Let Us Dare to Read : The Adams Family on Equality Through Education

Transcription

1 Let Us Dare to Read : The Adams Family on Equality Through Education Teaching American History Workshop The Massachusetts Historical Society, 7 October 2010 Sara Georgini and Amanda Mathews The Adams Papers Note: All letters and transcriptions are from the Adams Family Papers at the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston. Full digital images can be found at the Adams Digital Collection (Adams Electronic Archive) at 1

2 Themes and Questions to Consider: 1. Education & knowledge are broad terms. What types of education and knowledge do the Adams family engage in and support? JA, Prat v. Colson, 1 Aug JA, Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law, 1765 JA to AA, 22 June 1774 JA to AA, 29 Oct JA to AA, post 12 May To what extent is Adams s vision of education available to all segments of society? What is the prevailing eighteenth-century philosophy of education for women, and how does AA challenge it? JA, Prat v. Colson, 1 Aug JA, Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law, 1765 AA to JA, 31 March 1776 AA to John Thaxter, 15 Feb JA, Report of a Constitution...for the Commonwealth..., 1779 JA to AA, post 12 May What is the government s role in education in terms of both its leaders and its policies? JA, Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law, 1765 JA, Diary, 10 March 1766 JA to James Warren, 17 July 1774 JA, Thoughts on Government, April 1776 JA to Continental Treasury Board, 19 Sept JA, Report of a Constitution...for the Commonwealth..., 1779 JA, Defence of the American Constitutions, vol. 3, 1788 JA to CA, 24 Feb What benefits arise out of an educated public? Why? Why do republics/free societies require an educated populace? JA, Prat v. Colson, 1 Aug JA, Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law, 1765 JA to James Warren, 17 July 1774 JA to AA, 26 Sept JA, Report of a Constitution...for the Commonwealth..., 1779 JA, Defence of the American Constitutions, vol 3, 1788 JA to Thomas McKean, 21 June

3 5. How did the Adamses approach notions of education and equality as a family? What sort of changes do we see between the experience of American education, for the revolutionary generation (JA) and that of his children (AA2, JQA, CA, TBA)? JA, Proposed regimen of reading, 21 July 1756 JA to AA, 28 Aug John Thaxter to JQA, 14 Aug JA to JQA, 2 April [i.e. 3 June] 1786 CA to JA, 17 Feb JQA, Diary, Day summary of August

4 ON EDUCATION, DEMOCRACY, AND EQUALITY JA in Prat v. Colson, 1 Aug. 1761, D/JA 1: [EXCERPT] Daniel Prat vs. Thos. Colson. This Action was brot by Plaintiff vs. Colson as Administrator, on the Estate of Mr. Bolter, for Non-Performance of a Covenant of Indenture. Prat was a poor, fatherless Child and his Mother Unable to provide for him, bound him an Apprentice to Mr. Bolter. He was then under 10 Years of Age, and so was bound for Eleven Years, and some odd Months. In Consideration of this very long and unusual Term of Apprenticeship his Master covenanted to teach him to read, write and Cypher, and to teach him the Trade of a Weaver. But we contend complain that he never taught us either to read, write or Cypher, or to weave. Call the Proof.... But he is to be favoured for Another Reason. Because the English Law greatly favours Education. In every English Country, some sort of Education, some Acquaintance with Letters, is necessary, that a Man may fill any station whatever. In the Countries of slavery, and Romish superstition, the Laity must not learn to read, least they should detect the gross Impostures of the Priesthood, and shake off the Yoke of Bondage. But in Protestant Countries and especially in England and its Colonies, Freedom of Enquiry is allowed to be not only the Priviledge but the Duty of every Individual. We know it to be our Duty, to read, examine and judge for ourselves, even of ourselves what is right. No Priest nor Pope has any Right to say what I shall believe, and I will not believe one Word they say, if I think it is not founded in Reason and in Revelation. Now how can I judge what My Bible justifies unless I can read my Bible. The English Constitution is founded, tis bottomed And grounded on the Knowledge and good sense of the People. The very Ground of our Liberties, is the freedom of Elections. Every Man has in Politicks as well as Religion, a Right to think and speak and Act for himself. No man either King or Subject, Clergyman or Layman has any Right to dictate to me the Person I shall choose for my Legislator and Ruler. I must judge for myself, but how can I judge, how can any Man judge, unless his Mind has been opened and enlarged by Reading. A Man who can read, will find in his Bible, in the common sermon Books that common People have by them and even in the Almanack and News Papers, Rules and observations, that will enlarge his Range of Thought, and enable him the better to judge who has and who has not that Integrity of Heart, and that Compass of Knowledge and Understanding, which form the Statesman. 4

5 Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law, 1765 PJA [EXCERPTS] Fragmentary Notes [May August 1765] Liberty, that has been compelled to skulk about in Corners of the Earth, and been everlastingly persecuted by the great, the rich, the noble, the Reverend, the proud, the Lasey, the Ambitious, avaricious, and Revengeful, who have from the beginning constituted almost all the sons of Adam. Liberty, that complication of real Honour, Piety, Virtue Dignity, and Glory, which has never been enjoyd, in its full Perfection, by more than ten or twelve Millions of Men at any Time, since the Creation, will reign in America, over hundreds and Thousands of Millions at a Time. In future ages, when the Bones and sinews that now direct this Pen, shall become indistinguishable from the rest of Mother Earth, and perhaps incorporate into some Plant or other Animal, Man shall make his true Figure, upon this Continent, He shall make that great and happy Figure among Intellectual and sensible reigns that his great Creator intended he should in other Countries before his Ruin was effected by the Lust of Tyrants. When science, Literature, Civility, Politeness, Humanity, [every?] Christian grace and Virtue shall be well understood by all Men, when a few one shall not be able to deceive a Thousand and two because 10,000 of their Souls and Bodies then will be the Aera of human Happiness. Knowledge monopolized, or in the Possession of a few, is a Curse to Mankind. We should dispense it among all Ranks. We should educate our children. Equality should be preserved in knowledge. Property monopolized or in the Possession of a few is a Curse to Mankind. We should preserve not an Absolute Equality. this is unnecessary, but preserve all from extreme Poverty, and all others from extravagant Riches. No. 1 [Monday, 12 August 1765] IGNORANCE and inconsideration are the two great causes of the ruin of mankind. This is an observation of Dr. Tillotson, with relation to the interest of his fellow-men, in a future and immortal state: But it is of equal truth and importance, if applied to the happiness of men in society, on this side the grave. In the earliest ages of the world, absolute monarchy seems to have been the universal form of government. Kings, and a few of their great counsellors and captains, exercised a cruel tyranny over the people who held a rank in the scale of intelligence, in those days, but little higher than the camels and elephants, that carried them and their engines to war. BY what causes it was bro t to pass, that the people in the middle ages, became more intelligent in general, would not perhaps be possible in these days to discover: But the fact is certain; and wherever a general knowledge and sensibility have prevail d among the people, arbitrary government, and every kind of oppression, have lessened and disappeared in proportion. Man has certainly an exalted soul! and the same principle in humane nature, that aspiring noble principle, founded in benevolence, and cherished by knowledge, I mean the love of power, which has been so often the cause of slavery, has, whenever freedom has existed, been the cause of freedom. If it is this principle, that has always prompted the princes and nobles of the earth, by every species of fraud and violence, to shake off, all the limitations of their power; 5

6 it is the same that has always stimulated the common people to aspire at independency, and to endeavor at confining the power of the great within the limits of equity and reason. THE poor people, it is true, have been much less successful than the great. They have seldom found either leisure or opportunity to form an union and exert their strength ignorant as they were of arts and letters, they have seldom been able to frame and support a regular opposition. This, however, has been known, by the great, to be the temper of mankind, and they have accordingly laboured, in all ages, to wrest from the populace, as they are contemptuously called, the knowledge of their rights and wrongs, and the power to assert the former or redress the latter. I say RIGHTS, for such they have, undoubtedly, antecedent to all earthly government Rights that cannot be repealed or restrained by human laws Rights derived from the great legislator of the universe... No. 3 [Monday, 30 September 1765] They [the Puritan founders of Massachusetts] were convinced by their knowledge of human nature derived from history and their own experience, that nothing could preserve their posterity from the encroachments of the two systems of tyranny, in opposition to which, as has been observed already, they erected their government in church and state, but knowledge diffused generally thro the whole body of the people. Their civil and religious principles, therefore, conspired to prompt them to use every measure, and take every precaution in their power, to propagate and perpetuate knowledge. For this purpose they laid, very early the foundations of colleges, and invested them with ample priviledges and emoluments; and it is remarkable, that they have left among their posterity, so universal an affection and veneration for those seminaries, and for liberal education, that the meanest of the people contribute chearfully to the support and maintenance of them every year, and that nothing is more generally popular than projections for the honour, reputation and advantage of those seats of learning. But the wisdom and benevolence of our fathers rested not here. They made an early provision by law, that every town consisting of so many families, should be always furnished with a grammar school. They made it a crime for such a town to be destitute of a grammar school master, for a few months, and subjected it to an heavy penalty. So that the education of all ranks of people was made the care and expence of the public in a manner, that I believe has been unknown to any other people ancient or modern. The consequences of these establishments we see and feel every day. A native of America who cannot read and write is as rare an appearance, as a Jacobite or a Roman Catholic, i. e. as rare as a Comet or an Earthquake. It has been observed, that we are all of us, lawyers, divines, politicians and philosophers. And I have good authorities to say that all candid foreigners who have passed thro this country, and conversed freely with all sorts of people here, will allow, that they have never seen so much knowledge and civility among the common people in any part of the world. It is true, there has been among us a party for some years, consisting chiefly not of the descendants of the first settlers of this country but of high churchmen and high statesmen, imported since, who affect to censure this provision for the education of our youth as a needless expence, and an imposition upon the rich in favour of the poor and as an institution productive of idleness and vain speculation among the people, whose time and attention it is said ought to be devoted to labour, and not to public affairs or to examination into the conduct of their superiours. And certain officers of the crown, and certain other missionaries of ignorance, foppery, servility and slavery, have been most inclined to countenance and increase the same party. Be it remembred, however, that liberty must at all hazards be supported. We have a right 6

