By Ambar Mulyono, S.Sn., M.T

Transcription

1 Islamic Concept of Territory Critical Review on the Concepts of Public-Private, Sacred-Profane, and Gender in the Context of Territoriality. By Ambar Mulyono, S.Sn., M.T Abstract Personal involvement in the establishment of a territory indicating that territory related to the behavioral traits of individual that differs from each other. In the certain extends, it can be uttered that a territory is formed and controlled by the behavior of the individual or group of individuals. Mean while, human as a being with consciousness and ability to think can not be detached from the prevailing norms and values. Thus, in behaving an individual is greatly controlled by both of two factors which in turn will implicate on the formed shape of the territory. Territory creates differences, or on the other way around due to the emerging differences we can identified the polarities between public and private, sacred and profane, outside and inside, as well as between masculine and feminine. Islam can be seen as a norm with its own value system that taking a great role in shaping traits of a territory on an individual as well as group scale particularly in a Moslem community. This circumstance exists due to the presence of rules in behaving conveyed in the law of Islam (syariah Islam). Territoriality is closely related to the analysis of behavioral environment that will contribute great deal of important information in a planning process as a base for decision making of space design. Territory: Property of Space Space. Space is a topic that always becomes an interesting matter to be put into a discourse. The emerging concepts of it can be said has no limits. Space was born as a phenomenon and here to produce other ones, which never lose the interest of the reviewers. There are an abundant number of scientists who try to elaborate the true meanings derived from the term of space. In western concept space was defined as something that is limited by a finite element, an enclosure that can be clearly seen so we can grasp its existence consciously. While in Eastern world the concept of space had a whole different meaning based on the emptiness of something that cannot be seen (intangible). In its course of time, the elaboration of space term no longer made both of these sides merely just a dichotomy of West and East. Hence from here at least we all could learn that at the beginning there was a very different understanding on term of space.

2 The unification of space concepts based on West and East point of view gives us an explanation on space property, that space is presence whether with or without a finite element. The existence of space can be comprehended along with the completeness of property, scale, orientation, and meanings of property. From this understanding of space grew out the concept of territory, meaning, scale and orientation. Territory in its regard as physical limitation can take form as wall, fence, river or hill as border of villages including sign pole, flag or other symbols of limitation. Those borders were the attribute or property of space so it can be identified easily without any doubt. But space does not always require the exactness of physical border as in the beginning of the West concept. If we take a closer look, we might find ourselves keep on facing with things indicating differences and certain behavior as the implication of space and territory. How the certain traditional societies with certain ways have preserved and guarded an area considered to be sacred which some times followed with the application of signs as borders. The behavior of an individual or group of individuals which show the inconvenience due to the disturbance they feel when another individual come into the territory. Even when the limitations of this territory have not been identified explicitly. And how people make various distance when meeting with different other people, or how a custom in a society dividing man from woman creating certain space which has territory without requiring physical form of limitations. Hence, the elaboration on the territory has a broader dimension of the real one as well as the abstract one. Territoriality Generally speaking, it can be said that territory is a form of limitation creating a separation of two or more areas which in turn causes differences. The differences in this extend containing a broader understanding, including many aspects. Hence, from that point we can recognize the polarity between public and private space, sacred and profane, feminine and masculine. Before any further review over these polarities, first of all we should comprehend several theories regarding territory. Leon Pastalan (1970) gave his definition on territory as follows: A territory is a limited space where an individual or a group use and maintain it as a preservation of borders. It involves psychological identification with a place marked by attitudes of ownership and arrangement of objects within it. 1 1 Leon A Pastalan, (1987) Privacy as an Expression of Human Territoriality in Leon A Pastalan and Daniel H Carson, eds., Spatial Behavior of Older People, Like notified by John Lang in his book Creating Architectural Theory p. 148

3 While the identification by Irwin Altmans (1975) considered territoriality as a mechanism to gain privacy, defining territorial behavior as follows: Territorial behavior is a mechanism of rules of self limitation which Involves personalization of the marking of places or objects and the communication belongs to an individual or group. 2 From two preceding definitions above, John Lang (1987) concluded several basic traits of territoriality: (1) the ownership over a place (2) Personalization or marking of an area, (3) the right to defend the area from any disturbance and (4) Services of certain number of functions grew out from psychological basic needs of satisfaction, knowledge, and the needs of aesthetic 3. The conclusion confronted by John Lang which described the presence of marking indicates that territory produces a difference so we can recognize, identify, and differ (as a result of the marking) one from another. The difference in its contrast position take form as polarity, such as between public and private, male and female, sacred and profane. Meanwhile, the role of space in servicing utility give an emphasize on the contrasting value of public towards private where both of them having different characters. Public space serves public functions, as in the way around the private space serves private functions. Irwin Altman also made a frame work explaining relations between culture and environment (frame work of culture and environment relation) as follows 4 : 2 Irwin Altman, Environment and Social Behavior, Like notified by John Lang in his book Creating Architectural Theory p Jon Lang (1987) p Irwin. Altmant, Martin Chemers (1980) : p. 10.

