The Formation of Secularity in Japan

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1 The Formation of Secularity in Japan The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters. Citation Accessed Citable Link Terms of Use Hardacre, Helen The formation of secularity in Japan. Paper presented at Secularism beyond the West, Onati, Spain. March 3, :22:56 AM EST This article was downloaded from Harvard University's DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at (Article begins on next page)

2 TheFormationofSecularityinJapan 1 Introduction: Thisessayrepresentsanattempttounderstandtheearlyhistoryofsecularityin JapaninthelightofCharlesTaylor sasecularage.followingaskeletalrepriseofthose elementsoftaylor sworkthatseemmostrelevant,itattemptstorecastwell known aspectsofmodernjapanesehistoryandreligioninthelightoftaylor saccount.thepaper closeswithanassessmentoftheattempttoextendtaylor scharacterizationofsecularity tojapan. TheSecularizingDiscourseoftheEarlyMeijiPeriodinTaylorianPerspective Taylor scomplexportrayalofthesecularcontainsmanystrandsofevidenceand argumentatdifferentlevels,rangingfromindividual dilemmas and cross pressures and thetransformationsofelitethought,tobroadsocialchange.amongthese,theperspective thatseemsmostcloselytomatchthechangesthroughwhichjapanbecameasecular societyistaylor spresentationofsecularityasaprojectofelites. 1 Hedevelopsthis characterizationinstages,beginningwithhisdiscussionof thedisciplinarysociety (A SecularAge,chapter2).Byaround1800,hewrites,Europeanelitescametoregarda civilized countryasonethatcurtaileddisorder(whichtheyidentifiedwithsin)by restrictingcarnivalandotheraspectsofpopularreligion,confiningtheinsane,andina morepositivemode,educatingthemassesinrationality,self discipline,andself control. Theseeliteinterventionsdependedonapriorassumptionofthemalleabilityofhuman natureandonelites confidencethattheycouldmoldthemassesinimitationofcivilizing ideals.taylorassertsthatelitesabsorbedbuttressingideasfromdeism,namelythat humanflourishing isthehighestpurposeofdivineprovidence;thatreasonissufficientto discerntheorderofexistence;adenialofmiracles,andtheideathattheuniverseoperates accordingtoimpersonalrules(asecularage,pp ).Temporalframesofreference changed,sothattheimageemergedofsocietiesevolvingthroughstages,basedonideasof thescottishenlightenment.naturally,europeansocietywascharacterizedas civilized, whiletherestoftheworldoccupiedlessdevelopedstages(asecularage,pp ).At anindividuallevel,thesechangesbroughtelitesan ethicoffreedom, disengagedreason, anda senseofinvulnerability (ASecularAge,p.300).Taylorholdsthatsecularization originatedinthechangedconditionsofbeliefthatcharacterizethisdisciplined,rational order(asecularage,p.295).heemphasizesrepeatedlythatthiscomplexprocesscannot bereducedtoa subtractiontheory, accordingtowhichinmodernityhumanityattainsto 1 Acknowledgements:Theauthorbenefitedgreatlyfrommanystimulatingdiscussionswith themembersofreligion1097:secularitybeyondthewest(harvarduniversity,2011): GregoryClines,AdamLyons,MichaelLesley,SethRobinson,ClaireTyree,Alyssa Yamamoto,SeijiHoshino,andHideakiKurita,andalsowithAlbertCraigandJason Josephson.

3 rationalitybysheddingreligiousbeliefs(seeforexamplepp.22 29,passim;157,169,245, 253,270,294, , ). Theideaofsecularityasaneliteprojectemergesevenmoresharplyintheworksof TalalAsadandhisinterpreters. 2 Forexample,summarizingAsad swork,partha Chatterjee scharacterizationaccuratelyexpresseswhatunfoldedinjapan: Inallcountriesandineveryhistoricalperiod,secularizationhasbeenacoercive processinwhichthelegalpowersofthestate,thedisciplinarypowersoffamilyand school,andthepersuasivepowersofgovernmentandmediahavebeenusedto producethesecularcitizenwhoagreestokeepreligionintheprivatedomain. 3 Japan sfirstencounterwithsecularitywasinseparablefrommid nineteenth centurywesternimperialism.thejapanesewereacutelyawareofchina sdegradationand defeatintheopiumwars,andtheysawclearlythatiftheyfailedtostrengthenjapan, Westernpowerswouldcolonizeit.Determinationtopreventcolonizationwasapowerful forceinthemeijirestorationof1868,arevolutionthatoverthrewthetokugawa shogunateandbroughttopowerasmallgroupofoligarchsfromwesternjapan.thenew governmentstruggledtofortifyandmodernizethecountrywithinrestrictive,unequal treaties. WesternpowerspressuredJapantoWesternizeinordertobeconsidered civilized, makingthistransformationaconditionforrevisionoftradetreatiesthat disadvantagedjapanthroughextraterritorialityprovisions,oneroustariffs,andother diplomatichumiliations.nationalpridewasstungbyclichésaboutthesavageryof Orientals, deployedtojustifyshieldingforeignersfromthejapaneselegalsystem.the tariffsburdenedthenewgovernmentandpreventeditfromprotectingnascentjapanese industries.nothinglessthanjapan sindependencewasatstake.inanefforttoescapethis semi colonialsubjugation,japancompliedasfastaspossiblewithwesterndemandsfor reform,usheringinamassivecampaignofwesternization.educatingthepeopleand creatingamodernmilitarywerethefirstordersofbusiness.theministryofeducationwas establishedin1871,inauguratingaprogramofcompulsoryeducationfollowingamerican andfrenchmodels.conscriptionwasinstitutedin1873.inthatsameyearadebatearose inthegovernmentoveraplantoinvadekorea.whiletheproponentswereeventually defeated,itwaswidelyassumedthatjapanshouldacquirecoloniesofitsown,alongthe linesofthewesternempires. AsJapanenteredtreatyrelationswithWesternpowers,itwasnecessarytofinda Japanesetermfor religion. 4 Thewordeventuallyappropriatedwasshūkyō,meaning literally,the teachings (kyō)ofa sect (shū).thiswordhadbeenusedpreviouslyin technicalbuddhistwritings,butitwasnotpartofthevernacular.severalpre modern termsexpressedtheideaoffaithordesignatedgroupspracticingdifferentstylesof worship,butpre MeijiJapandidnotconceiveofreligionasageneralphenomenon,of whichtherearelocalvariantslikebuddhism,judaism,christianity,etc. 5 Shūkyōpointed towardsapropositionaldefinitionofreligion.itdidnotimmediatelybecomepartofthe vernacularfollowingitsuseintreaties,butsuchearlywesternizersasfukuzawayukichi 2