7 to it, derived from our Maker. But if we had not, our fathers have earned, and bought it for us, at the expence of their ease, their estates, their pleasure, and their blood. And liberty cannot be preserved without a general knowledge among the people, who have a right from the frame of their nature, to knowledge, as their great Creator who does nothing in vain, has given them understandings, and a desire to know but besides this they have a right, an indisputable, unalienable, indefeasible divine right to that most dreaded, and envied kind of knowledge, I mean of the characters and conduct of their rulers. Rulers are no more than attorneys, agents and trustees for the people; and if the cause, the interest and trust is insidiously betray d, or wantonly trifled away, the people have a right to revoke the authority, that they themselves have deputed, and to constitute abler and better agents, attorneys and trustees. And the preservation of the means of knowledge, among the lowest ranks, is of more importance to the public, than all the property of all the rich men in the country. It is even of more consequence to the rich themselves, and to their posterity. The only question is whether it is a public emolument? and if it is, the rich ought undoubtedly to contribute in the same proportion, as to all other public burdens, i. e. in proportion to their wealth which is secured by public expences. But none of the means of information are more sacred, or have been cherished with more tenderness and care by the settlers of America, than the Press. Care has been taken, that the art of printing should be encouraged, and that it should be easy and cheap and safe for any person to communicate his thoughts to the public. And you, Messieurs Printers, whatever the tyrants of the earth may say of your paper, have done important service to your country, by your readiness and freedom in publishing the speculations of the curious. The stale, impudent insinuations of slander and sedition, with which the gormandizers of power have endeavor d to discredit your paper, are so much the more to your honour; for the jaws of power are always opened to devour, and her arm is always stretched out if possible to destroy, the freedom of thinking, speaking and writing. And if the public interest, liberty and happiness have been in danger, from the ambition or avarice of any great man or number of great men, whatever may be their politeness, address, learning, ingenuity and in other respects integrity and humanity, you have done yourselves honour and your country service, by publishing and pointing out that avarice and ambition... No. 4 [Monday, 21 October 1765] Let us presume, what is in fact true, that the spirit of liberty, is as ardent as ever among the body of the nation, though a few individuals may be corrupted. Let us take it for granted, that the same great spirit, which once gave Caesar so warm a reception; which denounced hostilities against John till Magna Charta was signed; which severed the head of Charles the first from his body, and drove James the second from his kingdom; the same great spirit (may heaven preserve it till the earth shall be no more) which first seated the great grand father of his present most gracious Majesty, on the throne of Britain, is still alive and active and warm in England; and that the same spirit in America, instead of provoking the inhabitants of that country, will endear us to them for ever and secure their good will. This spirit however without knowledge, would be little better than a brutal rage. Let us tenderly and kindly cherish, therefore the means of knowledge. Let us dare to read, think, speak and write. Let every order and degree among the people rouse their attention and animate their resolution. Let them all become attentive to the grounds and principles of government, ecclesiastical and civil. Let us study the law of nature; search into the spirit of the British constitution; read the histories of ancient ages; contemplate the great examples of Greece and Rome; set before us, the conduct of our own British ancestors, who have defended for us, the 7

8 inherent rights of mankind, against foreign and domestic tyrants and usurpers, against arbitrary kings and cruel priests, in short against the gates of earth and hell. Let us read and recollect and impress upon our souls, the views and ends, of our own more immediate forefathers, in exchanging their native country for a dreary, inhospitable wilderness. Let us examine into the nature of that power and the cruelty of that oppression which drove them from their homes. Recollect their amazing fortitude, their bitter sufferings! The hunger, the nakedness, the cold, which they patiently endured! The severe labours of clearing their grounds, building their houses, raising their provisions amidst dangers from wild beasts and savage men, before they had time or money or materials for commerce! Recollect the civil and religious principles and hopes and expectations, which constantly supported and carried them through all hardships, and patience and resignation! Let us recollect it was liberty! The hope of liberty for themselves and us and ours, which conquered all discouragements, dangers and trials! In such researches as these let us all in our several departments chearfully engage! But especially the proper patrons and supporters of law, learning and religion. Let the pulpit resound with the doctrines and sentiments of religious liberty. Let us hear the danger of thraldom to our consciences, from ignorance, extream poverty and dependance, in short from civil and political slavery. Let us see delineated before us, the true map of man. Let us hear the dignity of his nature, and the noble rank he holds among the works of God! that consenting to slavery is a sacriligious breach of trust, as offensive in the sight of God, as it is derogatory from our own honor or interest or happiness; and that God almighty has promulgated from heaven, liberty, peace, and good-will to man! Let the Bar proclaim, the laws, the rights, the generous plan of power, delivered down from remote antiquity; inform the world of {p. 127} the mighty struggles, and numberless sacrifices, made by our ancestors, in defence of freedom. Let it be known, that British liberties are not the grants of princes or parliaments, but original rights, conditions of original contracts, coequal with prerogative and coeval with government. That many of our rights are inherent and essential, agreed on as maxims and establish d as preliminaries, even before a parliament existed. Let them search for the foundations of British laws and government in the frame of human nature, in the constitution of the intellectual and moral world. There let us see, that truth, liberty, justice and benevolence, are its everlasting basis; and if these could be removed, the superstructure is overthrown of course. Let the colleges join their harmony, in the same delightful concern. Let every declamation turn upon the beauty of liberty and virtue, and the deformity, turpitude and malignity of slavery and vice. Let the public disputations become researches into the grounds and nature and ends of government, and the means of preserving the good and demolishing the evil. Let the dialogues and all the exercises, become the instruments of impressing on the tender mind, and of spreading and distributing, far and wide, the ideas of right and the sensations of freedom. In a word, let every sluice of knowledge be open d and set a flowing. The encroachments upon liberty, in the reigns of the first James and the first Charles, by turning the general attention of learned men to government, are said to have produced the greatest number of consummate statesmen, which has ever been seen in any age, or nation. Your Clarendons, Southamptons, Seldens, Hampdens, Faulklands, Sidneys, Locks, Harringtons, are all said to have owed their eminence in political knowledge, to the tyrannies of those reigns. The prospect, now before us, in America, ought in the same manner to engage the attention of every man of learning to matters of power and of right, that we may be neither led nor driven blindfolded to irretrievable 8

9 destruction. Nothing less than this seems to have been meditated for us, by somebody or other in Great-Britain. There seems to be a direct and formal design on foot, to enslave all America. This however must be done by degrees. The first step that is intended seems to be an entire subversion of the whole system of our Fathers, by an introduction of the cannon and feudal law, into America But it seems very manifest from the S p A-t itself, that a design is form d to strip us in a great measure of the means of knowledge, by loading the Press, the Colleges, and even an Almanack and a News-Paper, with restraints and duties; and to introduce the inequalities and dependances of the feudal system, by taking from the poorer sort of people all their little subsistance, and conferring it on a set of stamp officers, distributors and their deputies. But I must proceed no further at present. The sequel, whenever I shall find health and leisure to pursue it, will be a disquisition of the policy of the stamp act. In the mean time however let me add, These are not the vapours of a melancholly mind, nor the effusions of envy, disappointed ambition, nor of a spirit of opposition to government: but the emanations of an heart that burns, for its country s welfare. No one of any feeling, born and educated in this once happy country, can consider the numerous distresses, the gross indignities, the barbarous ignorance, the haughty usurpations, that we have reason to fear are meditating for ourselves, our children, our neighbours, in short for all our countrymen and all their posterity, without the utmost agonies of heart, and many tears. JA, Diary, 10 March 1766, D/JA 1:304 [EXCERPT] I find the late Choice has brought upon me, a Multiplicity of new Cares. The Schools are one great Object of my Attention. It is a Thing of some difficulty to find out the best, most beneficial Method of expending the school Money. Captn. Adams says that each Parishes Proportion of the School Money, has not been settled, since my fathers day. Thos. Faxon says, it would be more profitable to the Children, to have a Number of Womens Schools about than to have a fixed Grammar School. Q. Whether he has not a Desire that his Wife should keep one? Jonathan Bass says the same. Q. his Wife is a School Mistress. So that two Points of Examination occur the Proportion between the Parishes, i.e. the Sum which this Parish ought to have, and whether a standing Grammar school is preferable to a Number of school Mistresses Part of the Year and a Grammar School Part. JA to James Warren, 17 July 1774, PJA 2:109 [EXCERPT] Dear Sir Braintree July Among many other agreable Things, which occurr d to me on my Return from my eastern Circuit, I found your Letter of the fourteenth Instant. Your Sentiments always inspire and animate me,: but never more upon any occasion, than on this. I believe, with you that the Confidence of the People in the Congress, is So great, that they will Support its Decisions, as far as possible. And indeed, It may well be expected, that many Men of Sound Judgment, will be of that Assembly.... You presume the greater Part of the Number will be Masters in Politicks ; Prophets replete, with the true Spirit of Prophecy! I hope it will be so. But I must Say I am not one of those Masters. I must be a scholar. I feel my own insufficiency for this important Business. I 9