4 From the diagram above it can be referred that the territory effected by many variables, one of them is religion which contains rules of engagement in behaving. The Setting of Behavior. Our knowledge about space is built by collecting the fragments of information from our memory to classify the buildings or spaces type. We can refer a space as an office, prayers room, or market because we have already had the big picture in our mind about its natural physic and the behavior of activities which occur. The concept of activity system and setting of behavior gives an enriching input to be considered in making planning for the preserved area, more than just merely a thought on land using, building types and rooms. In the context of the behavior setting, Amos Rapoport (1969) identified five main aspects of culture, reflected in space organization of a house: How the activities being conducted The family structure The rules of gender The attitude towards privacy The process of social relationship. Conducting activities such as sleeping, cooking and eating carried out in the various ways depending on the culture. Standing on the same base of thinking and seeing the culture from the prevailing side of norms, hence we can generally utter that normative rules controlling behavior in conducting activities will produce the very specific concept of territorial. Al-Quran and Hadits as the Source of Concepts. Referring on the empiric studies and research that had been carried out, amongst by Selim Besin Halim, which considered the law (alharm) of the solutions taken on the buildings inside city of Islam, it is found that each of the solutions mostly dominated by and directly based on the verses of quran and hadits. Of course, apart of the two, there were others supporting factors as elaborated in the diagram of Irwin Altman. He has summarized several principal points, among others which as follows: Harm: a state when an individual is encouraged to use his individual right fully, but in doing so he or she must not disturb or put any disadvantage on the others at all. Many criteria are derived from this principal point, including consideration towards location in the city provided for activities causing smokes, smells and others.

5 Interdependence: a state when the community or inhabitants of preserved area of the city depending on one another with the structures they live in. In another word we often put it as an ecological sense. Privacy: a state when every family has a right for privacy whether acoustically or visually and others. From this stand point we can see that the most significant thing is the basic trait of Moslem family in giving protection over the women from the eyesight of the strangers... 5 As an Islam state, the Arab society highly valued the norms, or to be more specific, the syariah Islam. Thus, the prevailing patterns of rooms are the representatives of behavior in conducting activity ruled by the content of quran and hadits. But nevertheless, these empiric studies also related to the location where the research took place, so the setting of local culture the setting of environment with its natural condition - also affecting it. There for, when the attempt of searching the true concept of Islam must return to the source of law, the base of behaving and decision making, one will refer to the quran and the hadits. With the quran and the hadits as reference, we cannot put in equal state the Islam architecture and the Islamic architecture. All this time, Islam architecture has been defined as a result of work created by and or created for the Moslem community (with the basis of community), so it contains certain traits that representing the community of Moslem. There is no assurance that Islam architecture always be uncontaminated by non-islamic values, or even by values with opposite standpoint, while the Islamic architecture always leans itself on the values of Islam. What to be considered as Islamic in the Islamic architecture and environment are those which each having ability to arouse the spiritual atmosphere that encouraging the remembrance toward Allah, motivating behavior adjusted by the syariah and proposing the values attached to the reference key of the quran. In the context of space as well as territorial, the concepts of Islam must refer to the values of Islam. A large selection of rules and certainties known as law are classified into several stages; wajib, sunah, haram, makruh and mubah. Islam governs how an individual should behave, just like what had been shown by the prophet as Allah s Messenger to be followed. Laws create pattern of behavior which in turn produces certain setting of space in an individual scale or even bigger. Thus from that on, the further exploration on the true Islamic concepts of territoriality can be carried on. This conduct is being done by understanding the point of views of the quran and the hadits on the matter of privacy, sacred places, and social relationships, including things to be conducted, suggested and prohibited according to the samples shown by the Holly Prophet as the row model of the Moslem. 5 Besim Selim Hakim, (1986.) : p.86

