purusuhas (individual souls). It believes in the evolution of the cosmos including

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1 The Sankhya Philosophy: The Sankhya system advocates the ontological dualism of Prakriti and purusuhas (individual souls). It believes in the evolution of the cosmos including matter, life and mind out of the eternal prakriti to serve the ends of an infinite number of individual souls. The dualism of prakriti and souls is the fundamental doctrine of Sankhya system. The Sankhya system derives its name from the word Sankhya meaning number, since it enumerates the metaphysical principles of reality. Or, the word sankhya may mean perfect knowledge. The Sankhya system is the work of a great sage of the name of kapila. According to tradition, the first work of the samkhya school is the Sankhya-Sutra of kapil. This being very brief and terse, kapila wrote an elaborate work entitled, the Sankhay-Pravanchana-sutra -hence samkhya philosophy is also known as Sankhya-Pravachna. But these works were lost in course of time and we have no information about their contents. Ishvarakrisha s Sankhya-karika is the earliest available and authoritative text-book of the Sankhya. The metaphysics of Sankhya The nature of purusha and Prakriti and their relation form the central doctrine of the Sankhya philosophy. The Sankhya reduction of the numerous

2 Categories(especially those of Nyaya-Vaisheshika system) into two fundamental categories of Purusha and Prakriti for describing the world makes the Sankhya philosophy a real advance on the theory of atomic pluralism. Concept of Prakriti Prakriti is the state of equilibrium of sattva, rajas and Tamas, which are substances and constitute prakriti. They are in a state of equipoise which is not inactivity but a kind of tension. Prakriti is a the trial of gunas saliva, rajas and tamas, and not a different entity which is their substratum. They are not its attributes, but its very form. This is the definition of the original prakriti (mula- Prakriti) the root evoluent, which is not caused. It is the uncaused cause or the first cause. The Sankhya advocates the dualism of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti is unconscious while purusha is conscious. Prakriti is known, while Purusha is knower. Prakriti can not give rise to a soul. Which also can not give rise to Prakriti. So the Samkhya advocates neither materialism not spiritualism. It holds that prakriti evolves for the sake of the purusha. The evolution of Prakriti is subservient to the ends of the Pursuhsas, experience and liberation. It is not mechanical but teleological though there is unconscious finality in it.

3 Concept of Gumas Prakriti is constituted by Sattva, rajas and Tamas, which are called the gunas. There are not qualities but substances, which are the ultimate elements of prakriti. They are called gunas because they are subordinate to the souls, realizing their ends, or because they are the three strands in the constitution of prakriti even as three strands in a string, or because they fetter the souls to empirical life. They are substances because they are capable of conjuction and disjunction, and because they have qualities. They are not perceived, but inferred from their effects. They are of the nature of pleasure, pain and delusion, they are feeling substances. Sattva maniefts an object to consciousness. Rajas is the principle of activity, and makes an object move and act. Tamas is inertia, resistance, or restraint. Sattva, rajas, and tamas have the function of manifestation, activities and restraint respectively. They produce pleasure, pain and delusion or indifference respectively. Evolution: Prakriti is the substratum of the changing phenomena of the world. It is the equilibrium of sattva, rajas and tamas. it is not a state of inactivity, but a kind of tension. The Tendencies to manifestation and activity are held in check by the tendency to restraint and obstruct. Infinite number of saltva, rajas and tamas counteract their activities and bring about a state of tension. They relieve the

4 tension. They relieve the tension and break the equilibrium under the influence of the individual sould (purshas). The equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed by some kind of influence of the Pursuhas. Prakriti evolves to realize their ends-experience and liberation. When the equilibrium of the gunas is distributed, some gunas overpower the other gumas and start the process of evolution. There is neither creation nor destruction of the gunas. The total amount of Sattva rajas and tamas can neight be created nor destroyed, increased nor decreased. But when the universe Some gunas can overweight the others and produce heterogeneous effects. Production is non manifestation or envelopment. The Sankhy clearly enunciated the doctrine of evaluation. The manifold world is not created by God out of nothing, but it is evolved from Prakriti. The world is unconscious and can not be the transformation of a sprit which is unchangeable and immutuable. It is the transformation of the unconscious prakriti or of saltra rojans and tamas. prakseti and its evaluated (vikritin) are subject to transformations. They can never be deprived of their essential nature of modifiability evolution and dissolution. Prakriti is transformed into mahat or cosmic intellect (Buddhi). Mahat is transformed into Ahankara or cosmic egoism. Ahankara is transformed into the eleven sense organs, and the five tranmatrans or subtle essences of sound, touch colour, taste and smell. The five subtle essences are transformed into five gross

5 elements of sky, air, fire, water and earth. These are the twenty four principles. In addition to these there are purushos. These are the twenty five principles according to sankhya, shown in the following chart: Prakriti Purusha Mahat Ahankar Eleven sense organs 5 tanmantras (mind, 5 sense organs, 5 motor organs) 5 mahabutas The sankhy recognizes above twenty five principles of reality. Of these purusha is neither a cause cause of the aggregate of all effects in the world. It is their ultimate cause, which is not the effect of any other cause. If it had any other cause, it would lead to infinite regress. Prakrets is a cause but not an effect. It is nt a modification of any other ultimate cause. Purusha The samkhya advocates the dualism ofprakriti and Purusha, they are entirely different from each other, because they have opposite characteristics.