10 confess myself ignorant of the Characters which compose the Court of great Britain, as well as of the People who compose the Nation. At least I have not that minute and accurate Knowledge of Either, which an American Senator ought to have of both. I have not that Knowledge of the Commerce of the several Colonies, nor even of my own Province which may be necessary. In Short, as comprehensive Knowledge of Arts and Sciences, especially of Law and History, of Geography, Commerce, War and of Life, is necessary for an American Statesman, at this Time as was ever necessary for a British, or a Roman Senator, or a British or Roman General. Our New England Educations, are quite unequal to the Production of Such great Characters. Yours, John Adams JA, Thoughts on Government, April 1776, PJA 4:91 [EXCERPTS] If I was equal to the task of forming a plan for the government of a colony, I should be flattered with your request, and very happy to comply with it; because as the divine science of politicks is the science of social happiness, and the blessings of society depend entirely on the constitutions of government, which are generally institutions that last for many generations, there can be no employment more agreeable to a benevolent mind, than a research after the best.... We ought to consider, what is the end of government, before we determine which is the best form. Upon this point all speculative politicians will agree, that the happiness of society is the end of government, as all Divines and moral Philosophers will agree that the happiness of the individual is the end of man. From this principle it will follow, that the form of government, which communicates ease, comfort, security, or in one word happiness to the greatest number of persons, and in the greatest degree, is the best.... A man must be indifferent to the sneers of modern Englishmen to mention in their company the names of Sidney, Harrington, Locke, Milton, Nedham, Neville, Burnet, and Hoadley. No small fortitude is necessary to confess that one has read them. The wretched condition of this country, however, for ten or fifteen years past, has frequently reminded me of their principles and reasonings. They will convince any candid mind, that there is no good government but what is Republican. That the only valuable part of the British constitution is so; because the very definition of a Republic, is an Empire of Laws, and not of men. That, as a Republic is the best of governments, so that particular arrangement of the powers of society, or in other words that form of government, which is best contrived to secure an impartial and exact execution of the laws, is the best of Republics. Of Republics, there is an inexhaustable variety, because the possible combinations of the powers of society, are capable of innumerable variations. As good government, is an empire of laws, how shall your laws be made? Laws for the liberal education of youth, especially of the lower class of people, are so extremely wise and useful, that to a humane and generous mind, no expence for this purpose would be thought extravagant.... You and I, my dear Friend, have been sent into life, at a time when the greatest lawgivers of antiquity would have wished to have lived. How few of the human race have ever 10

11 enjoyed an opportunity of making an election of government more than of air, soil, or climate, for themselves or their children. When! Before the present epocha, had three millions of people full power and a fair opportunity to form and establish the wisest and happiest government that human wisdom can contrive? I hope you will avail yourself and your country of that extensive learning and indefatigable industry which you possess, to assist her in the formations of the happiest governments, and the best character of a great People... 11

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14 JA to AA, 29 Oct. 1775, AFC 1: [TRANSCRIPTION] [Philadelphia], 29 October, 1775 Human nature with all its infirmities and depravation is still capable of great things. It is capable of attaining to degrees of wisdom and of goodness, which, we have reason to believe, appear respectable in the estimation of superior intelligences. Education makes a greater difference between man and man, than nature has made between man and brute. The virtues and powers to which men may be trained, by early education and constant discipline, are truly sublime and astonishing. Newton and Locke are examples of the deep sagacity which may be acquired by long habits of thinking and study. Nay, your common mechanics and artisans are proofs of the wonderful dexterity acquired by use; a watchmaker, in finishing his wheels and springs, a pin or needlemaker, &c. I think there is a particular occupation in Europe, which is called a paper-stainer or linen-stainer. A man who has been long habituated to it, shall sit for a whole day, and draw upon paper fresh figures to be imprinted upon the papers for rooms, as fast as his eye can roll, and his fingers move, and no two of his draughts shall be alike. The Saracens, the Knights of Malta, the army and navy in the service of the English republic, among many others, are instances to show, to what an exalted height valor or bravery or courage may be raised, by artificial means. It should be your care, therefore, and mine, to elevate the minds of our children and exalt their courage; to accelerate and animate their industry and activity; to excite in them an habitual contempt of meanness, abhorrence of injustice and inhumanity, and an ambition to excel in every capacity, faculty, and virtue. If we suffer their minds to grovel and creep in infancy, they will grovel all their lives. But their bodies must be hardened, as well as their souls exalted. Without strength and activity and vigor of body, the brightest mental excellencies will be eclipsed and obscured. JA to Continental Treasury Board, 19 Sept. 1779, PJA 8: [EXCERPT] The Honourable Board will also see, in this Account of mine, several Articles for Books. I found myself in France, ill versed in the Language, the Literature, the Science, the Laws, Customs and Manners of that Country, and had the Mortification to find my Colleagues, very little better informed than myself, vain as this may seem. I found also that Dr. Franklin, Mr. Deane and Mr. Lee, had expended considerable sums for Books, and this appeared to me, one of the most necessary, and Usefull Ways in which Money had ever been Spent in that Country. I therefore did not hesitate to expend the small sums, mentioned in this Account in this Way, in the Purchase of such a Collection of Books, as were calculated to qualify me for Conversation and for Business, especially the science of Negotiation. Accordingly the Books are a Collection, of Books concerning the french Language and Criticism, concerning french History, Laws, Customs and Manners, but àbove all a large Collection of Books on the public Right of Europe, and the Letters and Memoirs of those Ambassadors and public Ministers who had acquired the fairest Fame and done the greatest services to their Countries in this Way. The Honourable Board will judge whether this is a reasonable Expence and whether it ought, or ought not to be deducted from the Allowance. I shall not be dissatisfied if it is. submit to their Judgment with entire Satisfaction. 14

15 JA, Report of a Constitution or Form of Government for the Commonwealth..., 1779 [EXCERPTS] A Constitution or Form of Government for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. PREAMBLE THE end of the institution, maintenance and administration of government, is to secure the existence of the body-politic; to protect it; and to furnish the individuals who compose it, with the power of enjoying, in safety and tranquility, their natural rights, and the blessings of life: And whenever these great objects are not obtained, the people have a right to alter the government, and to take measures necessary for their safety, happiness and prosperity. The body politic is formed by a voluntary association of individuals: It is a social compact, by which the whole people covenants with each citizen, and each citizen with the whole people, that all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good. It is the duty of the people, therefore, in framing a Constitution of Government, to provide for an equitable mode of making laws, as well as for an impartial interpretation; and a faithful execution of them, that every man may, at all times, find his security in them. We, therefore, the delegates of the people of Massachusetts, in general Convention assembled, for the express and sole purpose of framing a Constitution or Form of Government, to be laid before our Constituents, according to their instructions, acknowledging, with grateful hearts, the goodness of the Great Legislator of the Universe, in affording to this people, in the course of His providence, an opportunity of entering into an original, explicit, and solemn compact with each other, deliberately and peaceably, without fraud, violence, or surprize; and of forming a new Constitution of Civil Government, for themselves and their posterity; and devoutly imploring His direction in a design so interesting to them and their posterity, DO, by virtue of the authority vested in us, by our constituents, agree upon the following Declaration of Rights, and Frame of Government, as the CONSTITUTION of the COMMONWEALTH of Massachusetts.... CHAPTER I. A DECLARATION of the RIGHTS of the Inhabitants of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. XVII. The people have a right to the freedom of speaking, writing and publishing their sentiments: The liberty of the press therefore ought not to be restrained.... CHAPTER VI. SECTION II. The Encouragement of Literature, &c. Wisdom, and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties; and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advantages of education in the various parts of the country, and among the different orders of the people, it shall be the duty of legislators and magistrates, in all future periods of this Commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature and the sciences, and all seminaries of them; especially the university at Cambridge, public schools, and grammar 15

16 schools in the towns; to encourage private societies and public institutions, rewards and immunities, for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and a natural history of the country; to countenance and inculcate the principles of humanity and general benevolence, public and private charity, industry and frugality, honesty and punctuality in their dealings, sincerity, good humour, and all social affections, and generous sentiments among the people. JA to AA, post 12 May 1780, AFC 3:342 [EXCERPT] I could fill Volumes with Descriptions of Temples and Palaces, Paintings, Sculptures, Tapestry, Porcelaine, &c. &c. &c. if I could have time. But I could not do this without neglecting my duty. The Science of Government it is my Duty to study, more than all other Sciences: the Art of Legislation and Administration and Negotiation, ought to take Place, indeed to exclude in a manner all other Arts. I must study Politicks and War that my sons may have liberty to study Mathematicks and Philosophy. My sons ought to study Mathematicks and Philosophy, Geography, natural History, Naval Architecture, navigation, Commerce and Agriculture, in order to give their Children a right to study Painting, Poetry, Musick, Architecture, Statuary, Tapestry and Porcelaine. JA to James Warren, 21 March 1783, PJA 14:354 [EXCERPT] It is our Business to render our Country an Asylum, worthy to recieve all who may wish to fly to it. This can only be done, by rendering the Minds of the People really independent By guarding them against the Introduction of Luxury & Effeminacy By watching over the Education of Youth By keeping out Vices and cultivating Virtues By improving our Militia, and by forming a Navy. These alone can Compose a Rock of Defence Without these, Alliances will be a Snare. With them, We may have what Alliances We please, and none but such as We chuse. JA, Defence of the American Constitutions, 1788, Vol. 3, Works 6:168 [EXCERPT] The instruction of the people, in every kind of knowledge that can be of use to them in the practice of their moral duties, as men, citizens, and Christians, and of their political and civil duties, as members of society and freemen, ought to be the care of the public, and of all who have any share in the conduct of its affairs, in a manner that never yet has been practised in any age or nation. The education here intended is not merely that of the children of the rich and noble, but of every rank and class of people, down to the lowest and the poorest. It is not too much to say, that schools for the education of all should be placed at convenient distances, and maintained at the public expense. The revenues of the state would be applied infinitely better, more charitably, wisely, usefully, and therefore politically, in this way, than even in maintaining the poor. This would be the best way of preventing the existence of the poor. If nations should ever be wise, instead of erecting thousands of useless offices, or engaging in unmeaning wars, they will make a fundamental maxim of this, that no human being shall grow up in ignorance. In proportion as this is done, tyranny will disappear, kings and nobles will be made to feel their equitable equality with commoners, and commoners will see their interest and duty to respect the guardians of the laws; for guardians they must have as long as human nature endures. 16