6 Public and Private. In the discussions about space and territory related to the services, utilities and the users, we come to know the terms Public Space and Private Space along with the border between two of them whether concretely or abstractly defined. In the terminology of space arrangement the needs accommodating the individual interests are known as the private space while those accommodating the collective interests are called public space 6. Oscar Newman elaborate about the territoriality related with the establishing border between public and private room, as follow: There is a language of symbols which has come to be recognized as instrumental in defining boundaries or claim to territory. These boundary definers are interruptions in the sequence of movement along access path and serve to create perceptible zones of transition from public to private spaces. 7. The public space concretely appears as a place where the individuals meet to conduct their activities. Or to be put into other words, as a place commonly used by public such as street, market, parking area, or park. There is a very different role between public space and private space as elaborated by Stephen Carr about public room as follow: Public space is the stage upon which the drama of communal life unfolds. The streets, squares, and parks of a city give form to the ebb and flow of human exchange. These dynamic spaces are an essential counterpart to the more settled place and routines of work and home life, providing the channels for movement, the needs communication, and the common grounds for play and relaxation. 8 The positioning of limits and maintenance as part of territoriality occur in the public as well as private space. Point of view Islam on the Privacy Matter Privacy in the syariah Islam is comprehended as a protection against disturbance, whether in the extend of visual, noise, as well as disturbance in other forms, where an individual are obliged to ask for permission in conducting certain activities in someone else s neighborhood. For instance; a person must ask for permission first when he visits someone s 6 Ikaputra, Personal Space proceeding of the seminar on Contemporary Space held in Universitas Tarumanegara Jakarta, Indonesia Oscar Newman (1972) : p Stephen Carr (1992) : p. 3

7 home. Thus, if he does not get any reply or invitation from the host after three times uttering greeting, then he must leave. In Islam the disturbance towards privacy through the gaze (eye-sighting) also strictly controlled, thus Islam applies the rule to use hijab or veil particularly to be conducted by the wives of the prophet (quran, 33:35). Even though this conduct was not an obligation to be carried on by the disciples of the prophet, in the practice is also imitated by the Moslem as a conduct of sunnah. This proposition gives the idea of defined territorial, even complete with the physical and tangible nature due to the existence of the hijab. A too long visit can cause a disturbance to the host. A Moslem should leave the house he visits at the moment he realizes that he has caused the disturbance. Just as conveyed in the quran about the guests of the prophet who lingered in his house (quran 33 : 35). Even though the limits of territory are not explicitly mentioned, the values with in related closely to the privacy for the host s confidence. One of other form of protection on private matters is the gaze towards opposite sex particularly women, as conveyed in the Allah s word: Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: And Allah is well acquainted with all that they do. (quran, An-nuur: 30) It is undisputed that the elaboration on how privacy matters are placed in the point of view of Islam is not greatly mention in explicit way to give the emphasizing points on the territory. But along with the establishing patterns of behavior that one of them will affect some one whether consciously or not in creating self-limit in connecting with others or inside his community. The rule of action in the Public Place One of the ways to explore the concept of territory in Islam law related to the public space is by observing how a Moslem should behave in public places such as market, street, or in a crowd representing the public community. In the relation to the behavior on the street, Islam does not allow a Moslem to hang around on the public street causing disturbance to the other users. It is considered as an annoyance towards other s privacy. Street is placed as a public property, thus the usages of it by several individuals that can cause disturbance and inconvenience to the others are not permitted. But with the lack of public facility to accommodate people s need to gather together, the act tolerance emerges. For a planner this

8 condition should become a base point in designing to provide public facilities with obvious territorial limits between private and public area. On the several occasions, the prophet gave a formula for the minimum wide of street. He considered that with the minimum width the camel could pass by without damaging the building on the both sides of the street, as well as its own body. He gave seven addzra as the minimum measure. (1 addzra is around cm). 9 In the relation to the functions of public space to accommodate common activities, on of them is sholat jamaah (pray in a group), Rasulullah also used landmark as place for praying. Narrated Abu Juhaifa: I saw Allah's Apostle in a red leather tent and I saw Bilal taking the remaining water with which the Prophet had performed ablution. I saw the people taking the utilized water impatiently and whoever got some of it rubbed it on his body and those who could not get any took the moisture from the others' hands. Then I saw Bilal carrying an 'Anza (a spear-headed stick) which he planted in the ground. The Prophet came out tucking up his red cloak, and led the people in prayer and offered two rakaat (facing the Ka'ba) taking 'Anza as a Sutra for his prayer. I saw the people and animals passing in front of him beyond the 'Anza. (hadits by Bukhari) There is also a description in the preceding hadits about how the prophet made the limit of territory symbolically using a spear planted on the earth, on the distance between the group and the spear people must not pass by. It can also be noted from this case how territory separated between sacred and profane area. There was also a change of functions of space, from public space into sacred public space Sacred and Profane Sacred and profane ate two models of existential situation. History of religion, sociology, or ethnology is not the only background of this situation. Even Mercea conveyed in his final analysis that the existential model of sacred and profane depended on the difference of positions where human had conquered the nature (cosmos) 10. A believer of a religion will highly realize the presence of sacred places or those ones that being sacred, thus treating them differently from common places (profane). The closest relation is occurred between the existences of sacred place with the religions and believes. Both of them having the territorial limitation, thus people will behave protecting and maintaining sacred places in particular ways. 9 Agus Suharjono Ekomadyo, (1999) p Mircea Eliade : p. 15