6 Prakritis is composed of saltva rajos and tamas, while Purusha is not composed of them. Prakriti is non-discriminating white purushos are discriminating. prakriti is an aggregate, while purusha is simple. Prakriti is the object of knowledge, while purusha is knower. Prakriti is unconscious while purusha is conscious. Prakriti is productive and transformed into modifications, white purchases are non-productive and not subject to modification. Prakriti is active while purusha is inactive. The essential difference between pakriti and purusha lies in that the former is the unconscious and known object, while the latter is the conscious knower or subject. The Sankhya recognizes the purarity of soul and the spiritual unity of each soul. The soul is distinct from its material vestment, the body, mind, intellect and egoism. It is distinct from prakriti and its effects and devoid of saltva, rajas and tamas, it is discriminating, simple intelligent, non-productive, uncaused, eternal and immutable. It is beyond time space and causality. it is the conscious knower. Liberation and its means: The self (Purusha) is eternally pure, enlightened, and liberated. It appears to be in bondage and to be liberated from bondage, Its apparent bondage is due to its non-discrimination between itself and prakriti and its apparent liberation is due to discrimination between them. Liberation consists in absolute cessation of pain,

7 which is the highest good. Supreme happiness is not the highest good, since it is exhausted. There is not unalloyed happiness in our empirical life. Everyday does not seek pleasure. Pleasure is always attended with pains and so regarded by the wise as pain. Liberation does not consists in happiness, but in total extinction and non-production of pain. Liberation is the absolute negation of three-fold paid. The supreme release is total annihilation of three fold pain without leaving any trace of it. Knowledge is the direct means to release. It is discrimination of the self from prakriti and its evoluted or direct knowledge of the self (Pursuha). It anmihilates suffering. It is aided by the practice of eightfold yoga. The Yoga Philosophy: The yoga adopts the Sankhya metaphysics and engrafts are concept of God upon it. It is called theistic Somkhya, while the sankhya system is called the atheistic Sankhya. The yoga recogniges the reality of Prakriti and its evolutes, countless individual souls (purushas) and God. Prakriti is the material cause of the world, and God is its efficient cause. He is not the creator of Prakriti, nor is he the creator of Souls. Prakriti and serels are co-external with God. He disturbs the equilibrium of saltva, rajas and tamas and shorts the evolution of Prakriti. He is the creator of the Vedas and seveals them for the enlightenment of souls at the end of

8 each cycle. He associates and dissociates seuls and prakriit in accordance with their merits and demerits, and brings about evolution and dissolution of the world. He removes obstacles to the evolution of praksiti and to the achievement of liberation by souls. The Yoga philosophy is an invaluable gift of the great. Indian sage Pattanjali to all bent upon spiritual realisation. It is a great aid to those of the spirit as an independent principle, free from al limitations of the body, the senses and the mind. It is known as the Pattanjali system after the name of its founder. The yogasutra of Pattanjali-sutra is the first work of this school of philosophy. Vyasa wrote a brief but valuable commentary on the yoga-sutra called yoga-bhashya or Vyasa- Bhashya. Vachaspati s Tativa-Vaishardi is a reliable sub commentary on vyasa s commentary. Bjojaraja s vritti and yoga-mainprabha are very simple and popular works of the yoga system. Vijyanbhikshu s yoga-vartika and Yoga-sara-sangraha are other useful manuals of the yoga philosophy. The value of yoga as an important method of realizing the spiritual treaths of Indian philosophy has been recognized by almost all the Indian systems. We have clear evidence of the recognition of yoga practices even in the Upanishads, the smritis and the puramas. So long as the mind or the intellect of a man is impure and unsettled, he can not properly understand anything of philosophy and religion. We must have a pure heart and a tranquil mind if we are to know and realize the

9 treths of philosophy and religion. The practice of yoga is the best way of self purification, i.e. purification of the body and the intellect. Hence it is that almost all the systems of Indian philosophy insist on the practice of yoga as the necessary practical side of a philosophy of life. Meaning of Yoga Yoga means the cessation of mental functions or modifications (Chittavrittinirodha). It odes not mean any kind of contact between the individual self and some other reality like God or the Absolute. The aim of yoga is the prevent the self from identifying it self with menal modifications. But his is not possible so log as the modifications are there and the self has not realized its distinction from chitta of mind. So what yoga really stands for is the arrest and negation of all mental modifications. A man cannot realize spiritual truths so long as his mind is tainted with impurities and his intellect vitiated by evil thoughts. IT is in the pure heart and the clear understanding that the truth of the spirit is revealed and directly experienced. The Sankhya yoga system holds that liberation is to be attained by means of spiritual insight (Prajna) into the reality of the self as the pure immoral spirit which is quite distinct from the body and the mind is purged of all impurities and rendered perfectly calm and serene. For the purification and enlightenment of citta