17 ON EDUCATION, FAMILY, AND EQUALITY JA, Proposed regimen of reading, 21 July 1756, D/JA 1:35 Kept School. I am now entering on another Year, and I am resolved not to neglect my Time as I did last Year. I am resolved to rise with the Sun and to study the Scriptures, on Thurdsday, Fryday, Saturday, and Sunday mornings, and to study some Latin author the other 3 mornings. Noons and Nights I intend to read English Authors. This is my fixt Determination, and I will set down every neglect and every compliance with this Resolution. May I blush whenever I suffer one hour to pass unimproved. I will rouse up my mind, and fix my Attention. I will stand collected within my self and think upon what I read and what I see. I will strive with all my soul to be something more than Persons who have had less Advantages than myself. JA to AA, On education and virtue, 22 June 1774, AFC 1:82 [EXCERPT] I ought however, to be candid enough to acknowledge that I have been imprudent. I have spent an Estate in Books. I have spent a Sum of Money indiscreetly in a Lighter, another in a Pew, and a much greater in an House in Boston. These would have been Indiscretions, if the Impeachment of the Judges, the Boston Port Bill, &c. &c. had never happened; but by the unfortunate Interruption of my Business from these Causes, these Indiscretions become almost fatal to me, to be sure much more detrimental. John Lowell, at Newbury Port, has built him an House, like the Palace of a Nobleman and lives in great Splendor. His Business is very profitable. In short every Lawyer who [has] the least Appearance of Abilities makes it do in the Co[untry.] In Town, nobody does, or ever can, who Either is not obstinately determined never to have any Connection with Politicks or does not engage on the Side of the Government, the Administration and the Court. Let us therefore my dear Partner, from that Affection which we feel for our lovely Babes, apply ourselves by every Way, we can, to the Cultivation of our Farm. Let Frugality, And Industry, be our Virtues, if they are not of any others. And above all Cares of this Life let our ardent Anxiety be, to mould the Minds and Manners of our Children. Let us teach them not only to do virtuously but to excell. To excell they must be taught to be steady, active, and industrious. JA to AA, On teaching the children, 28 Aug. 1774, AFC 1:145 [EXCERPTS] Remember my tender Love to my little Nabby. Tell her she must write me a Letter and inclose it in the next you send. I am charmed with your Amusement with our little Johnny. Tell him I am glad to hear he is so good a Boy as to read to his Mamma, for her Entertainment, and to keep himself out of the Company of rude Children. Tell him I hope to hear a good Account of his Accidence and Nomenclature, when I return. Kiss my little Charley and Tommy for me. Tell them I shall be at Home by November, but how much sooner I know not. Your Account of the Rain refreshed me. I hope our Husbandry is prudently and industriously managed. Frugality must be our Support. Our Expences, in this Journey, will be very great our only Reward will be the consolatory Reflection that We toil, spend our Time, and tempt Dangers for the public Good happy indeed, if we do any good! The Education of our Children is never out of my Mind. Train them to Virtue, habituate them to industry, activity, and Spirit. Make them consider every Vice, as shamefull and unmanly: 17

18 fire them with Ambition to be usefull make them disdain to be destitute of any usefull, or ornamental Knowledge or Accomplishment. Fix their Ambition upon great and solid Objects, and their Contempt upon little, frivolous, and useless ones. It is Time, my dear, for you to begin to teach them French. Every Decency, Grace, and Honesty should be inculcated upon them. JA to AA, On the uses of education, 26 Sept. 1775, AFC 1:189 [EXCERPT] I have seen the Utility of Geometry, Geography, and the Art of drawing so much of late, that I must intreat you, my dear, to teach the Elements of those Sciences to my little Girl and Boys. It is as pretty an Amusement, as Dancing or Skaiting, or Fencing, after they {p. 286} have once acquired a Taste for them. No doubt you are well qualified for a school Mistress in these Studies, for Stephen Collins tells me the English Gentleman, in Company with him, when he visited Braintree, pronounced you the most accomplished Lady, he had seen since he left England. You see a Quaker can flatter, but dont you be proud. My best Wishes and most fervent Prayers attend our little Family. I have been banished from them, the greatest Part of the last Eighteen Months but I hope to be with them more, in Time to come. I hope to be excused from attending at Philadelphia, after the Expiration of the Year. I hope that Dr. Winthrop, Mr. Sever, Mr. Greenleaf, Coll. Warren, Mr. Hawley, Mr. Gerry, some or all of them will take their Turns, in the States and suffer me, at least to share with my Family, a little more than I have done, the Pleasures and Pains of this Life, and that I may attend a little more to my private Affairs that I may not be involved in total Ruin, unless my Country should be so and then I should choose to share its Fate. 18

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22 AA to JA, Remember the Ladies, 31 March 1776, AFC 1: [TRANSCRIPTION] Braintree March I wish you would ever write me a Letter half as long as I write you; and tell me if you may where your Fleet are gone? What sort of Defence Virginia can make against our common Enemy? Whether it is so situated as to make an able Defence? Are not the Gentery Lords and the common people vassals, are they not like the uncivilized Natives Brittain represents us to be? I hope their Riffel Men who have shewen themselves very savage and even Blood thirsty; are not a specimen of the Generality of the people. I am willing to allow the Colony great merrit for having produced a Washington but they have been shamefully duped by a Dunmore. I have sometimes been ready to think that the passion for Liberty cannot be Eaquelly Strong in the Breasts of those who have been accustomed to deprive their fellow Creatures of theirs. Of this I am certain that it is not founded upon that generous and christian principal of doing to others as we would that others should do unto us. Do not you want to see Boston; I am fearfull of the small pox, or I should have been in before this time. I got Mr. Crane to go to our House and see what state it was in. I find it has been occupied by one of the Doctors of a Regiment, very dirty, but no other damage has been done to it. The few things which were left in it are all gone. Cranch [Crane?] has the key which he never deliverd up. I have wrote to him for it and am determined to get it cleand as soon as possible and shut it up. I look upon it a new acquisition of property, a property which one month ago I did not value at a single Shilling, and could with pleasure have seen it in flames. The Town in General is left in a better state than we expected, more oweing to a percipitate flight than any Regard to the inhabitants, tho some individuals discoverd a sense of honour and justice and have left the rent of the Houses in which they were, for the owners and the furniture unhurt, or if damaged sufficent to make it good. Others have committed abominable Ravages. The Mansion House of your President [John Hancock] is safe and the furniture unhurt whilst both the House and Furniture of the Solisiter General [Samuel Quincy] have fallen a prey to their own merciless party. Surely the very Fiends feel a Reverential awe for Virtue and patriotism, whilst they Detest the paricide and traitor. I feel very differently at the approach of spring to what I did a month ago. We knew not then whether we could plant or sow with safety, whether when we had toild we could reap the fruits of our own industery, whether we could rest in our own Cottages, or whether we should not be driven from the sea coasts to seek shelter in the wilderness, but now we feel as if we might sit under our own vine and eat the good of the land. I feel a gaieti de Coar to which before I was a stranger. I think the Sun looks brighter, the Birds sing more melodiously, and Nature puts on a more chearfull countanance. We feel a temporary peace, and the poor fugitives are returning to their deserted habitations. Tho we felicitate ourselves, we sympathize with those who are trembling least the Lot of Boston should be theirs. But they cannot be in similar circumstances unless pusilanimity and cowardise should take possession of them. They have time and warning given them to see the Evil and shun it. I long to hear that you have declared an independancy and by the way in the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If perticuliar care and attention is not paid to the Laidies we are determined to foment 22

23 a Rebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation. That your Sex are Naturally Tyrannical is a Truth so thoroughly established as to admit of no dispute, but such of you as wish to be happy willingly give up the harsh title of Master for the more tender and endearing one of Friend. Why then, not put it out of the power of the vicious and the Lawless to use us with cruelty and indignity with impunity. Men of Sense in all Ages abhor those customs which treat us only as the vassals of your Sex. Regard us then as Beings placed by providence under your protection and in immitation of the Supreem Being make use of that power only for our happiness. April 5 Not having an opportunity of sending this I shall add a few lines more; tho not with a heart so gay. I have been attending the sick chamber of our Neighbour Trot whose affliction I most sensibly feel but cannot discribe, striped of two lovely children in one week. Gorge the Eldest died on wednesday and Billy the youngest on fryday, with the Canker fever, a terible disorder so much like the thr[o]at distemper, that it differs but little from it. Betsy Cranch has been very bad, but upon the recovery. Becky Peck they do not expect will live out the day. Many grown person[s] are now sick with it, in this [street?] 5. It rages much in other Towns. The Mumps too are very frequent. Isaac is now confined with it. Our own little flock are yet well. My Heart trembles with anxiety for them. God preserve them. I want to hear much oftener from you than I do. March 8 was the last date of any that I have yet had. You inquire of whether I am making Salt peter. I have not yet attempted it, but after Soap making believe I shall make the experiment. I find as much as I can do to manufacture cloathing for my family which would else be Naked. I know of but one person in this part of the Town who has made any, that is Mr. Tertias Bass as he is calld who has got very near an hundred weight which has been found to be very good. I have heard of some others in the other parishes. Mr. Reed of Weymouth has been applied to, to go to Andover to the mills which are now at work, and has gone. I have lately seen a small Manuscrip de[s]cribing the proportions for the various sorts of powder, fit for cannon, small arms and pistols. If it would be of any Service your way I will get it transcribed and send it to you. Every one of your Friend[s] send their Regards, and all the little ones. Your Brothers youngest child lies bad with convulsion fitts. Adieu. I need not say how much I am Your ever faithfull Friend. AA to John Thaxter, On female education, 15 Feb. 1778, AFC 2:316 [EXCERPT] It is really mortifying Sir, when a woman possessd of a common share of understanding considers the difference of Education between the male and female Sex, even in those families where Education is attended too. Every assistance and advantage which can be procured is afforded to the sons, whilst the daughters are totally neglected in point of Literature. Writing and Arithmetick comprise all their Learning. Why should children of the same parents be thus distinguished? Why should the Females who have a part to act upon the great Theater, and a part not less important to Society, (as the care of a family and the first instruction of Children falls to their share, and if as we are told that first impressions are most durable), is it not of great importance that those who are to instill the first principals should be suiteably qualified for the Trust, Especially when we consider that families compose communities, and individuals make up the sum total. Nay why should your sex wish for such a disparity in those whom they one day intend for companions and associates. Pardon me Sir if I cannot help sometimes 23

