1 Between the Testaments Lesson Four The Rise of Rome From the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire Introduction: I. Last Days of the Roman Republic. A. After armies of Rome successfully conquered vast regions around the Mediterranean, Rome's three leading generals competed for control of the Republic. 1. Pompey had a proven track record as a capable military leader and believed he was most qualified to assume the leadership role. 2. But his arrival in Rome to stake his claim was anticipated two other successful generals, Markus Crassus and Julius Caesar. 3. After reaching an impasse over who would be the best man to assume leadership of the expanding Republic they agreed to combine their talents and their armies to form the First Triumvirate. a. Julius Caesar was vastly popular with the general populace, and his claim of being a descendent of the goddess Venus may have added to that popularity. b. Crassus the land owner and financier had accumulated immense wealth and clearly had the support of the aristocrats and nobles. c. Pompey, on the other hand, was the commensurate soldier; popular among his troops and backed by the Roman Senate. B. But the Triumvirate did not last. 1. It was clear to both Crassus and Pompey that Caesar had designs of becoming the absolute ruler of Rome. 2. The Roman Senate also took notice of Caesar's ambitions. 3. They knew a Roman dictator like Julius Caesar would put the Senate's future in jeopardy and bring an end to the Roman Republic.
2 C. Meanwhile, in 54 BC, Pompey was in Rome savoring recent victories in Syria and Judea, while Crassus was battling the Parthians in the far east, and Caesar was scoring wins against the Gauls and Germanic tribes in Europe. 1. However, tragedy stuck in September of that year when Pompey's young wife Julia the daughter of Julius Caesar died while giving birth to a girl, who also expired a few days later. 2. Julia had been the primary reason Caesar tolerated his son-in-law Pompey. a. But now, Caesar saw his daughter's tragic death as an opportune time to finally sever the strained relationship with Pompey. b. Of course, Julia's death also provided Pompey with the same opportunity a means to finally justify breaking all family ties with Caesar. 3. Perhaps this was the reason for what many perceived as Pompey's short-lived grief. a. The Roman historian Seneca the younger (4 BC 65 AD), a critic of Pompey, wrote that Pompey "would ill endure that anyone besides himself should become a great power in the state, and one who was likely to place a check upon his advancement, which he had regarded as onerous even when each gained by the other's rise: yet within three days' time he resumed his duties as general, and conquered his grief [for the death of his wife] as quickly as he was wont to conquer everything else." D. The Senate, however, saw Julia's death as an immediate threat to the peace and stability of the Roman Republic. 1. Senators feared the tensions between Caesar and Pompey might now erupt into all-out civil war between the two generals. 2. Those fears became a very real possibility following the untimely death of Crassus at the hands of the Parthians (53 BC).
3 3. This effectively ended the First Triumvirate, leaving Julius Caesar and Pompey as the only two contenders who had the power to seize control of the Republic. a. Both co-consuls commanded large armies Caesar in western Europe, and Pompey in the eastern Mediterranean. b. Both men shared a mutual distrust and dislike for one another. c. But neither man would tolerate the other becoming the principal ruler of Rome. d. The Roman historian Florus wrote: "Caesar's power now inspired the envy of Pompey, while Pompey's eminence was offensive to Caesar; Pompey could not brook an equal or Caesar a superior." E. An uneasy truce between Caesar and Pompey continued for another year. 1. But while Caesar was busy subduing Rome's enemies in Europe, Pompey was scoring victories at home. 2. Rather than allow Caesar to grab power for himself, many in the Senate believed it would be better to declare Pompey sole consul (effectively making him dictator). a. At least this would ensure future of the Senate and the Republic. 3. And the fact that Caesar had few in the Senate who would back him in a contest for leadership, seemed to practically guarantee Pompey's victory. F. However, it didn't take long for news of the political climate in Rome to reach the ears of Julius Caesar in Gaul. 1. Then, things went from bad to worse. a. The Senate received word that Julius Caesar and his army had crossed the Alps and were approaching the northern border of Italy. 2. Negotiations were hastily arranged with the suggestion that Caesar and Pompey both disband their armies. a. However, when the matter came to a vote, no senator voted for Pompey to disband his army while only two voted for Caesar to keep his.
