Bryan Magee Michael J. Vlach Plato And His Influence on Christianity
Introduction Plato was about 31 when Socrates was executed in 399BC. He was in the courtroom throughout the trial. That whole sequence of events seems to have come as a traumatic experience to him, for he regarded Socrates as the best and wisest and most just of all human beings. After the death of Socrates, Plato started to circulate a series of philosophical dialogues in which the protagonist is always Socrates, quizzing his interlocutors about the basic concepts of morals and politics. Plato seems to have had two main motives for doing this: One was defiant, to reassert the teachings of Socrates in spite of their having been officially condemned; the other was to rehabilitate his beloved mentor s reputation, showing him to have been not a corrupter of young men but rather their most valued teacher. However, it is generally agreed among scholars that the chief source of ideas in Plato s dialogues changed as the years went by. The early dialogues contain, more or less, an accurate portrait of the historical Socrates, if we allow for the usual artistic or journalistic license. In those earlier dialogues, the subjects raised were the subjects raised by the real Socrates, and things that Plato had heard him say were put into his mouth. But by the time Plato had come to the end of this material, he found he had created an enthusiastic reading public that was eager for more. So, having plenty more to say, Plato went on writing and publishing dialogues, in what was by now a popular and accepted form that features Socrates as the protagonist; but now he was putting his own ideas into Socrates mouth. The historical Socrates was solely concerned with the problems of moral and political philosophy, and is dismissive of philosophical problems about the nature of the world or reality. One of Socrates most committed beliefs is the identification of virtue with 1
knowledge. And Socrates pursues knowledge entirely through discussion and argument. None of these things is true of Plato s Socrates. Plato s Socrates (of the later dialogues) is passionately interested in a wide range of philosophical questions every bit as much concerned with the questions regarding the nature of reality as he was concerned with questions of how we should conduct our personal lives. No aspect of reality fails to arouse Plato s interest. Far from being unconcerned with mathematics or physics, Plato regards these as the keys to understanding the natural world. Over the door of Plato s school, he inscribed the words: let no one enter here who is ignorant of geometry. 2
Theologians (Modern and Ancient) Quoted in this Booklet Justin Martyr 100 165 AD Irenaeus of Lyons 130 202 AD Clement of Alexandria 150 215 AD Origen of Alexandria 184 253 AD Eusebius of Caesarea 263 339 AD Augustine of Hippo 354 430 AD William Inge 1860 1954 Diogenes Allen 1932 2013 Howard Snyder 1940 Jeffrey Russell 1934 N.T. Wright 1948 Craig Blaising 1949 Craig Blaising 1950 Alister McGrath 1953 3 Randy Alcorn 1954 Russell Moore 1971
Platonism s Influence on Christian Conception of Reality Many consider Christianity to be the West s most important worldview. Plato was the West s most important philosopher. But the two have far more in common than just importance. In fact, Plato helped set the intellectual stage for the early church. Dean William Inge, the famous professor of divinity, writes that: Platonism is part of the vital structure of Christian theology. If people would read Plotinus, who worked to reconcile Platonism with Scripture, they would understand better the real continuity between the old culture and the new religion, and they might realize the utter impossibility of excising Platonism from Christianity without tearing Christianity to pieces. The Galilean Gospel, as it proceeded from the lips of Jesus, was doubtless unaffected by Greek philosophy. But Christianity from its very beginning was formed by a confluence of Jewish and Hellenic religious ideas. 1 If you re interested in Christianity s origins, there are some very good reasons to be interested in Platonism. Here are a few: Plato understood the self as divided between body and soul, with the soul more closely related to goodness and truth. Powerful Platonic ideas, like that of a mind-body dualism, were known, if not accepted, by many in this part of the pre-christian world. This made Christianity s later soul-body division easier to understand by the population, who were often already acquainted with ideas of a metaphysical dualism. In fact, some very important early 1 Dean Inge, an Anglican Theologian, Cleric and Professor of Divinity. The quote is from Daniel H. Shubin Attributes of Heaven and Earth, Page.250. 4
Christians, like Justin Martyr, 2 unknowing proto-christians! even regarded the Platonists as Plato s theory of a purely intellectual reality populated by the Forms (or Ideas) prefigured the Christian understanding of heaven as a perfect spiritual reality, of which the physical realm is a mere imitation. [Yet, as we ll see in the next reading by N.T. Wright, many important religious scholars today (as well as the earliest Christian thinkers) tended not to think of heaven as a disembodied, immaterial realm. That is, contrary to Platonic ideas, some of the earliest Christian communities did not conceive of heaven as an afterworld or an other-world to which we escape, but the restoration and transformation of this living world, the earth itself, that we already inhabit. Both worldviews (Christianity and Platonism) assume the existence of absolute truth and unchanging reality. Augustine, at the end of a line of influence that began with Plato and passed through Plotinus, understood logic and reasoning disciplines concerned with absolute truth as important complements, not enemies, of faith. And this faith-reason partnership would characterize Christianity until the important Christian existentialist Søren Kierkegaard. 