24 suspecting that this Neglect {p. 392} arises in some measure from an ungenerous jealosy of rivals near the Throne but I quit the Subject or it will run away with my pen. John Thaxter to John Quincy Adams (JQA), On education abroad, 14 Aug [EXCERPT] Hague 14th August 1782 My dear Jack Yours of 22d ulto. arrived a few days agone. I acknowledge myself much in Arrears, tho' I have by no means forgotten you. For three Months past I have been miserably tormented with the Tertian Ague, and have been a more useless being than common. However I hope the Game is nearly up at present. I had no Idea that your Climate was so bad but you must remember that this has been an uncommon Season throughout Europe. At this Moment I am writing by a good Fire. I have had one for many days past both on account of my Indisposition and the cold. Curious Dog-Days these. We have incessant Winds and Rains: When they will end I know not. Patience, Patience. You tell me you are home-sick. I can easily conceive of it, and that you are very anxious about your future Education. A young Gentleman of your studious, thoughtful turn of mind cannot be otherwise than anxious considering the disadvantage of Education in your City. This Sentiment does you much honour, and shews that you put a just Value on Time. But you must not consider your Boreal Tour as lost Time. It was an Opportunity few young Gentlemen enjoy, and you travelled with a Gentleman from whose Observations and Instructions you must have derived great Advantage. When you return to our dear Country, you will be in a Situation to make Comparisons, and run your Parallels between the Advantages of the old and new World. If your European Travels have produced the same Effects upon you that mine have upon me, You are much more attached to your own Country than when you left it. I have seen much in mine that I hope will never be transplanted into America. We have Vices enough in our own Country without aping or adopting those of the old World: However there are many valuable things in Europe which I wish to see in America. Many Improvements in Mechanism, but few in Government or Laws. Such however is the unfortunate Condition of human Nature, that in attempting to acquire what is good and valuable from other Countries, We open a Communication to all their vices and Defects that is, we are quite as apt to adopt the latter as the former, and perhaps rather more. But I must not be uncharitable. JA to JQA, On college life and education, 2 April [i.e. 3 June] 1786, AFC 7:81 London April 2. [i.e. 3 June] 1786 My dear son Dr Gordon brought me your Letter of the 2d. of April, which gave me, great Pleasure. In order to get acquainted with the other {p. 212} Classes enquire who are the most remarkable Scholars in each, and drop in upon them frankly, make them a visit in a Leisure hour at their Chambers, and fall into Conversation. Ask them about their Tutors manner of teaching. Observe what Books lie upon their Tables, ask Questions about the Towns they were born in, the Schools they were fitted in. Ask them about the late War, what good officers belonged to their Town. Who is the Minister and who the Representative and who the Justices or Judges that live there. What Brigade or Regiment of Militia it is in? &c Or fall into Questions of Literature, Science, or what you will. 24

25 Dr Williams writes me, handsomely of You. Minute down Questions to ask him, modestly. He has Sent a Volume of the Transactions of the society of Arts and sciences to sir Joseph Banks, but not one of my Friends has thought of sending me one. I long for one. One should always be a Year or two beforehand with ones affairs, if possible. Pray, do you think of any Place, or office in which to study Law? A Year will soon be round. Or shall I come home and take you into my office? Or are you so disgusted with our Greek Breakfasts at the Hague, and our Euclid suppers at Auteuil as to prefer another Praeceptor? Take care of your Health. The smell of a Midnight lamp is very unwholesome. Never defraud yourself of your sleep, nor of your Walk. You need not now be in a hurry. Your Books shall be sent you as soon as possible, but the Trade is so little with Boston and the less the better, that it will be I fear Several Months before I can send them. Love to Charles and Thomas. Your affectionate Father John Adams Charles Adams (CA) to JA, On libraries, 17 Feb. 1794, AFC 10:24 [EXCERPT] My dear Father New York Feb 17th 1794 I have duly received your letters up to the first of this month and am grateful for your kindness towards me your extracts from Heineccius and your remarks. About three years ago I read this author. I cannot find him in this City our public library is very badly selected in my opinion although it has the effect of all public libraries that is to make individuals careless of collecting books.the great Doctrine is that All men are born free and equal that is to say in a State of Nature they may be. and this is the distinction you have made but how any man of reflection can hold up the idea as it relates to a state of Society is wonderful It is certainly not true that they are born free and equal If it is said they are equally born or that they ought to be born free there may be some plausibility in the pretence JA to CA, On equality and democracy, 24 Feb. 1794, AFC 10:27-29 Dear Charles Philadelphia Feb As the genuine Equality of human Nature is the true Principle of all our Rights and Duties to one another: and the false Notions of Equality the source of much folly and Wickedness: and the undefined and indeterminate Ideas of it, the Cause of much Nonsense and confusion, it is of great Importance to assertain, what it does mean, and what it does not mean. It really means little more than that We are all of the same Species: made by the same God: possessed of Minds and Bodies alike in Essence: having all the same Reason, Passions, Affections and appetites. All Men are Men and not Beasts: Men and not Birds: Men and not Fishes. The Infant in the Womb is a Man, and not a Lyon. The Idiot even is a Man and not an Eagle The Dwarf himself is a Man and not a Whale. The blind are Men, and not Insects, the deaf are Men and not reptiles, the dumb are Men and not Trees. All these are Men and not Angells: Men and not Vegetables &c. The difficulty of inventing a definition of Man has been seen by all Learned Men and there is Scarcely a Satisfactory one to be found to this day. A defªnition which shall comprehend those Particulars which constitute the Equality in question and no more, and no less, is not easily hit upon. 25

26 The Equality of Nature is a moral Equality only: an Equality of Rights and Obligations; nothing more. The Physical Inequalities among Men in a State of Nature are inªnite. I recollect not, my Charles, whether you even accompanied me to the Hospital of the Enfans-trouvees at Paris. There have I seen in one room ªfty Children every one of whom was under three days old, all lying neatly dressed and lodged in seperate beds or Cradles in Rows.1 In this little Congregation, you might observe all the Inequalities of Health, Strength, Beauty, Joy, sorrow, Gaiety, Horror and despair that you can discern in a populous City. In every School and every Colledge you may see the Same Difference. The Physical Inequalities, in a State of Nature, are so obvious so determinate and so unalterable, that no Man is absurd enough to deny them. These Inequalities are rights. The healthy Infant has as clear a natural right to his healthy Constitution, as the Sickly one has to his inªrm Constitution. The Strong Child has as Sound a natural Right to his Strength, as the Weak one to his frailty. The active Babe has the Same natural Right to his Activity, as the Sluggish one to his Sloth. The mental vigour of one is as undoubtedly his right as the imbeility of the other. The handsome Infant has the Same right to its beauty as the Ugly one to its deformity. A pleasant temper is as natural to one, as a sour disposition to the other. These Physical Inequalities, lay the foundation for Inequalities of Wealth Power Inºuence and Importance, throughout human Life. Laws and Government have neither the Power nor the Right to change them. In what Sense, Charles, can a Child, in a State of Nature be Said to be born equal to its Mother Its Body is not equal Its Mind is not equal. It is in the Power of the Mother. She has the Power of Life and death over it. she has Authority too over it, she has Wisdom, Power and Goodness, which give her a natural Authority to govern it. The Truth is not difªcult to be understood by any Man, who sincerely Searches for it in this Instance. The natural Equality is moral only and not Physical: and in no Way affects the Question concerning forms of Government any farther than to determine that to be the best which but Secures the Equality of Rights, not that which attempts to destroy Physical Inequalities or any of their Consequences in society, upon Property Reputation or Power. Society may institute and establish any Inequalities except of Rights, which it judges necessary to Secure the Laws. Government of no kind can be instituted without great Inequalities. Not even the Simplest democracy. for the Moment the assembly meets, a few will Start forth more Eloquent more Wise, and more brave than the rest and acquire a superiour Inºuence Reputation & Power. Hereditary Monarchies and Hereditary Senates, may be instituted by any Nation which knows them to be essential to the preservation of their equal Rights; and even these Kings and Nobles are still upon a moral Level with their meanest subjects. I throw out these broken hints, Charles only to put you upon thinking and reading. I am your anxious Father John Adams 26

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28 JQA, Diary, Day summary of August 1815 [TRANSCRIPTION] Day. I rise with sufficient regularity between five, and half-past six O Clock. Rouse my son George, and hear him read five Chapters in the French Bible; I hold the Latin bible to compare them while he reads; and then read one Chapter of the French to him, while he holds the Latin. The object is to improve his knowledge and pronunciation of the language. I then write my Jounal of the preceding day or any thing more urgent, until nine. I then receive the Newspapers and often Letters. About ten we breakfast; from which time until half past four, I write, or arrange my papers or receive visitors, we are not troubled with many of them. Two or three times a week I have hitherto been obliged to go into London, when I seldom can get from home before two O Clock, and seldom return before seven. On those days we dine little before eight, and have scarcely any Evening. When I do not go to town, I walk an hour and a half before dinner with George, and dine at six. We take a second short walk of half an hour, after dinner. Sometimes on the neighbouring roads and sometimes in our own Gardens. These walks however will cease with the Summer. When in town, I sometimes pay a few visits but am usually chained down by business at the Office in Charles Street. George, alternately translates one day from English into Latin, and the next from Latin (Cicero s second Philippic) into English. I correct his exercises every morning after breakfast. He also studies Greek, by himself and Italian with Pio. Barberi gives him three times a week lessons of writing and of fencing. 28

