Chunsik Park. AAMM, Vol. 5, 109

Transcription

1 A Comparative Study on the Communal Laments over the Destruction of Ancient Cities between The Book of Lamentations and The Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur Chunsik Park ABSTRACT This paper compares two major Ancient Near Eastern works that deal with the destruction of the city, the biblical book of Lamentations and The Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur(LU), from the aspect of elements that are common to the lament Psalms: invocation, lament or complaint, petition, affirmation of trust in God, and vow to praise God. LU, which has a polytheistic background, uses the same words and phrases over and over again, thus providing a cursory discussion of the situation giving rise to the lament. Lamentations uses acrostics to provide a concrete description of the situation in the emotional, intellectual, and realistic aspects. The poet of Lamentations, who is present at and participates in the site of destruction, depicts his loss and sense of exclusion and despair in a deeper way than does the poet of LU. Lamentations describes a direct relationship between the poet and God, a sense of guilt, a desire for restoration, and an absolute faith in God, elements which are absent in LU. Lamentations provides a way of hope through the topic of pain, which is humanity s common experience, and thus serves a missiological purpose. Keywords: ANE literature, Lamentations, The Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur, communal laments, suffering, trust, acrostic, emesal, mission Manuscript received Dec. 4, 2011; revised Jan. 10, 2012; accepted Feb. 20, Chunsik Park(pcs1031@gmail.com) is with Religious Studies Department, Sahmyook University, Seoul, Korea; Secretary General, Maha Mission World Office; Secretary General, Global Welfare Supporters. AAMM, Vol. 5, 109

2 I. Introduction Grief over the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of YHWH s temple is the subject of the Book of Lamentations and of five communal laments in Psalms (Pss 44, 74, 79, 80, 137) (Hallo, 1995, p. 1879). These songs have in common the elements of invocation, lament / complaint, petition, affirmation of trust in God, and vow to praise God (Broyles, 2008, p. 390). According to Anderson (1997, p. 63) and Hallo (1995, p. 1876), this literary phenomenon is proof that the biblical laments were influenced by preexistent ANE laments. There are five known Sumerian laments that concern the destruction of cities and of the sanctuaries devoted to their tutelary gods/goddesses: Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur (hereinafter LU) (Kramer, 1969, pp ; Klein, 1997, pp ), The Lamentation over Sumer and Ur (Kramer, 1969, pp ), The Eridu Lament (Green, 1978, pp ), The Uruk Lament (Green, 1984, pp ), and The Nippur Lament (Kramer, 1969, pp ). This paper aims to compare LU with the Book of Lamentations, with a focus on how the elements shared by Lamentations and the communal lament psalms play out in the former set of poems. By uncovering the similarities and differences between Lamentations and LU, it purposes to set forth the uniqueness of the former in ANE literature. II. Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur LU is a historical lament that mourns the destruction of Ur at the hands of the Elamites and Subarians during the reign of Ibbi-Sin ( BC), the fifth king of the third dynasty of Ur (Hallo, 1995, p. 1872). It was written at an early period of the Isin Dynasty (Klein, 1997, p. 535). LU comprises 11 kirgus ( songs or stanzas ) and 436 lines. This paper uses Kramer s complete translation of LU; Klein s translation in COS is a partial translation and is not suitable for the purposes of this paper. LU can be summarized as follows: (1) kirgu (lines 1-36), list of the fallen cities and their tutelary deities. (2) kirgu , commands to mourn for Ur at the council of deities. 110 Chunsik Park

