Question 1: What is act-utilitarianism? Answer 1: Act-utilitarianism is a theory that is commonly presented in the writings of Jeremy Bentham and looks at the consequences of a specific act in determining right and wrong (Act-Utilitarianism, n.d.). Under this theory, a person determines the right course of action based upon a comparison of the consequences for all relevant actions (at least two) that could possibly be performed given the time permitted. If a situation arises where there is not sufficient time to calculate the consequences, then it is appropriate to look to a rule of thumb when determining a course of action. For example, it is generally understood that you should not steal. However, there is no clear rule in connection with articles that are lost or misplaced. For example, who is the owner of the article, or who is the finder or the person who lost or misplaced it? According to the principles of act-utilitarianism because there is no clear rule, the finder should determine the consequences to himself/herself and to the person who lost or misplaced the article when determining what to do. Question 2: What is rule-utilitarianism? Answer 2: Rule-utilitarianism, presented in the writings of J. S. Mill, utilizes a specific rule to determine right and wrong; the rule states that the action that has the best consequences (i.e. the greatest good) is the rule to follow (Rule-Utilitarianism, n.d.). Although act-utilitarianism, like rule-utilitarianism, compares the consequences of all relevant actions, rule-utilitarianism never relies on the rule of thumb. In every circumstance, the parties involved must refer back to specific rules of conduct when making decisions. Question 3: What is the categorical imperative? Answer 3: The categorical imperative is the central tenant of Kant's philosophy and is a rule of moral law (e.g., moral obligation). A categorical imperative is "an unconditional moral law that applies to all rational beings and is independent of any personal motive or desire" (Categorical Imperative, 2000). 1
Kant's categorical imperative provides three different theories: The first formulation: Under this formulation, you should complete acts that you see being acceptable for yourself and for the entire world. When determining whether the act is acceptable for the world, you must determine if the act is conceivable and/or possible. Finally, you should determine whether you are willing to put the proposed act to the world to invoke change. If all of these things are proven, then the act is morally permissible. The second formulation: Under this formulation, you should consider the human condition when determining whether an act is morally permissible. You should consider how the end result will impact others not just how others can be used to get to the end result. The third formulation: This formulation states that you must act in accordance with legislation and internal rational laws. The principle provides that you are only morally responsible to act on things that are reasonable to lawmakers and all rational men. Question 4: What is eudaimonia? Answer 4: Eudaimonia is one of the core concepts of virtue ethics. According to Aristotle, the term eudaimonia refers to what is the greatest good. It is a state in which every person should strive to live because it is the ultimate state of happiness. Therefore, those who live as eudaemonists will have a good and/or happy spirit. Question 5: According to Aristotle, how are virtues acquired? Answer 5: According to Aristotle, we are not born with virtues instead, these are qualities that we learn as a result of our activities (Aristotle and Virtue Ethics, n.d.). Therefore, each event in an individual's life has influence on his/her behavior. The first philosopher to speak of virtues was Plato when he wrote the Symposium, which presented four cardinal virtues: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance (The Republic, n.d.). Although Plato was the first to speak about this issue, Aristotle receives the most notoriety because of his writings in Nicomachean Ethics in regard to issues related to virtue. Subsequent to the writings of Aristotle, the concept of virtue was pressed into popularity and 2
acceptance through the teachings of Christianity. Question 6: Which philosopher brought the notion of respect into the discussion of moral philosophy? Answer 6: Immanuel Kant said, "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or the person of another, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end" (Immanuel Kant and the Ethics of Duties, n.d.). Kant's ideology of respect requires you to acknowledge the other person and realize your actions may have an impact, whether good or bad, upon the other person. By recognizing the impact of your actions, you acknowledge his/her presence and standing in life and that he/she is entitled to some rights and regard while you try to achieve your goal. Question 7: What is ethical egoism? Answer 7: Under the theory of ethical egoism, each individual is supposed to act according to what is best for his/her personal circumstances. For instance, an employer who practices ethical egoism may install air conditioning in a manufacturing plant to retain employees and maintain production. This employer is not cooling the facility for the comfort and benefit of the workers but is cooling the facility for his/her personal purposes. Question 8: What is divine command theory? Answer 8: Divine command theory provides that a higher power is the creator of all things and that all who follow the guidelines of the higher power will lead a good life (Basic Moral Orientations Overview, 2006). The divine command theory was initially introduced by Plato in Euthyphro (The Republic, n.d.). The concept was subsequently accepted and propelled into the doctrines of Christianity. Question 9: What does the ethics of conscience theory provide? 3
Answer 9: The ethics of conscience theory states that there is an inner voice that speaks to each person about what is morally right or wrong (Basic Moral Orientations, 2006). Generally, this is based upon some aspect of religion; however, it does not rely as heavily upon the teachings and will of God. Question 10: What historical documents are important under the rights theory? Answer 10: The rights theory provides that each person is born with certain rights that cannot be usurped by others. The United States Bill of Rights, French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and United Nations Agreements on Human Rights are all important documents under the rights theory (Rights Theory, 2006). These documents are important to the world because they clearly set guidelines for the base treatment of individuals by government bodies and their citizens regardless of their race, religion, ethnicity, or gender. References Act-utilitarianism. (n.d.). Retrieved from Utilitarianism Resources Web site: http://www.utilitarianism.com/actutil.htm Aristotle and virtue ethics. (n.d.). Retrieved from Ethics Updates Web site http://ethics.sandiego.edu/theories/aristotle/index.asp Basic moral orientations overview. (2006). Retrieved from Ethics Updates Web site: http://ethics.sandiego.edu/presentations/theory/basicorientations/basi c%20moral%20orienations.pdf Categorical imperative. (2000). Retrieved from the Bartleby.com Web site: http://www.bartleby.com/61/3/c0160300.html Immanuel Kant and the ethics of duties. (n.d.) Retrieved from Ethics Updates Web site: http://ethics.sandiego.edu/presentations/theory/kant/respect/index_fil 4
es/frame.html Rights theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from Ethics Updates Web site: http://ethics.sandiego.edu/theories/rights/index.asp The Republic. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Internet Classics Archive Web site: http://classics.mit.edu/plato/republic.5.iv.html 5