear no burden? Xanthias What? I bear no burden? Dionysus How can you bear anything? You re riding. Xanthias Dionysus How so? Xanthias But I ve got all this! Most heavily! Dionysus The weight you carry isn t it carried by the donkey? Xanthias Absolutely not; not what I m holding and carrying. Dionysus How can you carry, for God s sake, when you yourself are carried by another? Xanthias I don t know, but my shoulder s sure hard pressed. Dionysus Well, since you say the donkey doesn t help. Suppose you take your turn and carry him. Xanthias Unhappy wretch! Why didn t I join the navy? Then I d tell you to whistle a different tune! Dionysus You scoundrel, get on down! Here s the door I m walking to, the first place I must stop. Ho, porter! porter there, I say. Translated by Reverend William T. McNiff, The Pageant of Literature: Greek and Roman Writers His plays were witty and sarcastic. More often than not, comedies poked fun and made light of the major political figures of the day. Fortunately, the government of Athens tolerated this style of criticism. Page 338

26 L e s s o n F i v e H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s Excellence Ruins of the theatre and of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Photographer Adam Carr, permission granted under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License Reading and Assignments Review the discussion questions then read the article: Greek Art and Architecture. Narrate about today s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration. Be sure to visit for additional resources. Discussion Questions 1. Reread the first paragraph of today s article. Do you agree? Why or why not? Give examples to back up your position. Page 339

27 2. What did Greek art often emphasize? 3. How did the government support the arts? 4. What was an acropolis and what was its purpose? 5. What is considered to be the finest example of Greek architecture? 6. Name the three types of columns found in Greek architecture? 7. How did the Greeks see the human body? 8. What is considered the most famous Greek statue? 9. What were two types of Greek pottery? 10. How do you think the Greek s art and architecture reveals the worldview of their society? Adapted for Middle School from the book: Ancient Civilizations source: ushistory.org Greek Art and Architecture One popular form of Greek art was pottery. Vases, vessels, and kraters served both practical and aesthetic purposes. This krater depicts Helios, the sun god, and dates from the 5 th century B.C. The arts reflect the society that creates them. Nowhere is this truer than in the case of the ancient Greeks. Through their temples, sculpture, and pottery, the Greeks incorporated a fundamental principle of their culture: arête. To the Greeks, arête meant excellence and reaching one s full potential. Ancient Greek art emphasized the importance and accomplishments of human beings. Even though much of Greek art was meant to honor the gods, those very gods were created in the image of humans. Much artwork was government sponsored and intended for public display. Therefore, art and architecture were a tremendous source of pride for citizens and could be found in various parts of the city. Typically, a city-state set aside a highaltitude portion of land for an acropolis, an important part of the city-state that was reserved for temples or palaces. The Greeks held religious ceremonies and festivals as well as significant political meetings on the acropolis. Greek Excellence: The Acropolis In ancient Athens, Pericles ordered the construction of several major temples on the acropolis. Among these was a temple, the Parthenon, which many consider the finest example of Greek architecture. Built as a tribute to Athena, the goddess of wisdom for whom the city-state Athens was named, the Parthenon is a marvel of design, featuring massive columns contrasting with subtle details. Page 340

28 The Parthenon was built in honor of the goddess Athena, who represented the human aspiration for knowledge and the ideal of wisdom. The Parthenon in Nashville's Centennial Park is a full-scale copy of the original Greek Parthenon. This photograph was released to Commons Wikimedia under the Creative Commons Attribution license by user Mayur Phadtare. Many barely noticeable enhancements to the design of the Parthenon contribute to its overall beauty and balance. For example, each column is slightly wider in the middle than at its base and top. The columns are also spaced closer together near the corners of the temple and farther apart toward the middle. In addition, the temple s steps curve somewhat lower on the sides and highest in the middle of each step. Three different types of columns can be found in ancient Greek architecture. Whether the Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian style was used depended on the region and the purpose of the structure being built. Sadly, time has not treated the Parthenon well. In the 17 th century, the Turks, who had conquered the Greeks, used the Parthenon to store ammunition. An accidental explosion left the Parthenon with no roof and in near ruin. In later years, tourists hauled away pieces of the Parthenon as vacation souvenirs. Beauty in the Human Form Ancient Greek sculptures were typically made of either stone or wood and very few of them survive to this day. Most Greek sculpture was of the freestanding, human form (even if the statue was of a god) and many sculptures were nudes. The Greeks saw beauty in the naked human body. Early Greek statues called kouros were rigid and stood up straight. Over time, Greek statuary adopted a more natural, relaxed pose with hips thrust to one side, knees and arms slightly bent, and the head turned to one side. Other sculptures depicted human action, especially athletics. A good example is Myron s Discus Thrower Another famous example is a sculpture of Artemis the huntress. The piece, called Diana of Versailles, depicts the goddess of the hunt reaching for an arrow while a stag leaps next to her. Among the most famous Greek statues is the Venus de Milo, which was created in the second century B.C. The sculptor is unknown, though many art historians believe Praxiteles to have created the piece. This sculpture embodies the Greek ideal of beauty. The ancient Greeks also painted, but very little of their work remains. The most enduring paintings were those found decorating ceramic pottery. Two major styles include red figure (against a black background) and black figure (against a red background) pottery. The pictures on the pottery often depicted heroic and tragic stories of gods and humans. Page 341