3 (3) kirgu , Ningal s lament over the destruction of Ur. (4) kirgu , Anu and Enlil s rejection of Ningal s supplication for Ur. (5) kirgu , Enlil s destruction of Ur. (6) kirgu , description of Ur full of corpses. (7) kirgu , Ningal s lament over Ur and listing of that which has been destroyed. (8) kirgu , the poet s entreaty to Ningal to rebuild Ur. (9) kirgu , the poet s entreaty to Nanna to hold off the storm. (10) kirgu , the poet s entreaty to Nanna to hold off the storm. (11) kirgu , the poet s entreaty to Nanna to restore the city s former prosperity. III. An analysis of Lamentations and LU A. Invocation The communal lament psalms begin by invoking God: O God (Pss 44:1; 74:1; 79:1) and O Shepherd of Israel (Psa 80:1). Lamentations addresses God as YHWH (the LORD, 32 times), Adonai (the Lord, 14 times), and El (God, 1 time; 3:41). Among these appellations, only YHWH, the covenant name of God, is used when the poet (Jeremiah is believed to be the author of the Lamentation traditionally. Discussing critical question on the authorship is beyond the subject of this paper) uses the imperative construction to raise his supplication (8 times: Lam 1:9, 11, 20; 2:20; 3:59, 64; 5:1, 21). In LU, Anu and Enlil are the deities to whom Ningal, patron goddess of Ur, cries for help (LU 145, 146, 155, 156. Note: Henceforth, numbers indicate the lines of the text in LU). Lacking direct access to Anu and Enlil, the poet must resort to entreating the lesser goddess Ningal, calling her O queen (331), O my queen (369, 373), O Ningal (332), and O Mother Ningal (375, 378). The poet also calls upon Nanna, patron god of Ur and husband of Ningal, as O Father Nanna (407) and O Nanna (423). The two poems differ in how long it takes for the divine subject of supplication to appear. The Lamentations of the Hebrew Bible (MT) is written in poetic form and has 268 lines. Invocation occurs in line AAMM, Vol. 5, 111

4 28, approximately a tenth of the way into the poem: O LORD, behold my affliction! (Lam 1:9, KJV). In the personal laments of the ANE, the poets typically recite a long list of names and titles for a deity prior to beginning the prayer, so as to make the gods and goddesses more amenable to their request. For example, the poet in the Prayer of Lamentation to Ishtar devotes eleven whole lines to such appellations as O Lady of ladies, goddess of goddesses, queen of all peoples, O most mighty of princesses, O possessor of all divine power, and lady of battle, before calling on Ishtar for help (Stephens, 1969, p. 384). LU dispenses with these titles, but Anu to which the lament is addressed appears only in line 145, which is a third of the way into the lament. To Anu the water of my eye verily I poured; To Enlil I in person verily made supplication (145, 146). B. Lament or Complaint (1) The use of musical elements to create an atmosphere of mourning Lamentations and LU both use verbal and musical techniques to trigger a deep feeling of desperation. The former uses qinah, a plaintive 3:2 rhythm that evokes a funereal atmosphere, in all chapters but five. Lamentations also contains an acrostic of 22 Hebrew consonants. Its use heightens the poem s emotional tenor, facilitates memorization, and allows the poet to lay out Judah s sadness in a complete, from A to Z form (Brady, 2005, p. 426). LU uses thin emesal ( attenuated speech ), a dialect suitable for use in elegies, in the first and second kirgus (Kramer, 1969, pp ). Emesal was used by the gala priests, who specialized in the oration of elegies using the female voice (Hallo, 1995, p. 1872). Both Lamentations and LU use the following poetic devices: the authorial point of view, reverse focus, and listing. Listing is an especially salient feature of LU, which contains many simple repetitions of phrases. This technique does not enable the poet to fully express his emotions or to concretely describe the circumstances giving rise to his sorrow. (2) Mourning the destruction of the city and the temple The communal lament psalms mourn the destruction of the city and its temple. The temple had been set on fire, and Jerusalem became a heap of stones (Pss 74:6, 7; 79:1). In Lamentations, the exclamatory word êkâ ( how ) begins chapters 1, 2 and 4. The first 112 Chunsik Park

5 and second kirgus of LU begin with his sheepfold has been delivered to the wind (1, 37). After enumerating the Sumerian cities and temples that have been destroyed Nippur, Erech, Eridu, Larak, Uru, Lagash, and others (1 kirgu) the poet keeps repeating the command, a bitter lament set up as thy lament (40, 48-62). To more vividly describe the circumstances giving rise to the mourning, both laments personify the regions and buildings that have been trampled by the enemy (Boda, 2008, p. 400). Lamentations uses phrases like the daughter of Zion (1:6; 2:1, 4, 8, 10, 18; 4:22), virgin daughter of Zion (2:13), daughter of Jerusalem (2:13, 14), daughter of Judah (2:2, 5), and virgin, the daughter of Judah (1:15) to describe the city and the nation. The roads to Zion mourn (1:4). The city walls and ramparts lament (2:8); the wall of Jerusalem cries out to the Lord and its tears flow like a river (2:16, 18). In LU, Ur (40-47, 369), the brickwork of Ur (48), Ekishnugal, and Enunkug (48-50) are all called to lament. The detail with which the two poems describe the destruction of the temple is different. Whereas LU gives only a fleeting description, Lamentations is very specific for it came from an informed narrator or an eye witness (Jeremiah). The sanctuary is trampled by the Gentiles, a group that was forbidden from entering the congregation; there, they make a racket, which the poet compares to the noise one would hear on the day of a solemn feast; they kill the priests and prophets; they break down the walls of the temple and cause them to spill out onto the street (1:10, 2:7, 20, 4:1). The festivals are no longer observed, and the Sabbath is forgotten (1:4, 2:4, 6). Unlike Ningal, who weeps because of what has happened to her temple, Jehovah hates His temple and rejects His alter (2:7). Both poems use the comprehensive word all in connection with the various subjects of their lament. In Kramer s translation of LU, the word occurs 8 times. Except for two instances in which the word is used to describe a deity (3, 382), all is used six times in connection with physical objects relating to Ur: all its streets are strewn with dead bodies (215); all its property is looted (239); all its storehouses were set on fire (240); all [of Ningal s] birds have flown away (282); all the storms have taken away all that is good (388, 395). Lamentations uses the Hebrew word kol ( all ) 36 times, but not only in connection with physical objects. In addition to material things (gates, 1:4; habitations, 2:2; palaces, 2:5; streets, 2:19, 4:1), all is also used in connection with the various people who are AAMM, Vol. 5, 113