4 andmembersofthemeirokusocietyusedit(seebelow). 6 JapaneseSecularThought Bythemid 1870savigorousdebateon civilizationandenlightenment (bunmei kaika)inthenewjapanwasunderway,producingadiscourseofsecularity.promotionof secularthoughtunderwesterninfluenceandpressureisanaspectofjapan sexperience thathasnoparallelinwesternhistory(obviously)orintaylor snarrative.partha Chatterjee sremarksonthecircumstancesgoverningtheappearanceofsecularityinasia arehighlyinstructive: [S]ecularizationisnecessarilyanormativeprojectformulatedanddirectedbya smalleliteminority.thehistoricalchallengebeforethiseliteistosteertheproject byusingthecoercivelegalpowersofthestateaswellastheprocessesofreformof religiousdoctrineandpractice allwithinaglobalcontextwherepowermustbe legitimizedbyalargemeasureofpopularconsent.thisisataskthatis unprecedentedinwesternhistory. 7 WewillexaminethethoughtofFukuzawaYukichi( ),widelyregardedas thecentralfigureinjapanesethoughtduringthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury, thepersonmoreresponsiblethananyotherforprovidingthe intellectualimpetus for Japan smodernization. 8 FukuzawawaswellreadintheScottishEnlightenmentthinkers, andhadthoroughlyabsorbedtheirstadialtheoryofcivilization. 9 Fukuzawa sgoalasa writer,journalist,translatorofwesterntexts,exponentofwesternways,andlateras educatorandfounderofjapan sfirstprivateuniversitywas tocreateinjapanacivilized nationaswellequippedintheartsofwarandpeaceasthoseofthewesternworld. 10 FukuzawaandtherestoftheintellectualeliteoftheearlyMeijiperiod( ) beganlifeasmembersofthesamuraiclassattheendoftheprecedingtokugawaperiod ( ).TheywereeducatedintheConfucianclassicsandtrainedtoremainaloof from superstition. Becauseofanationalpolicyrequiringeveryonetobeaparishionerof abuddhisttemple,elitessupportedbuddhistancestralrites,andwereburiedorcremated bybuddhistceremony.theydidnotusually,however,admirebuddhism.theirconfucian teachersregardedbuddhismasotherworldlyanditsclergyascorrupt.elitescriticized Buddhismasirrationalandoverlyconcernedwiththeafterlife.Thoseinauthorityregarded Buddhismastheyregardedreligiongenerally:usefulforregulatingthepopulace,but unsuitableasaphilosophyforthemselves. 11 ThusinthetransitiontotheMeijiperiod, elitesdidnotpassthroughanythinganalogoustotaylor sturntodeism.theirconfucian backgroundwassufficienttoprovideahumanist,mostlyatheist,this worldlymindset. TheearlyMeijielitehadeducatedthemselvesinWesternlanguages,history, philosophy,andculture,oftenincludingintensestudyofdutchandthenenglishwhenthey wereyoungmenbeforetherestoration,andlaterthroughperiodsofforeigntraveland study.theyregardededucationasessentialtomaintainingjapan sindependencefrom predatorywesternimperialism.manyofthementeredthenewgovernment 12 and encouragedwesternizationofsociety.in1871,thegovernmentcommandedallmentocut 3

5 offtheirtopknots,makingwesternhaircutsthenorm.allmalecivilservantsweretowear Westernattire,andstudentssoonadoptedWestern styleuniforms.women sfashions shiftedtowesternstylemoreslowly,beginningwithparasols,shawls,andother accessories.therokumeikan,ordeercrypavilion,ahallincentraltokyoadjacenttothe imperialpalace,becameanemblematicsiteforthesesartorialreforms.prominent membersofjapanesegovernmentandelitesocietymetwithwesternersatthe RokumeikantodisplaytheirmasteryofEnglishandsuchWesternconventionsasballroom dancingandpublicmixingofthesexes.thearistocracyadoptedwesternformaldressfor therokumeikanballs,whichwerefrequentlypicturedinwoodblockprints.thesechanges indress,deportment,andstylesofsocialinteractionundoubtedlyproducedmanystresses thattaylormightdescribeas dilemmas and cross pressures. 13 Cartoonistshadgreat funparodyingtheeliteasitenactedwesternways. 14 Thegreatdividebetweenthe modernizingeliteandthemassoftheruralpeasantry,theironiesoflifeamonganelitethat knewmoreaboutwesternthoughtandsocietythanaboutjapan sownintellectualhistory, themixtureofhubris,arrogance,andvanityamongthebureaucracy alltheseelements providedrichsubjectsforjapanesewriters. 15 Aperennialoptimist,FukuzawabelievedthatJapancouldbecomearational,ethical societybasedonscience,thespiritofindependence,andeducation.hedidnotregard religionasessentialtowesterncivilizationortojapan sattainmentofcivilization,yethe wroteovereightyessaysonreligion. 16 Inonepieceparticularlynotableforitsutilitarian pragmatism,hewrotethatjapanshouldconformtowesternwaysinreligionandpermit thepracticeofchristianity,ifonlytoescapebeingostracizedbywesternnations. 17 Hewas not,however,anadvocateofchristianity;hecomparedthemedievaljapanesebuddhist saintshinran( )favorablytoLuther,notingthatwhileShinranhadpreached universalsalvation,rejectedkilling,andinspiredhissecttomassivegrowth,lutherwas responsibleforacenturyofbloodyreligiouswars. 18 DespiteadmiringShinran,however, FukuzawatendedtodisparageJapanesepopularreligiouslifeandtoregarditasbasedon ignorance. 4

6 5 [Alackofrationalthinking]gaveriseto[theJapanesepeople sbelief]thatdemons andgodsexist.theynamedthecausesofcalamities evilgods...andofnature s blessings, goodgods...injapan,themyriadgodsofshinto...werejustsuch beings. 19 ForFukuzawaandotherMeijielites,loyaltytothenationwasthehighestvalue. LoyaltymeantacommitmenttoJapanbecomingarichcountrywithastrongmilitary (fukokukyōhei).fukuzawaworried,however,thatwithoutsometranscendentauthorityto inspireloyalty,thenation sresolvemightfalter. Itisextremelydifficulttomaintainmoralitywithoutreligion.Thegreatscholarsof thewestconstantlystrugglewiththisproblem.yet...injapan...oursamuraihave beenabletomaintainahighpersonalmoralitywhileignoringreligion...onereason isthattheywereaidedbyconfucianism WhileConfucianismmighthaveperformedthisusefulfunctioninthepast,however, FukuzawaregardeditasoutmodedandinappropriatetomodernJapan.Asaprovisional measuretosustainmorality,herecommendedthatthegovernmentnurtureindigenous piety.asthemassesgrewmorerational,hebelieved,theywouldbeabletosloughoff religionandsuperstitionandcultivatethemselvesinloyalty,liketheelite. 21 Heimagined Japan sidealtransformationasa subtractionstory, inwhichreligionwouldbe supplantedbyphilosophy,buttheproblemofsecularmorality sultimatesourceremained unresolved. Fukuzawa spublicationsemergedalongsidedebatesonreligioninthejournalofthe MeirokuSociety,agroupofintellectualstowhichhebelonged. 22 TheMeirokuSocietywas foundedbymoriarinori(seebelow)in1873topromotecivilizationandenlightenment.it publishedforty threeissuesofitsjournalovertheyears1874to1875,forapublic exchangeofviewsonawiderangeofissuesfacingthenewjapan. 23 TheSociety distinguishedbetweenindividualbeliefandoutwardpractice,regardingprivateconviction astheessenceofreligion.ultimatelytheyrejectedtheideaofastatereligionforjapan. 24 LikesecularizingEuropeanelitesbeforethem,MeirokuSocietymembersweresupremely confidentoftheirabilitytomoldsocietytoadopttheirvision.regardingtherelationof religiontothestate,moriwrote, Ifeelthatreligiousmattersshouldbelefttothe individualpreferenceofthepeoplesincethegovernment sresponsibilityisonlytoprotect humanlifeandproperty. 25 NishiAmane,whowroteseveralessaysonreligionforthe Society sjournal,tookthepositionthatsincethestatecannotcompelthepeopletobelieve inanyparticularcreed,itshouldstayoutofthequestionofbeliefentirely....[t]hegovernmentofficesforsupervisingreligionsshouldbeallowednomore controloverreligionthanisnecessarytopreventreligiousdisturbances.weneed notbothertoquestionwhetherpeoplebelieveinfoxes,badgers,buddhas,orangels. Thefateofthevariousreligionsisentirelytheirresponsibility,notours.Weare interestedonlyinpreventinginjurybyreligiontotemporalrule,protectingthis