9 Sacred as well as profane conceptual constructed within the human self, thus in turn creating different behaviors. The value of sacredness are often represented in the certain symbols, which will easily affect different behaviors in the certain extend if they are being communicated well enough or has became common language. This value of sacredness can be formed by myths, religions or even by the social status in the certain society. The Sacred Places in Islam. In the quran, the holly city is called as al Haram, the forbidden area. This place was named like that due to the numerous unrighteous acts highly forbidden to be done there. The sins one should bear for doing the acts are heavier than if he or she did it else where. The main sacred city for the Moslem is the Mecca, where standing there the orientation for the Moslem all around the world in doing sholat. It is also conveyed in the quran that al-haram is a safe place with adequate food supply. They say: "If we were to follow the guidance with thee, we should be snatched away from our land." Have we not established for them a secure sanctuary, to which are brought as tribute fruits of all kinds, - a provision from ourselves? But most of them understand not. (quran, 28:57) In one of the hadits, the city of Madina is also a place which is being sacred by the Moslem. Narrated Anas: The Prophet said, "Medina is a sanctuary from that place to that. Its trees should not be cut and no heresy should be innovated nor any sin should be committed in it, and whoever innovates in it a heresy or commits sins (bad deeds), then he will incur the curse of Allah, the angels, and all the people." (See hadits No. 409, Vol 9). Other Islam sacred places are those certain places indicating the presence of Allah on this earth in the history of prophets, such as Shofa and Marwah (QS 2:158), Thursina hill (QS 4:154), Sinai desert (QS 92:24), Thuwa Valley (QS 20:12, 79:16), The conjecture between two ocean (Majma al Bahraini) (QS. 18:60), and of course particular places used to conduct sholat and praising the holly Name of Allah such as mosque and musholla. Particularly on the matter of praying, prophet allowed common place to be used for pray except graveyards. Those holly places are treated in special ways by the Moslem, related to their identity as a place that being sacred. The signs accompany this condition can take form as symbolic border/limit, protection against interferences from the outside, place arrangement and rules to behave in particular ways, as conveyed in one of prophet s hadits :

10 Gender. Narrated Al-Sa'ib bin Yazid: I was standing in the mosque and somebody threw gravel at me. I looked and found that he was 'Umar bin Al-Khattab. He said to me, "Fetch those two men to me." When I did, he said to them, "Who are you? (Or) where do you come from?" They replied, "We are from Ta'if." 'Umar said, "Were you from this city (Medina) I would have punished you for raising your voices in the mosque of Allah's Apostle. (hadits by Bukhari) It can be conveyed that gender is all about things related to the relation between men and women formed by the prevailing values; the values of social, religion and psychological. Gender is not determined by biological factors concerning the sex differences between both of them. In the context of space, gender creates the territorial marked with the access differences between man and woman. To be more clearly, we should notice these following few definition on gender: Kessler and Mc Kenna 11 : considering that gender traditionally is used to point out on certain aspects on psychology, social and culture of maleness and femaleness. According Ivan Illich, gender is something different and more than just merely sex rendering. He talks about a fundamental social polarity that would not be the same in each part of the world. Mansour Fakih 12 observes that gender mostly related with the presence of elements attached and the natures are quite the opposite of each other; the feminine and masculine. Julia Cleves 13 ; gender is actually in biological way already attached from the moment an individual was born. But unlike the sex type that can be identified in immediate moment, gender tends to be more abstract (conceptual). Gender becomes a social issue due to the fact that it is deconstructed by it society, whether intended or not. Gender in the Islamic Point of View In Islam, everything about relationships between men and women have been clearly conveyed in the quran and hadits, including the position, obligation and things that are forbidden to be done, suggested or just merely allowed. As revealed in these following verses: 11 Suzanne J. Kessler & Weendy Mc Kenne (1978), Gender : An Ethnomethodological Approach, Development Tourism, and Gender Analysis: as notified bay Wiwik Dwi Pratiwi, Pangandaran West Java, Indonesia As The Case Study, Student Paper No.37 Canada: York University: p Mansour Fakih (1995) : p Julia Cleves Mosse (1996) : p. 2-5