6 involved in or affected by the extreme situation that is the destruction of a nation (persecutors and enemies, 1:3, 21; unfaithful and treacherous friends, 1:2, 8; scoffing passers-by, surprised kings and people in neighbor countries, 1:12, 2:15, 4:12; the people of Jerusalem who have met a great calamity, 1:11, 15, 2:4, 3:51; the crushed prisoners of the earth, 3:34); the jeers and malice of the people and the plots they devise against the poet, and the poet s personal conviction regarding God s championship of him (3:14, 60-62); and God, who judges all things (1:22). The way the poet uses kol suggests to us that the loss of material things is not of vital importance to him. His primary concern is the relationships that are broken amidst the destruction of the city and the temple, the absurdities present in the human world, and the people s relationship with YHWH, the moral and spiritual ruler of Israel. Lamentations mourns loss in all its dimensions material, social, psychological, and spiritual. (3) Mourning abandonment by the deity The communal lament psalms mourn that God has delivered His people into the hand of the enemy like sheep led out to slaughter and scattered them among the nations. God seems like one who sleeps after having given up His people for good (Psa. 44:11, 23). In LU, the poet attributes Ur s fall to the city s abandonment by its guardian deities, Nanna and Ningal (13-16). But these are deities who weep for the fall of Ur (46-47, 63-64, 71-72); Ningal cries, verily I abandoned not my city; My land verily I forsake not ( ). Ur was abandoned not by this pair but by the highest ranking deities of Sumer, Anu and Enlil. They are the ones who reject Ningal s plea and declare that Ur s destruction is fate (142, , 164). To destroy Ur, they employ the great storm and the evil wind ( ). The land-annihilating storm (183) signifies the invasion of the Subarians and the Elamites who destroyed Ekishnugal (the temple) and the city of Ur with large axes and the pickaxe ( ). Anu and Enlil turned against Ur, and its enemies became like storms wielded by them for its destruction. When Ur fell, Ningal left her city like a bird ( ). In Lamentations, the enemy is the LORD. He is an enemy clothed with wrath (2:5, 3:4), uses the enemies of Zion to bring affliction upon it (1:5), holds the rod of His wrath (3:1), sets fire to the city, burning down even its foundations (4:11), and always forgets Jerusalem (5:20). No one may escape or abide the day of His wrath 114 Chunsik Park