7 6 principlestrictly,andpunishingthosewhotransgressit.noristhestateconcerned withwhetheracertainreligionisrightorwrong. 26 Atthetime,thegovernmentwasinthemidstoftheGreatPromulgationCampaign ( ,Taikyōsenpuundō),inwhichitreliedonagroupofnativistscholarsand ShintoactiviststocomposeandpropagateanationalcreedlooselybasedonShinto.The Campaignfailedmiserablyandexposedthegovernmenttowidespreadridiculeforthe fabricatednatureofthecreedandtheincompetenceofthepeoplerecruitedtopreachit. 27 Fukuzawawrotein1875,...Shintohasnotyetestablishedabodyofdoctrine...Shintohasalwaysbeenthe puppetofbuddhism...itisonlyaninsignificantmovementtryingtomakeheadway bytakingadvantageoftheimperialhouseatatimeofpoliticalchange. 28 TheviewsofFukuzawaandtheMeirokuSocietymemberscanbeunderstoodasacritique ofthegovernment sheavy handedeffortstoindoctrinatethepeopleinwhatamountedtoa statedoctrine. 29 ThefailureoftheCampaignultimatelyturnedthegovernmenttoward acceptanceoflimitedreligiousfreedom,whichwasthepositionoffukuzawaandthe MeirokuSociety.Thatidealwasincludedinthe1889Meijiconstitution stwenty eighth article: Japanesesubjectsshall,withinlimitsnotprejudicialtopeaceandorder,andnot antagonistictotheirdutiesassubjects,enjoyfreedomofreligiousbelief. 30 MeijiBuddhistReformMovements Inarecentwork,Taylorcharacterizesthekindofreligionthatisacceptableto secularizingelites: Agood,orproper,religionisasetofbeliefsinGodorsomeothertranscendent power,whichentailsanacceptable,or,insomeversions,a rational morality.itis devoidofanyelementsthatdonotcontributetothismoralityandthusof superstition. 31 Chatterjeesummarizeshowsuchareligioncouldemerge: Sometimesthishasbeendonebyputtingexternalandforcibleconstraintsonthe publicpoliticalpresenceofreligion...morecompatiblewithliberalpoliticalvalues, however,andinmanywaysthemoresuccessfulprocesshasbeenthesecularization resultingfromaninternalreformofreligionitself. 32 Asweshallseebelow,earlyMeijipersecutionofBuddhismstimulatedreform movementsthatgreatlytransformedbuddhistintellectuals conceptionsoftheessenceof Buddhism,turningitintoasetofindividualbeliefsfromwhich superstitious elements hadbeeneliminated.thenewmeijigovernmentwithdrewthepatronagethatbuddhism hadformerlyenjoyedthroughtwomoves,an1868edictcallingfor separationofthe

8 BuddhasfromtheKami (KamiarethesupernaturalsofShinto),andlawslegalizingclerical marriageandmeateating(1872). 33 Theseparationedictwaswidelyunderstoodto encouragetheexterminationofbuddhism.templeswereransacked.kamiimagesand symbolsweretakenoutoftemples,buddhistimagesandpersonnelwereremovedfrom shrines,andthousandsofpriestswereforcedtolaicize.theformerrequirementthat everyonebeatempleparishionerwasallowedtolapse.templeandshrinelandswere seizedandmanytemplesrazedortheirbuildingsconvertedtosecularpurposes. 34 This edict,whichrepresentedtheadoptionofthemostvirulentanti Buddhistviewsof hardlineshintoandnativistscholars, resultedinthedestructionofasmanyas125,400 temples,or63percentofthetotal. 35 TheedictdrasticallyundercutBuddhism seconomic baseandunderminedsociety srespectforit.likewise,thegovernment sabandonmentof itsroleasenforcerofsectarianlaw,signaledbytheedictallowingprieststomarryandeat meat,plungedbuddhistdenominationsintodebateoverclericalmarriage. 36 Bothofthese policiesstimulatedreformistattemptstorestorebuddhism shonor,itsauthorityamong thepeople,andthegovernment strust.theresultbroughtbuddhismintolinewith secularists ideasofthepropersortofreligionformodernjapan. InoueEnryo( ),aninfluentialMeiji periodbuddhistreformer,writer,and educator,dedicatedhiscareertoriddingbuddhismof superstition. Hisaimwastoreform Buddhismfromwithinandthustotransformitintoarespectedadjunctofgovernment.He especiallywantedtoextirpatebeliefindemonicspirits.tothatend,hecomposedan encyclopedicstudyofpopularbeliefsinmonsters(yōkai)andbecameknownas Dr. Monster (yōkaihakase).heinveighedagainstpopularbeliefsinpossessionbyanimal spiritssuchasfoxesandbadgers,beliefsinastrology,thepowerofcurses,anddivination, andbeliefintengu(wingedspirits,combiningbirdandhumancharacteristics,that representedevilmountainasceticsreborninmonstrousform).inouealsosoughttopurge Buddhismofcosmologicalelementsthatwerenotconfirmedbyscience,suchthenotion thattheuniversecentersonthecosmicmountainsumeru.inoueassertedfurtherthattrue Buddhismisentirelyinaccordwithscience,andwaspreparedtojettisonas superstition anythingthatdidnotmeetscientificstandards.heendedupdescribingbuddhismasaset ofprivate,individualbeliefsshornofsuperstition,thusaligningbuddhismwiththe secularists ideal.laterbuddhistreformersofthe1890scontinuedinoue santisuperstitioncampaignasthecentralelementoftheiragenda. 37 EarlyMeijiBuddhismstruggledtoreconcileitsworld denyingaspectwiththe nationalgoalofjapanbecomingarichcountrywithastrongmilitary.reformerstriedto rebuildbuddhisminlinewiththenewgovernment,by modernizing themselvesthrough foreignstudy,andbyencouragingthereligiontotakeonnewsocialroles. 38 Shimaji Mokurai( )wasoneofthemosttalentedyoungBuddhistclericstobesent abroadforstudy.europeantravelledhimtoadvocatereligiousfreedom,separationof religionfromstate,andtheconceptofhumanrights.heregardedhumanrightsasan importantindexofthelevelofasociety sdevelopment.likeinoueenryo,hetriedto reconcilebuddhismwithscience.healsoattemptedtoallybuddhismwithwesternideas oftruthinanefforttoharmonizebuddhismwithwesternphilosophy. 39 ŌuchiSeiran ( ),aBuddhistlaymanactivefromtheRestorationtothe1890s,arguedfora trans sectarianlaybuddhism.hearguedthatthestateshouldstayoutoftherealmof 7