2 Justin Martyr, born just 70 years after the crucifixion of Jesus, was one of the first Christian apologists (defenders). He is well known for his Theory of Logos which argued that the seeds of Christianity were planted before the incarnation of Christ and that a divine Logos was already at work in the world which set the stage for Christianity; it was primarily through the life and teachings of Socrates and Plato that this Logos entered the world. Justin was martyred along with some of his students by the Roman Empire. His most famous work, entitled First Apology, was addressed to the Roman Emperor Antonius Pius, defending Christian religious practices and pressuring the Emperor to abandon his persecution of the fledging religious sect. 5
Platonism also influenced its more religious counterpart, Neo- Platonism. Neo-Platonism was a complex system for understanding reality that was founded by the Roman philosopher Plotinus (A.D. 204 270). The Egyptian-born Plotinus carried on some of the main ideas of Plato such as: 1. There is an immaterial reality that exists apart from the physical world; 2. Immaterial reality is superior to, and more real, than material reality; 3. A strong distinction exists between an immaterial soul and the physical body; 4. And the immortal soul finds its ultimate fulfillment as it becomes one with an eternal, transcendent realm. According to Plotinus, the lowest level of reality is matter. Thus, matter is viewed very negatively in Neo-Platonism. Early Christians and the Early Church Many of the early Christians were not suspicious of or threatened by Plato. According to Diogenes Allen, 3 Plato astounded the Apologists and the early Church Fathers. For instance, when early Christians encountered Plato s creation story in his dialogue the Timaeus, some believed he had read Moses or received his insights from divine revelation. The similarity of some of Plato s ideas with Christianity was seen as evidence as to why pagans should be open to the new Christian religion. Platonic thinking influenced significant theologians of the early church. This was especially true for the Christians of the Eastern Church, particularly those in the Alexandrian tradition such as the 3 American philosopher and theologian, professor at Princeton Theological Seminary. 6
church fathers Clement of Alexandria 4 and Origen. 5 As the religious historian Jeffrey Burton Russell 6 states, The great Greek fathers of Alexandria, Clement and Origen were heavily influenced by Platonism and Stoicism. Many of these theologians of the Alexandrian tradition carried a high view of Greek philosophy. Holding Plato and Socrates in high regard, Clement reckoned that God used these and other Greek philosophers to prepare the later generations for Christ, just like God used the law of Moses to prepare the Hebrew people for Christ; he even argued that Plato served a role that was similar to that of Moses. Further, in line with Greek philosophy, Clement viewed the body and matter as possessing less reality than nature he spirit (although he did not view the body as evil). But the influence of Platonic thinking was not just on theologians of the eastern tradition. Alister McGrath 7 observes that St. Ambrose of Milan (339 397) drew upon the ideas of the Jewish Platonist writer, Philo of Alexandria in promoting a Christianized notion of the kingdom of heaven as a Platonic world of ideas and values, rather than a physical or geographical place. Ambrose s pupil, Augustine of Hippo, too, was influenced by Platonic thinking, becoming one of the great Christian Platonists. 4 Clement was a father of the early Christian church. Born in 150 AD. 5 Origen of Alexandria (184 253 AD) was another important early Christian church father. Origen founded the Christian School of Caesarea, where he taught theology, among other disciplines. Origen became regarded by the churches of Palestine and Arabia as the ultimate authority on all matters of theology. He was tortured for his faith in 250 AD and died three to four years later from his injuries. He has been described as the greatest genius the early church ever produced. 6 Russell is an American History and religious studies scholar, teaching at the University of California, Santa Barbara. 7 McGrath is another prominent theologian. He currently teaches theology at Oxford. 7
According to Gary Habermas, 8 Christian thought came under the influence of Platonism, as scholars of the third century mixed this Greek philosophy with their theology. Habermas notes that Augustine s interpretation of Plato dominated Christian thought for the next thousand years after his death in the fifth century. Clearly, this idea Plato as important precursor to Christianity is far from new. Here s a few specific passages from these early Christian fathers who held Plato in high regard. Augustine of Hippo The utterance of Plato, the most pure and bright in all philosophy, scattering the clouds of error. I found that whatever truth I had read in the Platonists was in the writings of Paul combined with the exaltation of thy grace. Eusebius of Caesarea Plato is the only Greek who has attained the porch of Christian truth. Clement of Alexandria Before the advent of the Lord, philosophy was necessary to the Greeks for righteousness. And now it becomes conducive to piety; for Greek philosophy is a kind of preparatory training for those who attain to faith. Philosophy was given to the Greeks directly and primarily. For philosophy was the schoolmaster that was able to bring the Hellenic mind to Christ. Philosophy, therefore, was a preparation, paving the way for him who is perfected in Christ. While Platonism was a major factor in the emergence of a Christian religion that was metaphysically dualist dividing 8 Gary Habermas is an American Historian, New Testament Scholar, and philosopher of religion. His work often focuses on the resurrection of Jesus. 8