7 (2:22). Lamentations uses animal imagery to emphasize that the LORD is the enemy. The LORD is like a bear or lion that tears apart its prey (3:10). He is also like a hunter with a bow and arrows (3:12, 13). The two poems differ on the reason the deities have abandoned their cities. LU mentions the judgment of the land (231) but does not give a reason wherefore it was visited. Ur is [h]is [Nanna s] righteous city (42, 74), an innocent ewe (67, 265, 266), and an innocent goat (68), which means that the decision of Anu and Enlil to destroy Ur was capricious and arbitrary, unjustifiable either morally or religiously. In Lamentations, the reason for the destruction of Jerusalem and of Judah is clearly given. Zion s sin was great (1:5) and exceeded that of Sodom (4:6). The poet directly points out the sins of the religious leaders. With their no vision from the LORD, false and foolish visions and false and misleading oracles, the prophets failed to turn the people away from the road to destruction (2:9, 14, NAS). The prophets and priests spilled innocent blood (4:13). Jerusalem was destroyed because of the corruption of the religious leaders (Jeremiah was an exceptional case if he is regarded as the author of both the Lamentation and the Book of Jeremiah), who could not bring the people to repentance. Lamentations 2:17 points out that the destruction of Jerusalem is the fulfillment of the warning contained in Torah (Lev. 26:14-16, 25; Deut. 28:25) that if the people sin, they will be punished (Reyburn, 1992, p. 65; Huey, 1993, p. 465). C. Petition The communal lament psalms plead God to redeem us, purge away our sins, and return (Psa 44:26, 79:9, 80:14). LU describes pleas both before and after the destruction of Ur. Before Ur s destruction, Ningal repeatedly and tearfully pleaded with Anu and Enlil not to destroy my city, Ur, and its people ( , ). After Ur s destruction, the poet supplicates Mother Ningal (375, 378) and Father Nanna (407) that Ur may be rebuilt and its glory be restored (8-11 kirgu). The poet supplicates Ningal, who once left Ur like a bird, to return like an ox to its stable or a sheep to its fold (378) and to not look upon her people unfavorably (408); desires that the storm of destruction may itself be destroyed ( ); prays that Ur may be restored and become as a bright star ( ) (Klein, AAMM, Vol. 5, 115

8 1997, p. 538); and longs that the people will be purified so that their hearts may be good before Nanna ( ). After the fall of Jerusalem, the poet of Lamentations pleads with God using the imperative form. The poet first asks God to look upon and solve his personal crisis (Personal crisis affliction, distress, and disdain, 1:9, 11, 20; affliction and wandering, 3:19; cry, 3:56; oppression, 3:59. Avenging against sins of the enemy, 1:21-22, 3:64; mocking, cursing and destroying, 3:63-66). He next asks Him to intervene in the communal problem (the affliction and humiliation of the people, 2:20, 5:1), and to effect the repentance and restoration of the community (5:21). Both poems plead for the destruction of the enemy (LU 411; Lam 3:66) and the spiritual restoration of the community (LU ; Lam 5:21). The two poems diverge in how they plead for the restoration and continued existence of the ancient cities. LU s Ur has already been restored, and the poet prays that the city may shine like a star (424). This is evidence that LU was recorded not at the time of the destruction of Ur, but after its rebuilding, for a ritualistic purpose. Lamentations, on the other hand, does not say that Jerusalem the city needs to be rebuilt. The poet s prayer is informed by his certainty that God is the lord of Jerusalem and its temple: Restore us to Thee, O LORD, that we may be restored; Renew our days as of old (5.21, NAS). True restoration depends not on the rebuilding of the city but on the people s returning to the LORD. Restoration of Jerusalem and its temple, and political freedom from oppression, fall under the period of grace granted by Jehovah, who is the lord of history (Reyburn, 1992, p. 145). D. Affirmation of Trust in God The communal lament psalms confess God as the One who confers salvation to the king and to the people (Psa 74:12). LU has no comparable subject worthy of receiving such a confession of faith. Anu and Enlil coldly rejected Ningal s tearful supplication; when Ur was destroyed, Ningal like a flying bird departed from her city (238). Although kirgus 9-10 ( ) contain the poet s prayer to Nanna to hold back the storm, Nanna and Ningal have proven themselves to be powerless to effect that kind of miracle. The poet prays, but without the certainty that his prayers will be answered. In Lamentations, the poet confesses that the LORD s mercies and compassions and faithfulness are boundless (3:22-23). The poet is 116 Chunsik Park

9 the possessor of a marvelous faith that allows him to look beyond the present storm and discern YHWH s true purpose. For he does not afflict willingly, or grieve the sons of men (3:33). He has made Jehovah his portion (3:24). He anticipates that the LORD will restore the community of Zion and render judgment upon the enemy. Zion will never again be taken prisoner; Edom will receive punishment from the LORD for its sins (4:22). E. Vow to Praise God The communal lament psalms vow to give thanks to the Lord for eternity and sing His praises from generation to generation (Psa 79:13). LU also ends with praise: O Nanna, thy city which has been returned to its place exalts thee (435). Lamentations ends by describing a desperate situation the Lord s rejection of His people: But thou hast utterly rejected us; thou art very wroth against us (5:22). However, this verse has to be understood in the context of 5: Here, the poet praises YHWH, saying Thou, O LORD, remainest for ever; thy throne from generation to generation (5:19). Whether this praise would be maintained forever in Jerusalem and its temple would depend on whether YHWH restored His people and allowed them a new era. The poet ends Lamentations by completely entrusting the fate of the people in the hands of YHWH. Ultimately, YHWH worked through Cyrus to liberate his people who were in mourning, give them redress, and allow them to deliver praises to His name. IV. A Comparison of the Similarities and Differences of the Two Laments This paper conducted a comparative analysis of the levantine Lamentations for the fall of Jerusalem and the Sumerian LU. Both are representative of ANE songs that lament a city s fall. The analysis focused on how the literary techniques appearing in the communal lament psalms play out in the two poems, and the results are as summarized below. AAMM, Vol. 5, 117