9 religion,andalsothatbuddhismcouldbeapowerfulmeansofenlighteningthepeople. BothmenwroteprolificallyandfoundedanumberofBuddhistsocietiesandjournals.Both heldthatbuddhismshouldengageinsocialwelfarework,apositionthatwecanregardas resistingtheassertionthatreligionshouldbeentirelyabsentfromthepublicdomain. 40 Buddhistreformcampaignsclearlyillustratethewayinwhichelites secularizingagendas stimulatedthecreationofnewreligiousformsconformingtothoseagendas.secularityand religionthusmayberegardedasmutuallyconstitutedphenomenainmeijijapan. TheAnti SuperstitionCampaigninEducation Thepublicschoolswerethesinglemostimportantagencyinspreadingasecular outlookamongthepeople.moriarinori( ),founderoftheMeirokuSociety, servedasjapan sfirstministerofeducationfrom1885to1889.hisadministrationputin placeanti superstitionmeasuresthatpersistedthroughthefirstdecadeofthetwentieth century.adrivetoeradicatepopularbeliefintenguwascentraltotheeffort.tenguwere believedtocauseillnessthroughspiritpossession,andpeopletraditionallyemployed healerstoperformcuresthroughexorcisms.theministryofeducationtriedtostampout these superstitions throughtextbooksonmorality,acompulsorysubjectintroducedto thepublicschoolsfrom TodevelopMoralitypedagogy,thegovernmentconveneda blue ribboncommitteethatincludedinoueenryo. 42 Anti superstitionlessonswere incorporatedintomoralitytextbooks,undersuchtitlesasmeishinniochiruna(don tfall intosuperstition!)andmeishinosakeyō(avoidsuperstition!).oneexamplefromthese lessonswasthestoryofanoldwomanwhoconsultedaphysicianonlyafterseveral unsuccessfulattemptstohaveshamansandfaithhealerscureheroftrachoma.bythetime shegottoa real doctor(onetrainedinwesternmedicine),itwastoolate,andshe becameblind.shedeeplyregrettedthatshehad fallenintosuperstition. 43 SecularityandStateShinto InthesametimeframeasBuddhistreformsandtheeducationalsystem santisuperstitionmeasures,japanesenationalism,alsoadefensivereactionagainstwestern imperialism,burgeonedintoanideological,semi religiousphenomenonofitsown,state Shinto. 44 StateShintobecameanimportantelementofMeijisecularityinthesenseofits usebythegovernmentandthemediatosuppressheterodoxreligionsoftheperiodandto moldimperialsubjects.accordingtothomasdubois,thisphenomenoninjapanwas mirroredin theattempts...ofthestatesofpostcolonialasiatoreplicatesacredand transcendentprinciplesofnationalunity. 45 Theseattemptsoccasionallyusedreligionovertly,asinstatecultsorreligious monarchies,butmorefrequentlyinvolvedthepseudo sacralizationofthestate.this wasmostspectacularlypursuedthroughtheequationofthenationalbodywith culticfigures,suchasthejapanesemeijiemperor,maozedong,orsukarno,who werethemselvestheembodimentoftranscendentstrugglesfornationalwealthand power,marxistdestiny,andanti imperialistterritorialintegrity,respectively.in eachcasethenewstatecreatedandheldfasttoasacredideologythatwasmeantto galvanizecitizensbyinspiringthemwithvisionsofthenationalpast,present,and 8

10 9 future.asithadineurope,thenationalessencebecamethesoulofpubliclife,while otherbeliefs,particularlythosedefinedas religious,wereoftencordonedofftoan optionalandprivaterealm. 46 Ineffect,StateShintosolvedthepuzzlethathadsoperturbedFukuzawaashe worriedhowmoralitycouldbeupheldwithoutatranscendentreligiousauthority.the answeremergedinacultofthenationandthemonarch,transcendingtheprivatized sphereofreligion,itsobservancesmadeobligatoryforimperialsubjects,whatevertheir personalreligiousbeliefs.theglorified nationalstructure or nationalpolity (kokutai) andtheimperialhouseultimatelyemergedasmorality stranscendentsource. AtthetimeoftheRestoration s1868edictto separatebuddhasfromkami, however,shintodidnotexistasafreestanding,independentreligioustradition.during mostofitshistory,ithadbeencocoonedwithinbuddhism,andduringtheearlymodern periodmanyshrineswereeitheradministeredbybuddhistclergyorsimplymanaged informallybythepeasantry.exceptforahandfulthathadbecomepilgrimagesites,shrines werepreeminentlylocalinstitutionslackinghorizontalnetworks.therewasnotheology unitingthewholeorevenasignificantportionofthem.thusshrinepriests,neversowell educatedasbuddhistclerics,werenotpreparedtofunctiononanationalstagein1868,as thefailureofthegreatpromulgationcampaignhadamplydemonstrated. Inresponsetothisreality,thebureaucracytookcharge.Allshrinesandtheirpriests cameundernationalmanagement;theywereincorporatedintoauniformrankingsystem andorderedtoperformanannualcalendarofritualcoordinatedwiththeemperor spalace rites.allshrinesweredesignatedpublicfacilitiesfortheperformanceofstateritual.they wereexplicitlynottoberegardedasreligious.thisbureaucraticfictioncouldneverbe trulyreconciled,however,withtraditionalshrinedevotions,privateceremonies,andlocal festivalsthatwereoverwhelminglyreligiousincharacterandtowhichthepeoplewere deeplyattached. Inordertorefocusshrinesonthenation,thegovernmentconstructednewshrines tohonordeifiedemperors,historicalimperialloyalists,toprovideasymbolicbulwark againstforeigninfluenceintheportcities,andforthewardead. 47 AsmainlandJapanese movedintookinawaandhokkaidō,theyestablishedshrinestherethatwerealso incorporatedintothenationalsystem.by1945,some1640shrineshadbeenestablishedin thecoloniesthroughoutthejapaneseempire.duringtheearlymeijiperiod,shrineswere administeredalongsidetemples,butasof1900theshrinesweregiventheirownshrine BureauwithintheHomeMinistry. SeeninthelightofTaylor saccountofsecularization,shrinesweretransformedto serveasofficialsitesforobligatoryexpressionsofloyaltytothenation,whilereligionwas relegatedtotheprivatesphere.onlywithintheprivatespheredidpeopleenjoyfreedomof religion.buddhistpriestswereforbiddentostandforelection,andshintopriestswere forbiddentopreach,elementspointingtowardaprohibitiononreligiousexpressioninthe publicrealmbytheseclerics.yetwhilethepublicspherewasshapedbytheseexclusions, overallthisisnotastoryof subtraction butofcentrallyorchestratedcreation,addition,