10 or the mind, the Yoga gives us the eightfold means with consists of the disciplines of (I) yama or restraint (2) niyama or culture, (3) asana or posture, (4) pranayama or breath-control (5) pratyahara or withdrawl of the senses, (6) dharana or attention (7) dhyana or meditation and (8) Samadhi or concentration These are known as sides to yoga (yoganga). When practiced regularly with devotion and dispassion, they lead to the attainment of yoga, both samprajnata and asamprajnata. The first discipline of yama or restraint consists in (a) ahimsa or abstention from all kinds of injury to any life, (b) satya or truthfulness in thought and speech (c) asteya or non-stealing (d) brahmacarya or control of the carnal desires and passions and (e) aparigraha or non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts from other people. Although these practices seem to be too well known to require any elaboration, yet the Yoga explains all their details and insists that a yogin must scrupulously follow them. The reason for this is obvious. It is a psychological law that a sound mind resides in a sound body. and that neither can be sound in the case of a man who does not control his passions and sexual impulses. So also a man can not concentrate his attention on any object on any object when his mind is distracted and dissipated by sin and crime and other evil propernsities. This explains the necessity of complete abstention from all the evil curses and

11 tendencies of life on the part of the yogin who is eager to realize the self in Samadhi or concentration. Asana is a discipline of the body and consists in the adoption of steady and comfortable postures. There are various kinds of asana, such as padmasana, virasana, bhadrasana, etc. These can be properly learnt only under the guidance of experts. The discipline of the body is as much necessary for the attainment of concentration as that of the mind. If the body is not completely free from diseases and other disturbing influences, it is very difficult to attain concentration. Hence the Yoga lays down elaborate rules for maintaining the health of the body and making it a fit vehicle for concentrated thought. Pranayama is the regulation of breath. It consists in suspension of the breathing processes either after exhalation (recaka), or inhalation (puraka), or simply by retention of the vital breath (kumbhaka). The details of the process should be learnt from experts. The Yoga goes further and prescribes breath control for concentration of the mind, because it conduces to steadiness of the body and the mind. So long as the function of breathing continues, the mind also goes on fluctuating and noteing the current of air in and out. If, and when, it is suspended, the mind is in a state of

12 undisturbed concentration. Hence by practicing the control of breath, the yogin can suspend breathing for a long time and thereby prolong the state of concentration. Pratyahara consists in withdrawing the sense from their respective external objects and keeping them under the control of the mind. When the senses are effectively controlled by the mind, they follow, not their natural objects, but the mind itself. So in the state the mind is not disturbed by signs and sounds coming through the eye and the ear, but makes these senses follow itself and see and heat its own object. This state is very difficult, although not impossible, of attainment. It requires a resolute will and long practice to gain mastery over one s senses. The five disciplines of restraint and culture (yama and niyama), bodily posture (asana), breath-control (pranayama) and control over the senses (pratyahara) are regarded as the external aids to yoga (bahiranga-sadhana)_. As compared with these, the last three disciplines are said to be internal to yoga (antaranga-sadhana), because they are directly related to some kind of Samadhi or yoga. These are dharana, dhyana and Samadhi. Dharana or attention is a mental discipline which consists in holding (dharana) or fixing the mind (citta) on the desired object. The object thus attended to may be a part of one s body, like one s navel, the midpoint of the eyebrows, etc. or it may be external to the body, like the moon, the images of gods, etc. The

13 ability to keep one s attention steadily fixed on some object is the test of fitness for entering on the next higher stage of yoga. Dhyana or meditation is the next step. It means the even flow of though about, or rather, round about the object of attention. It is the steadfast contemplation of the object without any break or disturbance. This has the effect of giving us a clear and distinct representation of the object first by parts and aspects. But by long continued meditation the mind can develop the partial representation of the object into a full and live presentation of it. Thus dhyana reveals the reality of the contemplated object to the yogin s mind. Samadhi or concentration is the final stem in the practice of yoga. In it the mind is so deeply absorbed in the object of contemplation that it losses itself in the object and has no awareness of itself. In the state of dhyhana, the act and the object of though remain distinct and separate state of consciousness. But in Samadhi the act of meditation is not separately cognized, it takes on the form of the object and losses itself, as it were. So here only the object of though remains shining in the mind, and we do not even know that there is process of thought in the mind.

A Study of the Concept of Suffering in Sānkhya-Yoga Philosophy

Dagon University Research Journal 2014, Vol. 6 A Study of the Concept of Suffering in Sānkhya-Yoga Philosophy Myint Myint Soe * Abstract Some scholars, especially almost all Indian philosophers, defined