29 L e s s o n S i x H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s Serious Business Bust of Socrates. Marble, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BC. From the Quintili Villa on the Via Appia. Reading and Assignments Review the discussion questions then read the article: Greek Thinkers. Narrate about today s reading using the appropriate notebook page. Be sure to answer the discussion questions and include key people, events, and dates within the narration. Be sure to visit for additional resources. Page 342

30 Key People, Places, and Events Socrates Plato The Republic Aristotle Hippocrates Pythagoras Euclid Archimedes Discussion Questions 1. Of what did the prosecution accuse Socrates? 2. What made Socrates controversial? 3. What was Socrates goal in questioning everything? 4. Describe and name the teaching style of Socrates? 5. Name a famous student of Socrates. 6. Describe the contents of Plato s book, The Republic. 7. How did Plato envision society? Be specific. 8. What did Aristotle study and write about? What was his emphasis as opposed to that of his teacher? 9. Hippocrates is said to be the father of modern? 10. What did Pythagoras develop? 11. In what field did Euclid work? 12. What field did Archimedes develop? Adapted for Middle School from the book: Ancient Civilizations source: ushistory.org Greek Thinkers This painting, The Death of Socrates, by the 18 th - century artist Jacques-Louis David, portrays the famous story of Socrates death. Convicted of religious heresy and contamination of the youth, he was condemned to death by drinking hemlock after the people of Athens turned against him. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The citizens of Athens were fed up with the old wise man. Socrates, one of ancient Greece s most learned philosophers, found himself on trial for his teachings. The prosecution accused Socrates of corrupting the youth of Athens. A jury of hundreds found Socrates guilty and sentenced him to death. At the age of 70, Socrates willingly drank hemlock, a powerful poison that put an end to his controversial life. How did it happen that Athenians put to death a great philosopher such as Socrates? Throughout his entire life, Socrates questioned everything from Athenian government to Greek religion and the gods themselves. His ultimate goal was finding Page 343

31 the truth, which he believed could be reached through reason and knowledge. Socrates was a teacher, but he did not have a classroom, any books, or even a school. Instead, Socrates lectured publicly. Anyone interested in what he had to say was invited to listen. questioning and searching for the truth were seen as dangerous by many and ultimately led to his death. Plato s Republic Plato, a student of Socrates, also achieved greatness as a philosopher. Unlike Socrates, however, Plato chose to write his ideas down. In one of his most renowned works, The Republic, Plato outlined his vision of the ideal state. In the Renaissance artist Raphael s School of Athens, Plato (shown on the left) argues that one should search for truth from above, while his pupil Aristotle argues that answers can be found through observation on Earth. Socrates practiced a style of teaching that has since become known as the Socratic Method. Essentially, Socrates taught through questioning. He started with simple questions then progressed to more complex, deeper questions. Through the application of reason and logic, Socrates revealed answers to many questions that led to a greater understanding of the world. Problems arose because Socrates often questioned the very fundamentals and traditions of Greek society. His constant Greek philosophers were quite prolific and left behind many wonderful dialogues on life, morality, death, and religion. Surprisingly, Plato s ideal republic was not very democratic. Plato was greatly disturbed at the way the mass of Athenians had agreed to put to death his brilliant teacher and mentor, Socrates. Plato believed that uneducated people should not have the right to make important decisions for everyone. Instead, Plato envisioned a society with many classes in which each class contributed what it could. In his ideal society, farmers grew the food for the republic, soldiers defended the republic, and a class of intelligent, educated philosophers ruled the republic. Not Page 344