11 sculpting,andmoldingofaritualorderexplicitlyplacedoutsidethesphereofreligion,to glorifythenationanditstranscendentsourceofmorality,theemperor.notonlythat,state Shintowasalsoanintegralpartofsecularizingeffortstoeradicateheterodoxreligions. ModernMediaPolicetheBoundariesofReligion In1894thenewlyestablishednewspaperYorozuchōhōbuiltitscirculationthrough sustainedexposésofthenewreligionrenmonkyō(literally, ChurchoftheLotusGate )and itsfounder,shimamuramitsu( ),accusingherandherfollowersofsexualand financialmisconduct,besmirchingshinto simage,andleadingthepeopleintosuperstition. YorozuchōhōwasaTokyodailytabloid,whichhadgainedpopularityexposingthescandals ofupper classsociety. 48 Shimamura sbiographicaldetailshavenotbeendeterminedwith certainty,butitseemsthatshebeganhealinginkokurainthelate1870sandmovedto Tokyoin1882.Whenacholeraepidemicstruckthatyear,shebegantodistribute holy water, whichsheclaimedcouldcurecholera. 49 Fromthelate1870sthrough1895,therewereannualoutbreaksofcholera, dysentery,typhoidfever,smallpox,anddiptheria.majorcholeraoutbreakswithdeathtolls over10,000occurredinjapanin1879,1882,1885,1886,1890,and1895(coincidingwith Renmonkyō smajorgrowth).overseventypercentofthoseinfecteddied,meaningthat contractingthediseasewasavirtualdeathsentence.moreover,therewasnocureatthe time.amedicalsystemhadbeenestablishedinjapanin1874,whileapublichealthsystem wasestablishedin1879,buttheonlyeffectivemeasurewastoslowcholera sspreadwas byquarantiningthevictims.tobequarantinedwastobegivenupfordead,sopeoplewere understandablyreluctanttocomplywithquarantineorders.perhapsinresponse,public healthenforcementwasshiftedtothepoliceasof1893.sincemedicalsciencehadsolittle tooffer,perhapsitisnotsurprisingthatpeoplewouldhaveflockedtorenmonkyōforholy water,atreatmentthatwasarguablynotmuchlesseffectivethanthemeasuresthat governmentcouldprovide. In1882thegovernmentintroducedadistinctionbetweenshrineShintoandthe sectarianvarietiesofshinto,implicitlylimitingthesphereofrecognizedreligiousgroups outsideoftheshrines,buddhism,orchristianitytoorganizationsbelongingtooneof thirteenshintosects.numerousreligiousassociationsformedfromhealingcultsora founder srevelationsaffiliatedwithtaiseikyō,oneoftherecognizedshintosects,asa meansofacquiringrecognitionandprotectionfrompoliceinvestigations.taiseikyō s criteriaforacceptingsuchaffiliationswerelooseandflexible,evenacceptinggroupswith norealclaimtoshintoidentity. 50 In1883ShimamuraaffiliatedhergroupwithTaiseikyō, evidentlyhopingthatthemergerwouldprovideprotectionfromfurtherpolicescrutiny, althoughrenmonkyō sdoctrineswerederivedfrombuddhism.thegroupmarkedthat yearasthedateofitsofficialfounding. Renmonkyōgrewto900,000members,atsuchafastpacethatby1884itwasable toerectbuildingsinkokuraandtokyothatoccupiedawholecityblock,amassiveand unusualdisplayofwealthforanewlyestablishedreligionofthetime.thenumberof branchchurchesrosetorapidlyinjapan,withoverseasbranchesinhongkongand 10

12 Shanghai.Thegroup sphenomenalgrowthwasalsoevidentinshimamura smeteoricrise intheranksoftaiseikyō,reachingitstoprankingofgrandmaster(daikyōsei)by1890. Renmonkyō sstunninggrowth,wealth,andpromotionofholywatergaveita public characteratoddswithsecularists beliefsaboutreligion srightfulconfinementtothe privaterealm. Butaftersustainedattackin1894byYorozuchōhōandothernewspapers, membershipdroppedsharply.thepaperscriticizedtheuseofholywater,claimingthat Renmonkyō smeetingswereplacesofassignationandsexualimpropriety,thatshimamura herself(oversixtybythistime,whichmeantthatshewasaveryoldwomanforjapanof thattime)wassexuallyimmoral,andalsothatsheledthefemalemembersintoimmorality, evenforcingthemtohaveabortions.thisgendereddynamicinyorozuchōhō sattack displayedpalpablemisogyny.otherreligiousgroupsusedholywaterorequally superstitious elementsincuring,however,sothisfactordidnotsetrenmonkyōapart definitively.oneofyorozuchōhō smosttellingcriticismswasthechargethatrenmonkyō sulliedthepurityofshinto.thegistwasasfollows:renmonkyōfalselycallsitself Shinto. Toallowittoexistinanyform"istoallowthespiritualbasisofShintotobedestroyed,to damagethedignityoftheimperialancestors,andtodespoiltheentiretyoftheimperial dignityandtheprestigeofournationalpolity."forthisreason,"thisevilreligionshouldbe deniedthenameofshinto,"andtheauthoritiesshoulddisbanditimmediately. ShintoistheWayenshriningthespiritofJapan'simperialancestors;ourpeopledo notrevereshintobecauseitisareligion,butbecauseitistheway,whichdeifiesthe imperialhouseandreveresthenationalpolity.asaresult,forshintotobeinjuredis forthenationalpolityandtheimperialhousetobeinjured,andforthenoblespirits tobedefiled. 51 Havingnoindependentmediaofitsown,Renmonkyōwasunabletorespondeffectively, andcouldonlygetitspointofviewtothepublicthroughthefilteroftheverynewspapers thatwerededicatedtoitsdestruction. ComparingYorozuchōhō scoverageofrenmonkyōwiththatinotherpapers,we findthatwhileyorozuchōhōcarried94articlesaboutthegroupfromlatemarchthrough lateapril,1894,theolder,establishednewspapersdidnotfindrenmonkyōnearlyso newsworthy. 52 Forexample,duringtheperiodoftheYorozuchōhōexposé,theAsahi shinbuncarriedsixarticles,whiletheyomiurishinbuncarriedthree,excludingrebuttals thatrenmonkyōitselfplacedwithbothpapersinafutileefforttocounterthecharges againstit. 53 Evenafterthe1882divisionbetweenshrineandsectShinto,theexistenceof miscellaneousreligiousassociationsoutsidethesphereofstateshintohadbeenmoreor lesstolerated,providedforunderthemechanismofaffiliationwitharecognizedshinto sect.butyorozuchōhōarguedthatthebureaucratsadministeringreligiousaffairswerenot doingenoughupholdshinto.arousingprurientinterestthroughluridsuggestion,the paper ssustainedcoveragefocusedpublicattentiononthepaper sdemandthatthe religionbedisbanded,eventuallygoadingtaiseikyō,thepolice,andthebureauoftemples 11