reality into a material and spiritual realm and dividing persons into a temporary body and an eternal soul various Scriptural passages were also used by the Church to support this other-worldly and dualist approach to metaphysical questions and discussions of the nature of heaven. The following are the core biblical passages that have often been emphasized as well: Luke 17:21: The kingdom of God is within you. Romans 14:17: For the kingdom of God is not a matter of eating and drinking, but of righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy spirit. 1 Corinthians 15:50: Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God. 2 Corinthians 4:18: While we look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen: for the things that are seen are temporal; but the things which are not seen are eternal. 2 Peter 1:4: Partakers in the divine nature. Colossians 1:27: Christ in you, the hope of glory. A Thoroughly Platonized Heaven Platonism s influence on Christianity has resulted in a theological conception of heaven primarily as a spiritual reality, an afterworld as opposed to form of life that will unfold here on the earth. Heaven becomes, under this Platonic influence, the highest level of ontological reality, just as the realm of Plato s Forms exists as the highest level of reality within Platonic metaphysics. Here, heaven gets framed as the realm of spirit as opposed to base matter. Contemporary Theologian Craig Blaising reinforces the point: Heaven became the destiny of the saved, who will exist in that non-earthly, spiritual place as spiritual beings engaged eternally in spiritual activity. The spiritual vision model, Blaising 9
argues further, is a combination of just few biblical passages (not nearly as many as we might imagine) and cultural ideas that resulted from Platonism: views that were common to the classical philosophical tradition and which were enormously powerful in shaping the ideas of ideas of many Christians who came long after Plato. Central to this Platonized conception of heaven is the traditional notion of an ontological or metaphysical hierarchy that is shot through all of existence. In this hierarchy of most real, most perfect, most good down to least real, least perfect, least good, spirit is located at the top of a descending order of being. And elemental matter occupies the lowest place. Heaven is realm of spirit as opposed to matter. Heaven is a non-earthly spiritual place for spiritual beings who are engaged only in spiritual activity. This heaven is also free from all change. Eternal life therefore, is viewed primarily as cognitive, meditative, or contemplative. The spiritual vision model of heaven has led many Christians to view eternal life as the beatific vision of God an unbroken, unchanging contemplation of the infinite reality of God. In his book, Models of the Kingdom, Howard A. Snyder laws out the various models of the Kingdom of heaven that have taken root in Christianity at various historical periods. The model that maintains that heaven is purely spiritual he calls the Kingdom as inner spiritual experience model and argues that the acceptance of this model owes much more to the to the influence of Platonist and Neo-Platonist ideas on Christian thinking., much more than it owes to biblical scripture itself. Snyder further argues that Historically this model has often been tainted with a sort of Platonic disdain for things material, perhaps seeing the body or matter as evil or at least imperfect and im-perfectible. It is thus 10
dualistic, viewing the higher spiritual world as essentially separate from the material world. The spiritual vision model was inherently linked to allegorical and spiritual methods of biblical interpretations that were opposed to literal interpretations based on historical-grammatical contexts. Craig Blaising, commenting on this model of heaven notes that the spiritual vision model was intimately connected with practices of spiritual interpretations that were openly acknowledged to be contrary to the literal meaning of the biblical passages being interpreted: The long term practice of reading Scripture in this way so conditioned the Christian mind that by the late Middle Ages, the spiritual vision model had become an accepted fact of the Christian worldview. Non-Platonist models of Heaven In contrast to the spiritual vision model, another model of Christian heaven argued for by many theologians including Craig Blaising is the new creation model. This model of heaven is contrary to Platonism and the spiritual vision model and emphasizes the physical, social, political, and geographical aspects of eternal life. It emphasizes a coming new earth, the renewal of life on this new earth, bodily resurrection, and social and political interactions among the redeemed [N.T. Wright, will elaborate on this model as well, in or next reading]. As Blaising states, The new creation model expects that the ontological order and scope of eternal life is essentially continuous with that of present earthly life, except for the absence of sin and death. Against the influences of Platonism, Blaising argues that eternal life is embodied life here on earth. This approach does not reject or degrade physicality or materiality, but affirms them as essential to the biblical idea of a redeemed creation. 11