29 ADAMS FAMILY BIOGRAPHIES JOHN ADAMS was born in the North Precinct of Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts, on 19 October 1735, the eldest son of John and Susanna (Boylston) Adams (after the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1752, Adams considered his birthday to be 30 October). He graduated from Harvard College in 1755 and for the next two years taught school and studied law under the direction of James Putnam in Worcester, Massachusetts. He returned to Braintree to launch his law practice and married Abigail Smith of Weymouth on 25 October For several years the Adamses moved their household between Braintree and Boston as warranted by John's successful law practice and the demands of the circuit court system. Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., defended the British soldiers charged in the Boston Massacre Trials, successfully winning acquittals for seven of the defendants and reduced sentences of manslaughter for the remaining two. From 1774 to 1777 Adams served in the Continental Congress. He passionately urged independence for the colonies, and in 1776 the "Atlas of Independence" was appointed to the committee to draft a declaration of independence. His copy of Thomas Jefferson's draft of the Declaration of Independence is the earliest known draft in existence. Appointed by Congress a joint commissioner (with Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee) to France, John Adams sailed from Boston with his son John Quincy in February In the summer of 1779, father and son returned to Massachusetts where Adams was elected to represent Braintree at the convention to frame a state constitution. The Constitution of 1780, drafted by John Adams, is the oldest written constitution in the world still in effect. The following year, Congress elected Adams to negotiate treaties of peace and commerce with Great Britain; he consequently returned to Europe in November 1779, accompanied by his two eldest sons, John Quincy and Charles. Additional commissions soon followed: one to negotiate a Dutch loan and another to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce with the Netherlands. Adams was also elected a joint commissioner (with Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and Thomas Jefferson) to treat for peace with Great Britain. Seventeen eighty-two was a banner year for John Adams he secured recognition of the United States in the Netherlands, contracted the first of four loans from Amsterdam bankers to provide crucial financial aid for the United States, and signed a treaty of amity and commerce with the Netherlands. In September 1783, after nearly a year of negotiation, Adams and his fellow commissioners signed the Definitive Peace Treaty with Great Britain. From 1785 to 1788 John Adams served as the first American minister to the Court of St. James's in London. After eight years abroad in France, the Netherlands, and Great Britain, where Abigail had joined him in 1784 Adams returned to the United States. Soon after his return home, Adams began a new stint of service in elective office vicepresident under George Washington for eight years and, in 1796, president. The successful transfer of power from the nation's first president to its second took place on 4 March Nonetheless, Adams's presidency was fraught with difficulties: the Quasi War with France, the XYZ Affair, and the Alien and Sedition Acts of American political parties were just taking shape, but Adams was not a party man. He maintained the same cabinet officers appointed by his predecessor, and they continued to look to Washington and Federalist party leader Alexander Hamilton for direction instead of to Adams, compounding his problems. Adams defied his cabinet, and much of the Federalist party, to conclude peace with France. Toward the end of Adams's presidency the seat of government was transferred from Philadelphia to Washington, D.C., and he and Abigail became the first presidential couple to live in the Executive Mansion, later called the White House. Adams was not reelected to a second term. In 1801 Thomas Jefferson succeeded him as president. Party politics and a strong difference of opinion over national interests divided Adams and Jefferson and temporarily alienated these two men, despite the close friendship they had formed in Europe in the 1780s. John Adams retired from public life to his farm in Quincy. He died on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, 4 July

30 ABIGAIL SMITH ADAMS was born 11 November 1744 (observed on 22 November after the calendar revision of 1752), in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to the Reverend William and Elizabeth (Quincy) Smith. She had no formal schooling, but her education included reading works by William Shakespeare, John Milton, and Alexander Pope. On 25 October 1764, she married John Adams. John Adams's protracted absences from home (first while traveling the court circuits and later while at the Continental Congress and on diplomatic assignments abroad) often left Abigail with the children to raise, a farm to manage, the household and tenants to supervise, and extended family and friends to care for all while the Revolution in Boston unfolded on her doorstep. The letters she exchanged with John and other family members reveal her cares and worries, her frank opinions and advice, and give an extraordinary view of everyday life in 18th-century New England. In 1784, Adams and her daughter Abigail joined John and son John Quincy in Europe. Abigail's record of her month-long voyage from Boston to England, along with two shorter journals she kept while in England and on her return voyage to America in 1788, are printed in The Adams Papers' Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, volume 3. During the 12 years of John Adams's vice-presidency and presidency, Abigail moved between their home in Quincy and the national capitol in New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., successively. Again, the burden of their household and personal affairs fell on her capable shoulders. She was also responsible for raising nieces and grandchildren entrusted to her care. Among her notable correspondents were Thomas Jefferson, James Lovell, Benjamin Rush, and Mercy Otis Warren. Abigail Adams died 28 October 1818, at home in Quincy. ABIGAIL ADAMS SMITH, the oldest child of John and Abigail (Smith) Adams, was born 14 July At the age of 18, Abigail traveled abroad with her mother, where she met and married (12 June 1786) Col. William Stephens Smith of New York, secretary to the U.S. Legation in London. Smith had served in the Continental Army during the Revolution and had been an aide to George Washington. The colonel's poor judgment in business matters, especially land speculation, placed their household under severe financial restraints following the couple's return to New York in Although she survived a mastectomy in October 1811, Abigail died of cancer in August 1813 at her parents' home in Quincy. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, the second child and eldest son of John and Abigail (Smith) Adams, was born 11 July As a young boy Adams accompanied his father on his diplomatic missions to Europe. He attended school at a private academy outside Paris, the Latin School of Amsterdam, and Leyden University. The years he spent in St. Petersburg as private secretary and interpreter to Francis Dana, U.S. minister to Russia. In 1785 Adams returned to the United States to continue his formal education. He graduated from Harvard College in 1787, studied law for three years with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts, and then practiced law in Boston. Adams's own diplomatic career began in 1794 when President Washington appointed him minister to the Netherlands. Immediately following Adams's arrival, French armies occupied the country. On 26 July 1797, in London, John Quincy Adams married Louisa Catherine Johnson, daughter of the U.S. consul. Appointed minister plenipotentiary to Berlin in 1797, he was recalled by his father after the elder Adams's defeat in the presidential election of Adams served one year in the Massachusetts State Senate and in April 1803 was appointed to fill an unexpired seat in the U.S. Senate. His independent actions in the Senate, namely support for the Louisiana Purchase and the Embargo of 1807, quickly alienated him from the Federalist party in Massachusetts. When the state legislature, dominated by Federalists, prematurely named Adams's successor in the Senate (six months before his term was to expire), Adams immediately resigned. 30

31 Commissioned minister plenipotentiary to Russia in 1809, Adams, his wife, and their youngest son Charles Francis spent five years in St. Petersburg. Adams was in a unique position to report Napoleon's march across Europe and fatal attempt to conquer Russia. Within months of the United States' declaration of war against Great Britain in 1812, John Quincy Adams was involved in efforts to bring about a peace first through Russian mediation and later as a negotiator at Ghent in The Adamses' stay in Europe was extended when John Quincy was appointed minister plenipotentiary to Great Britain in Their two older sons, George Washington and John, joined the family in England. John Quincy Adams made his eighth and final voyage across the Atlantic in 1817 when he returned home to become secretary of state in the Monroe administration. Significant among his many accomplishments in that position are the negotiation of the Transcontinental Treaty of 1819 with Spain, the completion of his authoritative Report on Weights and Measures (1821), and the development of the Monroe Doctrine (1823). Adams enjoyed less success in his one term as president. Although he ran second to Andrew Jackson in the 1824 election, the U.S. House of Representatives chose him president when the electoral college failed to give any candidate a majority vote. He struggled as a minority president and received little support for an ambitious program of national improvements, which included federal support for the arts and sciences, creation of a Department of the Interior, and development of a system of roads and canals. Although defeated for reelection in 1828 by rival Andrew Jackson, Adams soon returned to national politics as the representative from Massachusetts' Plymouth district. He served in Congress from 1831 to He became an increasingly vocal opponent of slavery and its expansion opposing the annexation of Texas and war with Mexico, championing the freedom of petition in defiance of the congressional gag rule, and defending the Amistad captives before the Supreme Court. On 21 February 1848, Adams collapsed at his seat in the House and was carried to the Speaker's Room in the Capitol, where he died on 23 February. Adams's voluminous correspondence, both personal and public, can be found in the Adams Papers, along with the Diary that he kept for 68 years (from November 1779, when he was 12, to December 1847, just a few months before he died), and his many literary endeavors. LOUISA CATHERINE JOHNSON ADAMS, the wife of John Quincy Adams, was born in London on 12 February 1775, the second daughter of Joshua Johnson of Maryland and Catherine Nuth Johnson. Her father represented the Maryland firm of Wallace, Davidson, and Johnson in London. From 1778 to 1783, while England and France were at war, the Johnson family lived in Nantes, France, and Louisa and her older sister boarded at a convent school for several years. Following the peace the Johnson family returned to London where Joshua Johnson served as the first U.S. consul ( ). Louisa and John Quincy Adams became engaged in 1796 when the latter, then U.S. minister to the Netherlands, was in London for the ratification of Jay's Treaty. They married in that city on 26 July 1797, in the parish church of All Hallows Barking. Louisa accompanied her husband on his diplomatic assignments to Berlin ( ), St. Petersburg ( ), and London ( ). When John Quincy's career called the couple to Washington the Adamses lived at first ( ) with Louisa's family, who had settled there following the collapse of Joshua Johnson's London business in During their later residence at the capitol the Adamses' social life was particularly demanding. Louisa hosted weekly receptions at their home on F Street when John Quincy Adams was secretary of state and presided as first lady at dinners and levees in the White House. Louisa stayed on at the F Street residence following John Quincy's death in She suffered a stroke the following year and died on 15 May Of particular note in the Adams Papers are Louisa Catherine Adams's autobiographical writings ("Adventures of a Nobody," "Record of a Life, or My Story," "Narrative of a Journey from Russia to France, 1815") and her journal letters to her in-laws, John and Abigail Adams. 31