13 andshrinestoactagainstrenmonkyō.taiseikyōstrippedshimamuraofhergrandmaster ranking,andthebureaurepeatedlyrequiredshimamuraandotherleaderstoappearfor questioning.thepublichealthofficerswithinthepolicedeterminedthatrenmonkyō s holywater wasunfitforhumanconsumptionandorderedthatitsdistributioncease (April28,1894). 54 Whilethisorderdidnotofficiallydisbandthereligion,itsnumbers droppedprecipitouslyandmadeitimpossibletocarryon. Theincidentquicklyescalatedtoa witchhunt, determinedtoridsocietyofanevil inaneraofrepeatedepidemics.renmonkyōwasaneasytarget;havinggrowntomassive sizeovernight,ithadnotyethadtimetodevelopdoctrineofsignificantphilosophical depth.itsgrowthwasmainlydependentuponitsreputationforcholera curingholywater, andwithoutthat,renmonkyōmaynothavehadmuchtooffer.japan snewly established medicalandpublichealthsystemsundoubtedlyregardedholywaterbothasaharmful superstitionandachallengetotheirauthority.whenpoliceprohibitedholywater distribution,renmonkyōwasboundtolosemembers,nomatterwhatthenewspaperssaid aboutit.itisdifficult,however,toestimatethelikelihoodthatthepolicewouldhaveacted withoutyorozuchōhō sreporting. Themediaemergedattheendofthenineteenthcenturyasanew,non government agentseekingtonarrowthesphereoftoleratedreligionsandtosuppressreligious associationsofwhichitdisapprovedbyfomentingwidespreadpublicdisapproval.the Renmonkyōincidentisintegrallyrelatedtosecularity,becauseYorozuchōhō scoverage workedtoconvincereadersthatonly approved formsofreligionshouldbeallowed,and thatsocietyisendangeredifaheterodoxreligionshowsrapidgrowth,conspicuouswealth, orwomeninpublicroles.inspiteofbureaucraticrhetorictotheeffectthatshintoisnota religion,yorozuchōhōproceededasifitwereastatereligionwhosehonorandpuritywere pollutedbyrenmonkyō sveryexistence.thisincidentwasaprecursorforasimilar persecutionofanotherfemale headedreligion,tenrikyō,in Theincidentprobably encouragedtheleadersofyetanotherrapidlyexpanding,female foundednewreligious movementoftheearlytwentiethcentury,ōmoto,topurchasetheirownnationallycirculatingnewspaper,sothatintheeventofamediaattacklikeyorozuchōhō stheywould haveawaytotelltheirsideofthestory. 56 Renmonkyō sinabilitytorespondeffectivelyto mediaattackforwantofitsownmouthpieceillustratesvividlythewayinwhichthepublic sphereinasecularstatecanappeartobealevelplayingfieldforallvoicesbutoperatein facttoexcludeandsuppressreligionsthatrefusetoconfinethemselvestotheprivate realm. 57 TheRenmonkyōincidentinauguratedanantagonisticrelationbetweenreligion andmediainjapanthatarguablypersiststothepresentday. Conclusion ViewedinthelightofCharlesTaylor saccountofsecularity,japanmaybeseenasan earlyexampleofanelitewesternizing,secularizingprojectundertakenindefensive reactionagainstwesternimperialism,precedingsimilardevelopmentsinturkey,india, Indonesia,andChina.Earlierscholarshipviewedsecularityasapassive,neutralby product ofmodernization,butexaminingsecularityasaneliteprojectallowsustounderstanditas anhistoricalphenomenonwithactorswhodebatethesocialrolesofreligionandcreate 12

14 bureaucraticmechanismsfortheproductionofasecularpopulace.weseemoreclearly howelitedebatesinformedthebureaucracythatcreatedtheinstitutionalmeansfor indoctrinatingthepopulacewitheliteideals.weobtainanewunderstandingofbuddhist reformmovementsasactingintandemwiththebureaucracyto privatize Buddhism,in linewithsecularists conceptionofreligionasproperlybelongingtotheprivatesphere, alongwithanelementofresistanceinthecallforbuddhistsocialwelfaremeasures.we haveseenhowsecularityinjapanisintegrallyrelatedtonationalismanditssacralization ofthestateandthemonarch.thisunderstandingallowustodevelopaperspectiveon StateShintoasprovidingananalogtoastatereligion,preciselyandparadoxicallybecause ofthefictionthatitwasnotareligion.wecanseehowthemediaactedtodepresssociety s toleranceforheterodoxreligions,ostensiblytoupholdshinto shonor,therebystimulating thegovernmenttosuppressformsofreligionthatdidnotconformtothesecularorder. Beyondthesediscreteresults,however,wecanseethatJapan ssecularizingproject broughtsocialinstitutionsintolinewithit,forcedreligiontorespondtoit,andallowedthe mediatocreateaprofitableroleforitselfinpolicingreligion.taylor sworkthusreveals unexpectedconnectionsamongtheactorsandinstitutionsthattransformedjapanintoa secularsocietyandthatbroughtjapanesereligionsintoconformitywithasecularideal. 13

15 14 Sources Cited: AriyamaTeruo.1979.Risōdankenkyū1.MomoyamaGakuinDaigakushakaigakuronshū13(1): Asad, Talal Formations of the Secular (Stanford: Stanford University Press. Braisted, William Reynolds, Assisted by Adachi Yasushi and Kokuchi Yūji Meiroku zasshi, Journal of the Japanese Enlightenment. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Chatterjee, Partha Fasting for Bin Laden: The Politics of Secularization in Contemporary India. In Powers of the Secular Modern: Talal Asad and His Interlocutors. Edited by David Scott and Charles Hirschkind. Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 60. Constitution of the Empire of Japan, 1889; Craig, Albert The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi, revised translation by Eiichi Kiyooka, with a Preface and Afterword by Albert Craig. Lanham, New York, and London: Madison Books. Craig, Albert Civilization and Enlightenment: The Early Thought of Fukuzawa Yukichi (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press. Davis, Winston Buddhism and the Modernization of Japan. History of Religions 28/4: Dubois, Thomas David Hegemony, Imperialism, and the Construction of Religion in East and Southeast Asia. History and Theory Vol. 44, No. 4, p Figal,Gerald.1999.CivilizationandMonsters:SpiritsofModernityinMeijiJapan.Durhamand London:DukeUniversityPress. FukuzawaYukichi.1983.Bunmeironnogairyaku18th ed. Tokyo: Iwanami shoten. Fukuzawa Yukichi Fukuzawa Yukichi Zenshū. 22 vols. Tokyo: Iwanami shoten. Fukuzawa Yukichi. An Encouragement of Learning DavidA.Dilworth,translator,withUmeyo Hirano,SophiaUniversityPress. Göle,Nülfer The Civilizational, Spatial, and Sexual Powers of the Secular. In Varieties of Secularity in a Secular Age. Edited by Michael Warner, Jonathan VanAntwerpen, and Craig Calhoun. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp Gorski, Philip S. and Ates Atlnordu After Secularization? Annual Review of Sociology 34:

16 15 Grapard, Allan Japan s Ignored Cultural Revolution: The Separation of Shintō and Buddhist Divinities in Meiji and a Case Study: Tōnomine. History of Religions 23: Hardacre, Helen Creating Shintō: The Great Promulgation Campaign and the New Religions. Journal of Japanese Studies 12/1: Hardacre,Helen.1989.ShintoandtheState, Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversity Press. Hardacre, Helen Asano Wasaburō and Japanese Spiritualism in Early Twentieth-Century Japan. In Japan s Conflicting Modernities, Issues in Culture and Democracy, Edited by Sharon A. Minichiello. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Hardacre, Helen Religion and Society in Nineteenth-Century Japan: A Study of the Southern Kantō Region, Using Late Edo and Early Meiji Gazeteers Michigan Monograph Series in Japanese Studies Number 41 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Ikeda Eishun Meiji no shin bukkyō undō. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. Jaffe, Richard Neither Monk Nor Layman: Clerical Marriage in Modern Japanese Buddhism (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Josephson, Jason When Buddhism Became a "Religion": Religion and Superstition in the Writings of Inoue Enryo. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 33/1: Kamata Tōji Hirayama Seisai to Meiji no Shintō. Tokyo: Shunbunsha. KoizumiTakashi.2011.FukuzawaYukichitoshūkyō.Igirsutetsugaku34:5 18. KoizumiTakashi.1994.FukuzawaYukichiandReligion.AsianPhilosophy4,no.2: Masuzawa, Tomoko, The Invention of World Religions, Or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. Chicago and New York: University of Chicago Press. Maxey, Trent. forthcoming The Greatest Problem : Religion and State Formation in Meiji Japan Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Muraoka Tsunetsugu,Studies inshintothought,translatedbydelmerbrownandjamesaraki (Tokyo: Ministry of Education, 1964). Nagai Kafû Kafū zenshū. 29 vols. Tokyo: Iwanami shoten. OkuyamaMichiaki StateShinto inrecentjapanesescholarship.monumentanipponica vol66,no.1,pp Suzuki Norihisa Meiji shūkyō shisō no kenkyū. Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku shuppankai.