4 3. To add to the tensions, Pompey had a sizable number of troops stationed in the countryside around Rome and thousands more loyal veterans who would take up the fight if necessary. 4. Roman law forbade a Roman army to cross the River Rubicon (on the northern border of Italy) and march toward Rome. a. In doing so, Julius Caesar would be committing an act of war. b. However, fears that Caesar was prepared to take Rome, the Senate hastily authorized both funds and troops for Pompey. c. The general was asked to draft 130,000 Italian soldiers, mainly from the veterans, and to recruit as many men as possible from the neighboring provinces. d. All the money from the public treasury and if needed, large donations from the private wealth of the senators, would to be used to recruit and pay for soldiers. e. Taxes to go toward the defense of Rome were also immediately levied from allied cities. G. Despite the rumors that Caesar was ready to march on Rome with ten legions, he actually crossed the River Rubicon (49 BC) with only one the famed 13 th Legion. 1. Caesar not only met with little resistance on his way toward Rome, his army actually expanded in size as many Roman detachments joined him along the way. 2. As the army of Julius Caesar entered Rome, Pompey and the senators who backed him fled for their lives. 3. Caesar declared himself sole consul of Rome and pursued Pompey and his army across eastern Europe, all the way to Egypt where the great general met his death at the hands of an assassin. H. The legions of Julius Caesar defeated Egypt's meager army that had come to Pompey's defense. 1. In doing so, Caesar not only made the Egyptians subjects of Rome, but also brought an end to the Ptolemy Empire.
5 2. The last ruler of the Egyptian Ptolemais was Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. a. Although Cleopatra and her kingdom were now under Roman control, she cleverly managed to maintain her power and influence by winning the affection of Julius Caesar. b. Their affair would produce a son, Caesarion. II. The assassination of Julius Caesar A. The Roman Senate had little choice except to publicly proclaimed Julius Caesar dictator perpetuo ("dictator in perpetuity"). 1 1. But, many senators secretly feared Caesar would overthrow the Senate in favor of an absolute tyrannical rule. a. They not only feared losing their power, prestige, and accumulated wealth, but many also secretly conspired to reestablish the Roman Republic. b. Of course, to do that would mean taking the unprecedented step of assassinating their "dictator." 2. However, as Julius Caesar continued to consolidate his power he managed to widen the rift between himself and his Senate. a. In time, some thirty to forty members of the Senate concluded that the only solution to the problem was to assassinate Caesar. b. Chief among the conspirators were Gaius Cassius Longinus, Markus Junius Brutus, and Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus. 3. Nicolaus of Damascus, a Greek historian who lived during the reign of Augustus Caesar wrote: a. "The conspirators never met exactly openly, but they assembled a few at a time in each other's homes. There were many discussions and proposals, as might be expected, while they investigated how 1 Some maintain the Senate made this declaration at Caesar's "request," while other claim the Senate felt compelled to make this declaration to protect themselves from rumors that they were disloyal to Caesar (which many, in fact, were).
6 and where to execute their design. Some suggested that they should make the attempt along the Sacred Way, which was one of his favorite walks. Another idea was to do it at the elections, during which he had to cross a bridge to appoint the magistrates in the Campus Martius. Someone proposed that they draw lots for some to push him from the bridge and others to run up and kill him. A third plan was to wait for a coming gladiatorial show. The advantage of that was, because of the show, no suspicion would be aroused if arms were seen. The majority opinion, however, favored killing him while he sat in the Senate. He would be there by himself, since only Senators were admitted, and the conspirators could hide their daggers beneath their togas. This plan won the day." B. On the Ides of March (March 15th) 44 BC, the conspirators had arranged gladiatorial games to be held in Caesar's honor in the newly dedicated Theater of Pompey, located next to the Senate chambers. 1. However, Caesar had been previously warned that unknown conspirators were plotting his assassination and attending the event would make him an easy target. 2. Caesar did, however, go to meet with the Senate on official business. a. Mark Antony, one of Caesar's most trusted generals, had learned of the assassination plot the night before from a frightened coconspirator. b. Hearing that Caesar was going to meet with the Senate, Antony rushed to stop him before he walked into the trap. c. However, Antony was intercepted and prevented from going to Caesar's rescue. 3. Almost immediately after entering the Senate chambers Julius Caesar was attacked by a mob of dagger-bearing senators. a. When the first wounds were inflicted, Caesar attempted to escape but fell and was overwhelmed by his assassins on the steps to the portico of the Theater of Pompey.
7 b. He was reportedly stabbed 23 times the deadliest being a stab wound to the heart that severed the aorta. 4. The conspirators reportedly rushed through the streets shouting that Rome was now free from the tyrant Caesar. a. Their enthusiasm was greeted by silence from the citizens of Rome who immediately shuttered their windows and locked their doors. b. Of the three former members of the First Triumvirate, Julius Caesar was the one who had managed to win the hearts and minds of the populace. C. Two days after the assassination, Mark Antony summoned the Senate to keep a fragile government from complete collapse. 1. The assassins thought the death of Julius Caesar would keep the Roman Republic alive. 2. In reality, it did just the opposite. a. The Roman populace became enraged that a small group of rich aristocrats and land owners had gotten away with the murder of Julius Caesar. b. Rather than ensure the Republic's future, the assassins had put the city of Rome on the verge of all-out civil war. 3. Antony capitalized on the grief of the Roman citizens and threatened to unleash them on the senators who plotted Caesar's death perhaps, as some believed, with the intent of taking control of Rome for himself. 4. But to everyone's surprise, including Mark Anthony, Julius Caesar had previously named his grandnephew Gaius Octavian to be his sole heir. a. Julius not only bequeathed all his wealth, making Octavian one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic, he also bequeathed his grandnephew with the right to wear the powerful name Caesar, making Octavian an adopted son. 5. Octavian became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian, the son of the great Caesar.