32 CHARLES ADAMS was born 29 May 1770, the second son of John and Abigail (Smith) Adams. At the age of nine he traveled with his father and older brother to Europe, studied briefly in Passy, Amsterdam, and Leyden, and in December 1781 returned to America unaccompanied by family members. After graduating from Harvard in 1789, Adams studied law and established his practice in New York. On 29 August 1795, he married Sarah Smith, the sister of his brother-in-law, William Stephens Smith. He died in New York 1 December THOMAS BOYLSTON ADAMS, third son and youngest child of John and Abigail (Smith) Adams, was born 15 September He graduated from Harvard in 1790 and studied law in Philadelphia. He accompanied his brother John Quincy on his first diplomatic mission to Europe as secretary in 1794, returned in 1798, and practiced law and contributed to Joseph Dennie's Port Folio in Philadelphia for some years thereafter. In 1805 he married Ann Harrod of Haverhill and settled in Quincy, which he represented in the Massachusetts legislature, In 1811 he was appointed chief justice of the circuit court of common pleas for the southern circuit of Massachusetts. Thomas Boylston Adams died on 13 March 1832, in Quincy. 32

33 ADAMS FAMILY TIMELINE, A more comprehensive timeline may be found at October (30 October by the Gregorian calendar). John Adams born in North Precinct of Braintree, Mass. (later Quincy) Enlarge/Details 11 November (22 November by the Gregorian calendar). Abigail Smith born in Weymouth, Mass. Enlarge/Details 1751 John Adams attends Harvard College. Graduates in July August. John Adams begins teaching grammar school in Worcester, Mass August. John Adams begins his study of the law in James Putnam's office in Worcester November. John Adams admitted to Suffolk County Bar John Adams admitted as a barrister before the Superior Court of Judicature June July. John Adams publishes his first known newspaper pieces, signed "Humphrey Ploughjogger" and "U," in the Boston Evening Post and Boston Gazette October. John Adams and Abigail Smith marry in Weymouth July. John and Abigail Adams's first child, Abigail 2d, is born. August October. John Adams publishes "Dissertation on the Canon and the Feudal Law" in the Boston Gazette. September. John Adams prepares Braintree Instructions denouncing the Stamp Act. 33

34 July. John Quincy Adams born December. Susanna Adams born. She lived only until 4 February January. John Adams begins serving as clerk of Suffolk County Bar Association. 29 May. Charles Adams born. June. John Adams elected Boston representative to the General Court. October November. John Adams represents the British soldiers in the Boston Massacre Trials September. Thomas Boylston Adams born September October. John Adams is a Massachusetts delegate to the first Continental Congress in Philadelphia January April. John Adams publishes "Novanglus" essays in the Boston Gazette. 12 February. Louisa Catherine Johnson born in London. May July, September December. John Adams attends the second Continental Congress. On 15 June, he proposes George Washington as commander in chief. 17 June. Abigail and John Quincy Adams watch the Battle of Bunker Hill from Penn's Hill in Braintree. July. John Adams elected to the Massachusetts Council; serves until April October. John Adams appointed chief justice of Massachusetts. He never served and resigned on 10 February February October. John Adams attends the Continental Congress. March April. John Adams writes Thoughts on Government. 31 March. Abigail Adams writes John, asking him to "Remember the Ladies" in planning the new government. 13 June. John Adams appointed president of the Board of War. June July. John Adams serves on the committee to draft a declaration of independence and gives the principal speech in favor of the resolution for independence. The resolution was adopted 2 July. Read Adams's comments about 2 July June September. John Adams drafts the "Plan of Treaties," America's first blueprint for its foreign relations. 34

35 1777 January November. John Adams attends the Continental Congress. 11 July. Abigail Adams gives birth to a stillborn daughter, Elizabeth. 27 November. John Adams elected by Congress a joint commissioner to France with Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee February 1 April. John and John Quincy Adams sail on board the frigate Boston for France. On 8 April, they arrive at Paris and soon take up residence with Benjamin Franklin at Passy. 8 May. John Adams's first audience with Louis XVI. 11 February. John Adams learns that the joint commission is superseded by Benjamin Franklin's appointment as minister to France. 17 June 3 August. John and John Quincy Adams sail from Lorient to Boston on board the French frigate La Sensible Enlarge/Details August. John Adams proposes founding the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; it is incorporated in September October. John Adams drafts the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780, adopted on 25 October September. John Adams appointed to negotiate treaties of peace and commerce with Great Britain. 15 November. John, John Quincy, and Charles Adams sail for France on La Sensible. 8 December. A leak forces La Sensible to put into El Ferrol, Spain. The Adamses travel across northern Spain to France, arriving in Paris on 9 February

36 April 14 July. John Adams composes A Translation of the Memorial to the Sovereigns of Europe... into Common Sense and Intelligible English. It is published in Amsterdam in November and in London in January June. Congress commissions John Adams to raise a loan in the Netherlands. July. John Adams writes what becomes known as "Letters from a Distinguished American"; they are published in London in July 10 August. John, John Quincy, and Charles Adams travel from Paris to Amsterdam October. John Adams writes 26 letters to Hendrik Calkoen in an effort to explain the origins, progress, and nature of the American Revolution to the Dutch people. 29 December. John Adams commissioned by Congress to conclude a commercial treaty with the Netherlands January. John Quincy and Charles Adams enrolled at the University of Leyden. 2 May. John Adams presents a memorial to the States General of the United Provinces calling on it to recognize and conclude a commercial treaty with the United States and then publishes the memorial as a pamphlet in English, French, and Dutch. 15 June. Congress revokes John Adams's commissions to negotiate Anglo- American peace and commercial treaties and creates a joint commission consisting of Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and Thomas Jefferson to negotiate a peace treaty. July. John Adams briefly returns to Paris to discuss the proposed Austro-Russian mediation of the war and rejects American participation unless there is prior recognition of American independence. 7 July 27 August. John Quincy Adams accompanies Francis Dana to St. Petersburg, where he serves as Dana's secretary and interpreter. 12 August. Charles Adams leaves the Netherlands for America on board the South Carolina. August October. John Adams is seriously ill in Amsterdam with a fever April. The States General of the Netherlands recognizes American independence. 22 April. John Adams presents his letter of credence as minister plenipotentiary from the United States to William V, stadholder of the Netherlands. 12 May. John Adams takes up residence in the H?tel des Etats-Unis at The 36

37 Hague, the first American legation building in Europe. 11 June. John Adams signs a contract with a syndicate of Amsterdam bankers for a loan of five million guilders. 8 October. John Adams signs a treaty of amity and commerce with the Netherlands. 30 October. John Quincy Adams leaves St. Petersburg for Holland. He travels through Finland to Stockholm, Copenhagen, and Hamburg, and arrives at The Hague on 21 April November. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay sign the preliminary peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain in Paris July August. John Adams visits The Hague and returns to Paris with John Quincy Adams. 3 September. John Adams signs the definitive peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain. September October. John Adams has a second serious fever. October December. John and John Quincy Adams travel to England where they visit London, Oxford, and Bath March. John Adams concludes a second Dutch loan in Amsterdam to save American credit. May June. Congress elects John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson commissioners to negotiate treaties of amity and commerce with European and North African nations. Enlarge/Details 20 June. Abigail Adams and her daughter, Abigail 2d, sail from Boston for England, arriving in London on 21 July. 30 July. John Quincy Adams joins his mother and sister in London. John Adams arrives a week later. August 1784 May The Adamses reside at Auteuil near Paris February. John Adams named the first US minister to Great Britain. 12 May. John Quincy Adams leaves Paris, returning to Boston on 25 August after spending a month in New York City. 26 May. John, Abigail, and Abigail Adams 2d arrive at London. 1 June. John Adams is presented to George III. 23 June. Abigail and Abigail Adams 2d are presented to King George and Queen Charlotte. 37

38 2 July. John, Abigail, and Abigail Adams 2d move into the first American legation in London, a house on Grosvenor Square. 5 August. John Adams signs a treaty of amity and commerce with Prussia. 17 August. Charles Adams admitted to Harvard College; graduates in January. John Adams signs treaty of peace and friendship with Morocco. 15 March. John Quincy Adams enters Harvard College as a junior; graduates in March April. Thomas Jefferson visits John Adams in London to negotiate commercial treaties with Tripoli, Portugal, and Great Britain; tours English gardens with Adams. 12 June. Abigail Adams 2d marries William Stephens Smith in London. 30 August. Thomas Boylston Adams admitted to Harvard College; graduates in August September. John Adams visits the Netherlands with Abigail to exchange ratifications of the treaty with Prussia; sees early triumph of Patriot party. September October. John Adams begins A Defence of the Constitutions of the United States, which he finishes, in three volumes, in April. William Steuben Smith, Abigail Adams Smith's first child, born in London. May June. John Adams visits Holland to secure a third Dutch loan. June July. In London, the Adamses care for Thomas Jefferson's daughter Mary and her companion Sally Hemings, who are en route to live with Jefferson in Paris. July September. John and Abigail Adams arrange for the purchase of the Vassall- Borland house in Braintree. October. At John Adams's request, Congress recalls him from his diplomatic missions February. John Adams has farewell audience with George III. February March. John Adams makes his last visit to Holland, contracts a fourth loan. April May. Abigail Adams Smith and William Stephens Smith return to America; settle in New York. Enlarge/Details April June. John and Abigail Adams return to Massachusetts and move into their new home, now the Adams National Historical Park. 38