17 16 Takeda Dōshō. The Fall of Renmonkyō and Its Place in the History of Meiji Period Religions. In New Religions. Contemporary Papers on Japanese Religions. Edited by Inoue Nobutaka. Translated by Norman Havens. Institute for Japanese Culture and Classics, Kokugakuin University, Tokyo, 1991, pp TakedaDōshō.1989.YorozuchōhōniyoruRenmonkyōkōgekikyanpēn.Nihonbunkakenkyūjo kiyō63: TakedaDōshō.1991.YorozuchōhōniyoruRenmonkyōkōgekikyanpēn 2.Shintōshūkyō144: Taylor, Charles A Secular Age. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Taylor, Charles Western Secularity. In Rethinking Secularity, edited by Craig Calhoun, Mark Jurgensmeyer, and Jonathan VanAntwerpen, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 35. Yoshida Kyūichi Nihon kindai bukkyōshi kenkyū. Tokyo: Kawashima shoten. 1Thisperspectiveonsecularityisoneofseveralstancesseenincurrentscholarship;forastudylayingoutthe options,withextensivereferencesseephilips.gorskiandatesatlnordu,aftersecularization?annual ReviewofSociology34(2008):55 85,especiallyp.74. 2Seeforexample,TalalAsad,FormationsoftheSecular(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,2003)chapter7: ReconfigurationsofLawandEthicsinColonialEgypt, pp ParthaChatterjee,2006.FastingforBinLaden:ThePoliticsofSecularizationinContemporaryIndia.In PowersoftheSecularModern:TalalAsadandHisInterlocutors.EditedbyDavidScottandCharles Hirschkind.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,p.60. 4Japan streatypartnerssoughtfreedomforchristianmissionariestoproselytizeinjapan,andsuch provisionshadtobetranslatedintojapanese. 5Theshifttotheperspectiveof worldreligions hadyettoemerge;seemasuzawatomoko,2005.the InventionofWorldReligions,Or,HowEuropeanUniversalismWasPreservedintheLanguageofPluralism. ChicagoandNewYork:UniversityofChicagoPress. 6SuzukiNorihisa.1979.Meijishūkyōshisōnokenkyū.Tokyo:TokyoDaigakushuppankai,pp Chatterjee,2006.FastingforBinLaden,p.62. 8ThesecharacterizationsarewidelyacceptedamonghistoriansofJapan,expressedherebyFukuzawa s biographeralbertcraigintheautobiographyoffukuzawayukichi,revisedtranslationbyeiichikiyooka, withaprefaceandafterwordbyalbertcraig(lanham,newyork,andlondon:madisonbooks,1992),vii, andalbertcraig,civilizationandenlightenment:theearlythoughtoffukuzawayukichi(cambridge, MassachusettsandLondon:HarvardUniversityPress,2009),ix.Fukuzawa sanoutlineofcivilization(1875, Bunmeironnogairyaku)isbelievedtohavesoldseveraltensofthousandsofcopies.Meanwhile,his ConditionsintheWest(Seiyōjijō),firstseries1866,issaidtohavesoldmorethan250,000copies. 9Craig2009,pp Craig1992,p Nevertheless,FukuzawainsistedoncontinuingthetraditionofperiodicBuddhistmemorialritesfor parentsandfriendsasanimportantobligationevenaftertherestoration,andheclaimedthatherefusedto associatewithpeoplewhoneglectedthisduty;seekoizumitakashi.2011.fukuzawayukichitoshūkyō. Igirsutetsugaku34:5 18.Anolder,English languageessaybykoizumicontainsmuchofthesamematerial: FukuzawaYukichiandReligion.AsianPhilosophy4,no.2(October1994): Fukuzawa,however,remainedalooffromgovernment.

18 17 13Taylor,ASecularAge,chapters KawanabeKyōsai( ),awoodblock printartistandpainter,turnedcaricaturistinthemeiji period.heparodiedthepretensionsofthewesternizingelitebyportrayingthemaspipe smokingmonsters intophatsorasmonsterschoolteachersdrillingmonsterpupilsonthealphabet. 15SeeforexampleNagaiKafū sshortstoryconcerningayoungnewlyappointedprefectualgovernorandhis wifethatinvolvestheiroverwhelmingjoyinattendingarokumeikanball,called Shinninchiji. Thestory emphasizesthepathosofthecharacters ambitionandvanityandendswiththeirdeathsfromtuberculosis; SeeNagaiKafū,Shinninchiji,inKafūzenshū.29vols.Tokyo:Iwanamishoten,vol.2,pp Craig,2009,p.103;Koizumi1994,p.109.Fukuzawa sattitudetochristianityinparticularandreligionin generalwascontradictoryandevolvedoverhislifetime.asayoungman,heexpressedtheloathingof ChristianitythatwastypicaloftheeliteattheendoftheTokugawaperiod.AccordingtoKoizumiTakashi, however,inlessonshesetforhissonsin1871,hewrotethatgod(whichhetransliteratedasgoddo) determinestheeventsoflife,andthatgodmustbeobeyed(koizumi,2011:7 8).Inothercontexts,suchashis AnEncouragementofLearning( ,Gakumonnosusume)hereferredto Heaven, asinthisfamous passagethatbeginsthework: Itissaidthatheavendoesnotcreateonemanaboveorbelowanotherman. Thismeansthatwhenmenarebornfromheaventheyareallequal. [DavidA.Dilworth,translator,with UmeyoHirano,SophiaUniversityPress,1969,p.1].InhistranslationofWesterntexts,Fukuzawasometimes usedheavenasatranslationforgod.fukuzawahadanumberoffriendsandacquaintancesamongchristian missionaries,andafterhissonichitarōexpressedthedesiretobebaptizedin1884,fukuzawa sattitude towardchristianitysoftenedconsiderably,andheretractedhisformeroppositiontothepropagationof ChristianityinJapan. 17 Shūkyō mo mata seiyōfū ni shitagawazaru o ezu (1883). FukuzawaYukichiZenshūvol.9,pp Craig,2009,p Craig,2009,p QuotedinCraig,1992,p FukuzawaYukichi Tokkyōnosetsu(1883)InFukuzawaYukichiZenshūvol.9,p.294,quoted incraig1992,p FukuzawaoperatedanewspapercalledJijishinpō.Heoftendevelopedhisideasthroughserialized editorialsandthenpublishedacollectionofthemseparately.hisviewsbecamewellknownamongthe educatedclassandwithinthegovernment. 23AcomprehensivesurveyofthethoughtofearlyMeijiJapanesesecularistswouldhavetoincludeInoue Kowashi,ahighlyinfluentialbureaucratandoneofthedraftersoftheMeijiconstitutionof1889.Ihopeto addresshispositioninaseparateessayatalaterdate.themeirokusociety sjournalsubmissionsregarding religionhavebeensurveyedintwoforthcomingpublicationsbytrentmaxeyandjasonjosephsoninmuch greaterdetailthanwillbepossibleinthepresentessay;josephson,jasonānanda,forthcoming2012.the InventionofReligioninJapan.UniversityofChicagoPress,chapter7;Maxey,Trent,forthcoming2012.The GreatestProblem :ReligionandStateFormationinMeijiJapanCambridge,Massachusetts:Harvard UniversityPress,pp Maxey,Trent,forthcoming2012.The GreatestProblem :ReligionandStateFormationinMeijiJapan Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress,pp Braisted,WilliamReynolds,AssistedbyAdachiYasushiandKokuchiYūji.1976.Meirokuzasshi,Journalof thejapaneseenlightenment.cambridge,massachusetts:harvarduniversitypress,1976,p Ibid.,pp Asmallnumberofnativist(kokugaku)figures,mainlyfromthefactionofHirataAtsutane,heldofficeinthe earlymeijigovernment.bureaucratscomposedanofficialcreedlooselybasedonshinto,andauthorized Shintoprieststocreateanetworkofpreacherstospreadittothepopulace.Becausethecreedhadnobasisin popularreligiouslife,however,andbecauseitwascomposedofplatitudesaboutobeyingauthorityand reveringtheemperor(whopreviouslyhadplayednoroleinpopularreligiouslife),thepeoplefoundit incomprehensibleanditspriestsludicrous. 28FukuzawaYukichi,Bunmeironnogairyaku18thed.(Tokyo:lwanamiShoten,1983),p.195.Thispassageis alsodiscussedandtranslatedinpartinmuraokatsunetsugu,studiesinshintothought,translatedbydelmer BrownandJamesAraki(Tokyo:MinistryofEducation,1964).p.210.