8 a. And, in addition to everything else he inherited, Octavian also inherited the loyalty of the Roman populace. D. Octavian, only 18 years old at the time of Caesar's death, proved to have considerable political skills. 1. While Antony was gathering an army to defeat the conspirators in the first round of new civil wars, Octavian quickly consolidated his own power. a. Initially, Antony didn't consider Octavian a political threat due to his young age and inexperience. b. But Octavian quickly gained the support and admiration of Caesar's friends and supporters. E. The two main conspirators in Caesar's assassination, Gaius Cassius Longinus and his brother-in-law Marcus Junius Brutus, had previously fled to the East where Cassius raised an army of twelve legions. 1. Cassius had fought on the side of Pompey during the general's brief civil war against Caesar. a. But when Cassius was defeated and captured by Caesar's army, he was forced to surrender unconditionally. b. Caesar recognized his opponent's military skills and offered to promote Cassius to Legate if he would join Caesar's army. c. However, rather than accept the offer, Cassius chose to return to Rome where he entered public life as a senator. 2. But after orchestrating the assassination of Caesar, Antony had managed to turn public opinion against the conspirators, leaving them no choice except to flee Rome. a. Cassius, the architect of the assassination plot, had previous planned to assassinate Mark Antony at the same time as Julius Caesar. b. But Brutus managed to dissuade his brother-in-law from doing anything more than murder Caesar. c. Both would live to regret that decision.
9 3. Cassius fled to the regions once ruled by Pompey, where his reputation and loyalty to former general made it easy to raise an army of 12 legions from other governors in the area. 4. Soon, Cassius and Brutus commanded the entire eastern half of the former Republic; including Egypt, Judea, Syria, all Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and the island states of Cyprus and Rhodes. F. To defeat the legions under the command of Cassius, Mark Antony and Octavian joined forces. 1. Octavian easily funded the army by having unlimited access to Caesar's war chests. 2. Caesar's former legions were also eager to exact revenge on the assassins. 3. And before long Antony and Octavian were in joint command of forty-five battle-hardened legions wanting the settle the score. G. As the legions of Antony and Octavian marched east, the legions of Cassius and Brutus marched west. 1. They finally met in battle at Philippi (42 BC). a. Cassius and Brutus strategically divided their legions to fight on two fronts, forcing an Antony and the inexperienced Octavian to do the same. b. Brutus initially succeeded against Octavian, but Antony's skills on the battlefield and the intense loyalty of his troops dealt a resounding defeat to Cassius. c. Unaware that Brutus had prevailed, Cassius became convinced all was lost, and committed suicide. d. Ironically, Cassius took his own life with the same dagger he used to assassinate Julius Caesar, and he died on the same day as his birth, October 3 rd. 2. Antony and Octavian rejoined their legions in a final attempt to defeat Brutus. a. Twenty days after the defeat of Cassius, Brutus was defeated.
10 b. Rather than face capture, Brutus committed suicide by running into a sword held by two of his men. III. The Birth of the Roman Empire. A. Mark Antony, who had served as one of Julius Caesar's generals and stood with him during the Civil War of 48 BC, had now become a close ally of Octavian. 1. The two generals shared in ruling the rapidly expanding Roman world. a. Antony chose Egypt as the base of his command of the eastern region of Rome while Octavian controlled the west from the city of Rome. 2. Although Antony formed a bond with Octavian by marrying Octavian's sister Octavia, Mark Antony met Cleopatra and was soon seduced by the Egyptian Queen into a lengthy love affair. B. The alliance between Octavian and Mark Antony began to disintegrate over time, and finally ended when Octavian realized Mark Antony posed a serious threat. 1. The affair between Antony and Cleopatra meant Antony also controlled Egypt "The breadbasket of Rome." a. Whoever controlled the bread, controlled the empire. 2. So, with the approval of the Roman senate, Octavian stripped Cleopatra of all titles and declared Mark Antony a traitor. 3. A year later Octavian defeated Mark Antony and his forces during the historic sea battle the Battle of Actium. a. Antony managed to escape and fled back to Egypt where he and Cleopatra committed suicide. 4. Now with the death of Mark Antony, Octavian was granted undisputed ruler of the Roman world, and changed his name to Augustus (27 BC). 5. This marked the end of the Roman Republic and the birth of the Roman Empire with Augustus as the first Roman Emperor.