39 9 or 10 November. John Adams Smith, second child of Abigail Adams Smith, born in New York March. John Adams elected the first vice president of the United States; introduced to the Senate on 21 April in New York. July. Charles Adams begins studying law in New York City in the office of Alexander Hamilton; later transfers to the office of John Laurance April. John Adams begins serial publication of "Discourses on Davila" in the Gazette of the United States; the series continued until April August. Thomas Hollis Smith, third child of Abigail Adams Smith, born. November. John and Abigail Adams move to the new US capital, Philadelphia May. John Adams elected president of the Academy of Arts and Sciences; serves until June 27 July. John Quincy Adams publishes the "Publicola" essays in the Columbian Centinel, attacking Thomas Paine's Rights of Man and criticizing Jefferson's support of Paine. 8 July. Thomas Hollis Smith dies in New York City February. Braintree's North Parish incorporated as the town of Quincy. August. Charles Adams obtains his certificate to practice law. December. John Quincy Adams protests Boston's anti-theater ordinances in articles signed "Menander" published in the Columbian Centinel February. John Adams reelected vice president. April May. John Quincy Adams publishes "Marcellus" essays in the Columbian Centinel, defending American neutrality. July. John Quincy Adams delivers his first 4th of July oration in Boston. November December. John Quincy Adams publishes "Columbus" essays in the Columbian Centinel, denouncing France's Genet mission. December. Thomas Boylston Adams admitted to the bar in Philadelphia, after studying for three years in the office of Jared Ingersoll May. President Washington appoints John Quincy Adams resident minister to the Netherlands. September October. John Quincy Adams sails to England with Thomas Boylston Adams, whom he names his secretary. 39

40 6 November. John Quincy Adams presents his credentials at The Hague or 28 January. Caroline Amelia Smith, daughter of Abigail Adams Smith, born in New York. 29 August. Charles Adams marries Sarah Smith, sister of William Stephens Smith, in New York May. President Washington appoints John Quincy Adams minister plenipotentiary to Portugal, but Adams never serves under this appointment. 8 August. Susanna Boylston Adams, daughter of Charles Adams, born in New York. December. John Adams narrowly defeats Thomas Jefferson for the presidency March. John Adams inaugurated second president of the United States. 1 June. President John Adams appoints John Quincy Adams minister plenipotentiary to Prussia. May July. President John Adams appoints first peace mission to France to resolve the issue of America's rights as a neutral maritime power during the Anglo- French war. July. John Quincy Adams presents his letter of recall to the Dutch government. 26 July. John Quincy Adams marries Louisa Catherine Johnson in London. October November. John Quincy, Louisa Catherine, and Thomas Boylston Adams travel from London to Berlin March April. President John Adams declares a state of quasi-war with France and publishes the XYZ papers showing French attempts to bribe American diplomats. May June. President John Adams proposes and Congress approves the creation of the Department of the Navy. July. President John Adams signs the Alien and Sedition Acts. 8 September. Abigail Louisa Smith Adams, daughter of Charles Adams, born. 30 September. Thomas Boylston Adams departs Berlin to return to the United States; arrives in Quincy on 12 February 1799; practices law in Philadelphia February. President John Adams appoints a second peace mission to France. 11 July. John Quincy Adams signs a treaty of amity and commerce with Prussia. Fall. John Quincy Adams begins translating Christopher Martin Wieland's epic poem Oberon; completed in

41 October. President John Adams dispatches second peace mission to France May. President John Adams dismisses Secretary of War James McHenry and Secretary of State Timothy Pickering for opposing his peace policy. 23 July 24 September. John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams travel through Silesia, which he describes in letters to Thomas Boylston Adams, soon published in Philadelphia's Port Folio. September. Alexander Hamilton attacks the Adams administration in his Letter... concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. October. American diplomats conclude Convention of Mortefontaine with France, ending the quasi-war and the Franco-American alliance of November. John Adams is the first president to live in the President's House in Washington. Abigail joins him mid-month. Read John Adams's letter of 2 November November. Charles Adams dies in New York City. December. President John Adams defeated for reelection January February. President John Adams appoints Federalists to judicial posts, including John Marshall as Supreme Court chief justice. Enlarge/Details February. President John Adams has John Quincy Adams recalled from Prussia. 4 March. Thomas Jefferson becomes third president of the United States; John Adams retires to his farm in Quincy. 12 April. George Washington Adams, the first child of John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams, born in Berlin. July September. John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams return to America; live in Boston April. John Quincy Adams elected to Massachusetts State Senate. 5 October. John Adams begins his autobiography; continues to November. John Quincy Adams defeated in run for US House of Representatives February. John Quincy Adams elected by the Massachusetts legislature to the US Senate. 4 July. John Adams 2d, son of John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams, born in Boston. November. John Quincy Adams breaks with Massachusetts Federalists to support the Louisiana Purchase. 41

42 May. Thomas Boylston Adams marries Ann Harrod of Haverhill, Mass. August. John Quincy Adams appointed first Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard July. Abigail Smith Adams, daughter of Thomas Boylston Adams, born in Quincy July August. John Adams writes 10 letters to Mercy Otis Warren, protesting her treatment of him in her History of the Rise, Progress and Termination of the American Revolution. 18 August. Charles Francis Adams, son of John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams, born in Boston. December. John Quincy Adams is the only Federalist senator to support President Jefferson's embargo bill January. John Quincy Adams attends Republican caucus to select presidential nominee. May. Massachusetts legislature elects John Quincy Adams's successor in the US Senate six months before the normal election; Adams resigns his seat 8 June. 9 June. Elizabeth Coombs Adams, daughter of Thomas Boylston Adams, born April. John Adams begins a series of letters of reminiscence to the Boston Patriot; continues to May April. Abigail Brown Brooks born in Medford, Mass. April June. John Quincy Adams's critical review of the Works of Fisher Ames appears in the Boston Patriot; review constitutes his final break with Massachusetts Federalism 27 June. President Madison appoints John Quincy Adams minister plenipotentiary to Russia. 4 August. Thomas Boylston Adams Jr., born. August October. John Quincy Adams sails with Louisa Catherine, Charles Francis, and Catherine Johnson, Louisa's younger sister, to St. Petersburg; presents his credentials in November. Nephew William Steuben Smith accompanies Adams as his private secretary Lectures delivered from 1806 to 1809 at Harvard by John Quincy Adams published as Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory February. At Abigail Adams's request, President Madison appoints John Quincy Adams an associate justice of the US Supreme Court. He declines the position. 42

43 June. Thomas Boylston Adams appointed chief justice of the Massachusetts Circuit Court of Common Pleas for the Southern Circuit. 22 June. Frances Foster Adams, daughter of Thomas Boylston Adams, born; dies 4 March August. Louisa Catherine Adams, daughter of John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams, born in St. Petersburg, Russia; dies 15 September January. John Adams resumes his correspondence with Thomas Jefferson; it continues until their deaths May. Isaac Hull Adams, son of Thomas Boylston Adams, born. 14 August. Abigail Adams Smith dies of cancer in Quincy January. John Quincy Adams appointed to head commission to negotiate an Anglo-American peace treaty. 28 April 24 June. John Quincy Adams travels alone from St. Petersburg to Ghent to negotiate treaty; meetings with British commissioners begin on 8 August. 24 December. John Quincy Adams signs the Treaty of Ghent with Great Britain, ending the War of February 23 March. Louisa Catherine and Charles Francis Adams travel overland from St. Petersburg to join John Quincy Adams in Paris; her recollections of this trip published in Scribner's Magazine in February. John Quincy Adams commissioned envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to Great Britain. 25 May. John Quincy Adams's entire family reunited in London. 3 July. John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Albert Gallatin sign Commercial Convention that first establishes American diplomatic equality with Great Britain. 16 December. John Quincy Adams, son of Thomas Boylston Adams, born March. President Monroe appoints John Quincy Adams secretary of state. 14 May. John Quincy Adams presents recall as minister to Great Britain; travels with family from London to Quincy, arriving in August. September. John Quincy Adams assumes post of secretary of state. 16 December. Joseph Harrod Adams, son of Thomas Boylston Adams, born July. John Quincy Adams opposes censure of Andrew Jackson for invading the Spanish province of Florida without authorization. 20 October. American commissioners in London, under the direction of John Quincy Adams, sign the Convention of 1818 with Britain, clarifying America's 43

44 northern boundary, fishing rights, and commerce. 28 October. Abigail Adams dies in Quincy February. John Quincy Adams signs Transcontinental Treaty with Spain (the Adams-On?s Treaty), by which the United States extends its boundaries (in Oregon) to the Pacific Ocean and acquires the territory of Florida February. John Quincy Adams submits to the Senate his Report on Weights and Measures, recommending uniform standards of measurement. 4 July. John Quincy Adams addresses the House of Representatives, declaring the United States' anticolonial principles in relation to Latin America John Quincy Adams publishes a defense of his diplomacy at Ghent, The Duplicate Letters, the Fisheries and the Mississippi, in response to the criticism of fellow negotiator Jonathan Russell December. President Monroe announces his famous doctrine, largely the work of John Quincy Adams January. John Quincy and Louisa Catherine Adams host their famous ball for Andrew Jackson on the ninth anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans April. John Quincy Adams concludes Convention with Russia, establishing 54? 40' as northern limit of the American sphere of influence and insuring the later incorporation of Oregon territory into the US November. John Quincy Adams runs second to Andrew Jackson in the national election for president; no candidate receives a majority vote February. John Quincy Adams chosen president by the House of Representatives; inaugurated 4 March as the sixth president of the United States. August. Charles Francis Adams graduates from Harvard College. 5 December. President John Quincy Adams's ambitious "Lighthouses of the Skies" message to Congress recommends a Department of the Interior, a naval academy, a national university, a national astronomical observatory, nation wide internal improvements for transportation, and uniform laws on bankruptcy, weights and measures, militia, and patents for invention. Enlarge/Details July. John Adams dies in Quincy on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, the same day Thomas Jefferson dies at Monticello. Congress opposes President John Quincy Adams's and Secretary of State Henry Clay's energetic Latin American policy. 44