19 29OntheGreatPromulgationCampaign,seeHardacre.1986.CreatingShintō:TheGreatPromulgation CampaignandtheNewReligions.JournalofJapaneseStudies12/1:29 63.Fukuzawaandothersnodoubt recalledandhopedtoavoidrepetitionoftheforeignrelationsdisasterthatoccurredfollowingthe1868 roundupofsome3,000 hiddenchristians whohademergedwhencatholicmissionarieshadreturnedto Japan.Theirexile,harshtreatment,andthedeathof600ofthemhadbeenregardedamongWestern diplomatsandintheforeignpressasspectacularevidenceofjapan sbarbarity. 30TheConstitutionoftheEmpireofJapan,1889; accessednovember27,2011.theconstitutionandtheimperialrescriptoneducation(1890)werecentralto theeffortsofelitestomoldthepopulaceintoloyalsubjectsoftheempire,butspatiallimitationsmakeit impossibletodiscussthemmorefullyinthisessay. 31CharlesTaylor,WesternSecularity.2011.InRethinkingSecularity,editedbyCraigCalhoun,Mark Jurgensmeyer,andJonathanVanAntwerpen,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,p Chatterjee,2006.FastingforBinLaden,p DuringtheTokugawaperiod( ),theshogunatepatronizedBuddhisminmanyways.Itrequired theentirepopulacetoaffiliatewithabuddhisttemple.virtuallynoexceptionsweremade.onceafamily becameaparishionerofatemple,theaffiliationwasmaintainedoverfuturegenerations,regardlessofthe personalbeliefsofanyofthelivingmembers,evenincludingthepriestsofshinto.theshogunateenforced theseregulationsthroughareligiouscourtpresidedoverbymagistratesoftemplesandshrines.their verdictsconstitutedcumulativeprecedents.thesecourtsadjudicatedawiderangeofmatters:disputesofall kindsinvolvingtemplesandshrines,thebehaviorofpriests,thedutiesoflayparishionerstomaintainthe templeingoodrepairandguaranteethepriest slivelihood,templeownershipoflandandthedivisionofits producebetweenthetempleanditstenant cultivators,andahostofothermatters.therelationbetween BuddhismandthestateintheearlymodernperiodwasveryadvantageoustoBuddhism.Buddhisttemples hadconsiderableautonomyinthewaytheydealtwithpeasantsresidingontempleland.theshogunate reiterateditsregulationsforeachbuddhistsectandconfirmedeachtemple slandholdingwitheachnew shogun saccessionandalsofrequentlymadegiftsoflandtosignificanttemples.theassumptionwasthatthe templewoulddrawitsmaterialsupportfromtheproduceofthatland,receivedastaxesfrompeasant cultivators.thestate sunderwritingandenforcementofinternalsectarianhierarchiesandrulesconfirmed thattherelevantinstitutionalarrangementsboretheimprimaturofthestateandgavethesectsgreatpower overtheirclergy.thesectsacquiredgreatwealthinmanycases,andmanytempleswererichenoughtoact asmoneylenders.buddhismacquiredacaptiveaudienceofparishionerstosupportitmateriallyandtobe indoctrinatedinitsteachings. 34AllanGrapard,Japan signoredculturalrevolution:theseparationofshintōandbuddhistdivinitiesin MeijiandaCaseStudy:Tōnomine.HistoryofReligions23(February1984): RichardJaffe,NeitherMonkNorLayman:ClericalMarriageinModernJapaneseBuddhism(Princetonand Oxford:PrincetonUniversityPress,2001),p.58.Thisfigureobscuressignificantregionaldifferences,sothat whilesomeareasstrovetowipeoutbuddhism,others,wheretherewaslessanti Buddhistorpro Shinto sentiment,showedareductionoftemplesbyone fourthtoone third;seehelenhardacre,religionand SocietyinNineteenth CenturyJapan:AStudyoftheSouthernKantōRegion,UsingLateEdoandEarlyMeiji GazeteersMichiganMonographSeriesinJapaneseStudiesNumber41(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichigan Press),pp.153ff. 36ThemajorexceptionwastheJōdoShinshūdenomination,whosepriestshadmarriedsincethemedieval period. 37JasonJosephson,WhenBuddhismBecamea"Religion":ReligionandSuperstitionintheWritingsofInoue EnryoJapaneseJournalofReligiousStudies33/1(2006): YoshidaKyūichi.1992.Nihonkindaibukkyōshikenkyū.Tokyo:Kawashimashoten,pp IkedaEishun.1976.Meijinoshinbukkyōundō.Tokyo:YoshikawaKōbunkan,pp Commenting on Meiji Buddhist charity, Winston Davis sees it as a way for Buddhism to ingratiate itself with the government; the interpretation offered here does not necessarily conflict with Davis view. See Winston Davis Buddhism and the Modernization of Japan. History of Religions 28/4: TheearliestMoralitytextbookswerecompiledbyMotodaEifu( ),aninfluentialConfucian advisortothegovernment,whohadalsocontributedtothedraftingoftheimperialrescriptoneducation (1890). 18