11 O people! be careful of (your duty to) your Lord, Who created you from a single being and created its mate of the same (kind) and spread from these two, many men and women; and be careful of (your duty to) Allah, by Whom you demand one of another (your rights), and (to) the ties of relationship; surely Allah ever watches over you. (quran An-nisa: 1) Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (Next), refuse to share their beds, (And last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them Means (of annoyance): For Allah is Most High, great (above you all). (quran An-nisa: 34) There are slight differences in the perception between the Salaf ulama (Moslem canonist who shared the same era with the prophet or sahabat ) in elaborating those verses. The thoughts or ideas developing about gender nowadays, partly emphasizing on the demand for right equality and partly on the role division between men and women. What ever pros and cons that occur on this gender matter, still Islam puts its base of thought on the quran and hadits, placing human to his or her natural traits, that they are both created in different manners. Indeed in the Islam syariah there are a lot of different rules for men and women. And according to the Moslem canonist (ulama), those rules are referred to each natural traits belong to men and women. The applied rules can not be considered as the differences of status between men and women. The responsibility differences due to the varied natural traits, physical-biologically, as well as mental-psychologically. This condition puts man one level higher than woman, such as in the house hold life. In the manner of social relationship between man and woman, there are rules to avoid the emerging of false issue. Particularly between those who have mahram and non-mahram relations, closely related to the conduct of eye-sighting. As being conveyed on this following quran verse: Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: and Allah is well acquainted with all that they do. (quran An-nuur : 30) Indeed that in this verse it is not revealed, more over explicitly, about the differences between men and women on the matter of access to the certain places. But there is a clear commandment for man to control his gaze in modesty towards woman.

12 In the real life, the interpretation and implementation of this matter could be varied as far as not in astray from the other main rules conveyed in another verses or hadits. The idea of the basic concept of territory can be referred from proceeding propositions above, such as on the matter of space organizing, circulation line planning, or the making of physical limits. In the social life of several Moslem countries there are some applications of strict rules dividing common room for men and women. These conducts are well supported by the propositions in the quran and hadits. We can observe the similar things in the pesantren pesantren (religious boarding school for Moslem) in Indonesia. The differences on the room access are not to be comprehended as merely prohibition in entering certain space or room due to the gender differences, we must realize that along with the differences of access there are certain consequences to provide the same rooms for the individuals who can not have the access. Thus, the equality of rights to have the same opportunity without mingling with the opposite sex still can be maintained. The similar things also take place on the matter of the distribution or the making of circulation lines dividing men and women. This conducts give us a clear description about how a territory formed as a representative of religious value in a society, in this case the Moslem society. In general as the conclusion of the preceding discourse, it can be uttered that Islam has given the concepts of everyday life aspects, even though not explicitly conveyed. The content of quran and hadits does not give us the description about how to make something, but it shows us how to do something. The concept of territory can be further revealed and elaborated through critical reviews on the rules of behaving in Islam, as well as when we explore the concept of Islamic city, house, and so on. Hopefully, this essay can be useful for the searching of Islamic ideas referred to the quran and hadits. Bibliography 1. Altmant, Irwin., Martin Chemers (1980). Culture and Environment. Brooks. Cole Publishing Co. California. 2. Bahreisy, Salim, (1987), Tarjamah Riadhus Shalihin II, Al Ma arif, Bandung. 3. Carr, Stephen; Mark Francis; Leanne G rivlin; Andrew M Stone. (1992), Public Space, Environment and Behavior Series. Cambridge University Press. 4. Department of Religion Republik Indonesia, (1971) Terjemahan Al Quranul Karim.

13 5. Ekomadyo, Agus Suharjono, (1999), Study on Islamic City. Thesis for Postgraduate in Arsitektur ITB, Bandung. 6. Eliade, Mircea., The Sacred and The Profane, a Harvest Book., Canada. 7. Fakih, Mansour. (1996), Menggeser Transformasi Gender dan Transformasi Sosial, Pustaka Pelajar. Yoyakarta. 8. Hakim, Besim Selim, (1986), Arabic-Islamic Cities. Building and Planning Principles. London.. 9. Ikaputra, (1999). Personal Space proceeding of the seminar on Contemporary Space in Taruma Negara University, Jakarta, Indonesia 10. Lang, John. (1987), Creating Architectural Theory, The Role of Behavior Sciences in Environmental Design., Van Nostrand 11. Mosse, Julia Cleves (1996), Gender dan Pembangunan, Yogyakarta Pustaka Pelajar. Reinhold. co. New York. 12. Newman, Oscar., Diffensible Space, People and Design in The Violent City., Architecture Press., London