10 A. Similarities (1) The topic. LU deals with the destruction of Ur of the Chaldeans, which was a city-state in Sumer. Lamentations deals with the destruction of the capital of the levantine nation of Judea, and of its temple. (2) Creation of an atmosphere of mourning. Both poems invoke forms that are lost on modern readers but would have been familiar to the ancients, using musical elements associated with the funeral culture to create an air of mourning. LU uses emesal, a language that was used in mourning rituals, and Lamentations uses the qinah rhythm. (3) Invocation of the deity. Both poems have a deity or deities to which they are addressed. LU is addressed to Anu, Enril, Ningal, and Nanna, while Lamentations is addressed to YHWH, a covenant God who is the only God of Israel. (4) Lament or complaint. Both poems deal with the deity s abandonment, the destruction of the city and of the temple, and the people s affliction. In LU, Anu and Enril destroyed Ur of the Chaldeans and the temples of that city, Ekishnugal and Enunkug, and brought affliction on the dark-haired people of Ur. In Lamentations, YHWH fought against and destroyed Zion, Judah and the temple in Jerusalem, and brought affliction on the citizens thereof. (5) Petition. In LU, the poet prays that the storm may be destroyed and that the people of Ur may receive spiritual restoration. The poet of Lamentations likewise prays to YHWH to destroy Israel s enemies and to spiritually revive the people of Judah. (6) Affirmation of trust in God. LU lacks a confession of faith, while the poet of Lamentations reacts to YHWH s hesed and affirms Him as the poet s portion. (7) Vow to praise God. LU ends by praising Nanna, the guardian deity of Ur of the Chaldeans. Lamentations ends by praising the rule of YHWH. B. Differences (1) The topic. The scope of LU is limited to one city, Ur, while Lamentations concerns not only Zion and Jerusalem but all of Judah. (2) Creation of an atmosphere of mourning. Evocation of a plaintive mood: LU uses listing, which easily becomes monotonous 118 Chunsik Park

11 and tedious. Lamentations uses an acrostic to describe the poet s sorrow in a fuller, more concrete way. (3) Invocation of the deity. Besides using the given names of the guardians of the city, LU also calls upon the deities using such honorifics as Father Nanna and Mother Ningal. Lamentations invokes YHWH, Adonai, and El, but in prayers of supplication uses only YHWH, which is the name of the covenant God. (4) Lamentation or complaint. The mourning in LU is perfunctory, but Lamentations is very specific and realistic in how it describes the poet s sorrow. LU s inclusive adjective all is used chiefly in connection with material objects, but Lamentations uses it in connection with material, psychological, spiritual, and social things. LU briefly mentions the destruction of the temple, but Lamentations specifically talks about the alter, feasts, the Sabbath, and the death of the priests and prophets within the temple. Lamentations talks about the responsibility of the city s leaders, a subject on which LU is silent. LU does not lay out a cause for the city s destruction, while Lamentations states that the sins of the leaders have brought about YHWH s wrath. YHWH s wrath is as has been foretold in Deuteronomy. (5) Petition. LU pleads to Ur s guardian deity for the restoration of the city, while the poet of Lamentations asks YHWH to open a new era. (6) Affirmation of trust in God. The poet of LU makes only a generic plea without affirming his faith in a particular god or goddess; the poet of Lamentations bases his prayer on YHWH s hesed and confesses a personal faith. (7) Vow to praise God. The last sentence of LU is an optimistic praise to the deity, but Lamentations ends with a dark depiction of YHWH s abandonment. V. Conclusion The Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur, which mourns the destruction of Ur of the Chaldeans, and the Lamentations over the levantine Jerusalem, are two representative ANE communal laments. Although recorded more than a millennium apart, the two poems share literary devices typical of mourning songs of the ANE. Both poems use musical elements familiar to people of those times and figurative language to generate an atmosphere of mourning. AAMM, Vol. 5, 119