This approach to understanding heaven, according to Blaising and others, follows the language of passages like Isaiah 25, 65, 66; Revelation 21; and Romans 8. All of these passages speak of a regenerated earth. A new creation model of heaven rejects the notion that heaven is some after-world and instead emphasizes that heaven is this-worldly meaning that many matters that would be irrelevant if heaven was a purely spiritual region would again be relevant: such as the existence of nations, kings, economics, agriculture, social-political issues. In sum, the new creation model of heaven operates on the belief that life in the future kingdom of God is largely similar to God s purposes for the creation before the fall of Adam, which certainly involved more than just a spiritual element. Thus, the final heaven is not an ethereal spiritual presence in the sky. As Russell D. Moore points out, another proponent of the new creation model of heaven, the point of the gospel is not that we would go to heaven when we die. Instead, the point of the gospel is that heaven will come down, transforming and renewing the earth and the entire universe. Thus, far from being only a spiritual entity, the eternal destiny of the redeemed includes a holistic renewal of human existence and our environment: The picture then is not of an eschatological flight from creation but the restoration and redemption of creation with all that entails: table fellowship, community, culture, economics, agriculture animal husbandry, art, architecture, worship in short, earthly life and an abundance of it. In fact, the new creation model appears to have been the primary approach of the church of the late first and early second centuries A.D. It was found in the writings of apocalyptic and rabbinic Judaism and in second century Christian writers such as Irenaeus of Lyons. But, as Blaising asserts, the spiritual vision model would 12
take over and become the dominant view of eternal life from roughly the third century to the early modern period. More Impacts of Platonism on Christianity Eschatology Christian Author and theologian Randy Alcorn has specifically addressed the impact of Platonism on Christian eschatology (the part of theology concerned with death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul). In doing so he has coined the term, Christoplatonism. As the name suggests, Christo-platonism is a philosophy that has blended elements of Platonism with Christianity. But as Alcorn points out, this merger is not a good thing since this mixture of Platonism with Christianity has poisoned Christianity and blunted its distinct differences from Eastern religions. According to Alcorn, Christo-platonism s pervasive influence has caused many Christians to resist the following biblical truths: The Bodily resurrection of the dead; Life on the New Earth; Eating and drinking in Heaven; Walking and talking in Heaven and living in dwelling places; Going through gates from one place to another; Ruling; working; playing; and engaging in earthly culture. Alcorn argues that Christo-platonism is also evident when the following beliefs are held: Belief that our eternal dwelling place is in a spiritual dimension and not on earth; Belief that the planet earth is basically evil and beyond restoration. Belief that heaven is entirely beyond human comprehension. Belief that our experience in eternity will be mostly that of spiritual contemplation and inactivity. Belief that there is no time or linear progression of history while dwelling in heaven. 13
Belief that there will be no nations or governments in heaven. Alcorn believes that Christo-platonism has had a devastating effect on our ability to understand what Scripture says about Heaven, particularly about the eternal Heaven, the New Earth. He cites a statistic from Time to support this in which two-thirds of Americans who believe in resurrection of the dead nonetheless do not believe they will have resurrected bodies. Again, this shift to a spiritual, after-worldly conception of eschatology is tied largely to Platonic influence. As discussed above, Platonic assumptions clearly influenced early Christian leaders such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Augustine. It appears that Platonic and Neo-Platonic influences steered many Christians from a literal understanding of biblical passages in the attempt to make Christianity more acceptable to the Greek mind. Thus, many, if not most, theologians believe it is valid to conclude that Platonism has affected how many Christians (falsely) viewed eschatology. Proponents of the new creation model of heaven argue passionately that Christian leaders should do more to teach their people about their coming eternal home and dispel myths about Heaven that are not biblical. These theologians agree with Alcorn in his assessment that the common Christian s hope of Heaven has been hijacked by Platonic assumptions. Far too many Christians assume, they argue, that their existence in eternity will mostly be that of a spiritual entity in a non-worldly, non-earthy realm; yet, God intentionally made humans as a complex unity of the material (body) and non-material (spirit). Thus, the new creation theologians maintain that Humans can no more long for a purely spiritual existence than a fish could long to live only on land. 14
Many of the early Christians were not suspicious of or threatened by Plato. According to Diogenes Allen, Plato astounded the Apologists and the early Church Fathers. For instance, when early Christians encountered Plato s creation story in his dialogue the Timaeus, some believed he had read Moses or received his insights from divine revelation. The similarity of some of Plato s ideas with Christianity was seen as evidence as to why pagans should be open to the new Christian religion. Against the influences of Platonism on Christianity, Blaising argues that eternal life is embodied life here on earth. This approach does not reject or degrade physicality or materiality, but affirms them as essential to the biblical idea of a redeemed creation, 15