12 Comparison of the two poems with a focus on the literary devices found in the communal lament psalms yields the following observations that show the uniqueness of Lamentations in the context of ANE literature. First, Lamentations is emotional, intellectual, and realistic. The rhetorical device of qinah draws the listener in to a funereal atmosphere of mourning, and the use of the acrostic allows the poet to depict the desperate situation he witnesses in a systematic, intellectual way. Second, Lamentations provides a balanced depiction of the perplexities of the human existence. It uses the Hebrew word kol in connection with physical, intellectual, spiritual, and social aspects of existence, thereby revealing that the poet is interested in human life in its entirety. Third, Lamentations puts great emphasis on living life in a way that makes it truly worth living by fearing the Lord and giving praise to Him. He looks forward to a day when that sort of life will be made possible. Lamentations devotes the most amount of attention to the people of Judah who are struggling because of the fierce assaults of the enemy; the poet s attention is first and foremost in humans, who must work hard to survive even amidst adverse circumstances. Regarding those who brought about such hardships or merely stand by and jeer, the poet asks YHWH to treat them as they have treated him, and looks forward to a day when God will bring justice (1:21). Fourth, Lamentations is both communal and individual in perspective. By personifying Zion, Jerusalem and Judah, it allows the significance of the destruction of the city and of the temple to be felt on a personal level, and tries to understand the nation s problem through the lens of individual responsibility. This suggests the need for vigorous research into the identity of the poet in Lamentations. It also contains important lessons for the burden that theologians the purported conscience of an age should feel with regard the problems of the nation and of the larger global community. Finally, Lamentations is a missiological text. It clearly reveals the poet s sense of loss, exclusion and depression, sentiments that are common to the human experience. By courageously revealing circumstances and emotions that are painful and humiliating, the poet makes the lessons that he is seeking to deliver relatable to those who are living in crisis. The experiences described in Lamentations have the potential to be more than just a personal experience. Humanity must come to share not only in Lamentation s laments but also in its 120 Chunsik Park

13 confession of faith and its praise. Historically, the greatest hope of Lamentations, the restoration of God s chosen nation, was fulfilled through Cyrus by God, He who is worthy of praise. You, LORD, reign forever; Your throne endures from generation to generation (Lam 5:19). References Anderson, B. W. (1997). Out of the Depths: The Psalms Speak for Us Today. Translated by He Won Ro. Seoul: Christian Literature Society of Korea. Boda, M. J. (2008). Lamentations 1: Book of. Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom, Poetry & Writings. Edited by Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns. Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: Inter-Varsity Press, Brady, Christian M. M. (2005). Lamentations, Book of. Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible. Edited by Kevin J. Vanhoozer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House Company, Broyles, C. C. (2008). Lament, Psalms of. Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom, Poetry & Writings. Edited by Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns. Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: Inter-Varsity Press, Dobbs-Allsopp, F. W. (1993). Weep, O Daughter of Zion: A Study of the City-Lament Genre in the Hebrew Bible. Biblica et Orientalia. Roma: Editrice Pontificio Instituto Biblico. Green, Margaret W. (1978). The Eridu Lament. Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 30(3), Green, Margaret W. (1984). The Uruk Lament. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 104(2), Hallo, William W. (1995). Lamentations and Prayers in Sumer and Akkad. Civilizaions of the Ancient Near East. Edited by Jack M. Sasson, John Baines, Gary Beckman, and Karen S. Rubinson. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 3: Huey, F. B. (1993). Jeremiah, Lamentations. The New American Commentary. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman.. Klein, Jacob. (1997). Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur (1.166). The Context of Scripture. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, Jr. New York: Brill, 1: Kramer, Samuel Noah. (1969). Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relation to the Old Testament, AAMM, Vol. 5, 121

14 Third Edition with Supplement. Edited by James B. Pritchard. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Kramer, Samuel Noah. (1969). Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament Relating to the Old Testament, Third Edition with Supplement. Edited by James B. Pritchard. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Kramer, Samuel Noah. (1969). The Lamentation over the Destruction of Nippur. W.F. Albright Volume. Edited by A. Malamat. Jerusalem: Jerusalem Exploration Society, Reyburn, William David. (1992). A Handbook on Lamentations. UBS Helps for Translators. New York: United Bible Societies. Shea, William H. (1979). The Qinah Structure of the Book of Lamentations. Biblica. 60, Stephens, Ferris J. (1969). Prayer of Lamentation to Ishtar. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, Third Edition with Supplement. Edited by James B. Pritchard. Princeton, New jersey: Princeton University Press, Chunsik Park